Topic 2. Computer technologies for information processing

2.1. Classification and arrangement of computers

A computer (from the English computer - calculator) is a programmable electronic device that is capable of processing information, performing calculations and performing other tasks. Computers are divided into two main types:

1) digital, evaluating data in the form of numerical binary codes;

2) analog, analyzing continuously changing physical quantities, which are analogues of the calculated quantities.

Currently, the word "computer" refers to a digital computer.

Computers are based on hardware (Hardware) formed by electronic and electromechanical elements and devices. The principle of operation of computers is to execute programs (Software) that are predetermined and clearly defined by a sequence of arithmetic, logical and other operations.

The structure of any computer is determined by general logical principles, on the basis of which the following main devices are distinguished in it:

▪ memory consisting of renumbered cells;

▪ processor, which includes a control unit (CU) and an arithmetic-logical unit (ALU);

▪ input device;

▪ Output device.

These devices are connected by communication channels that transmit information.

2.2. Computer architecture

The computer architecture is characterized by the qualities of the machine that affect its interaction with the user. Architecture defines a set of machine properties and characteristics that a programmer needs to know in order to effectively use a computer in solving problems.

In turn, the architecture determines the principles of organization of the computing system and the functions of the central computing device. However, it does not show how these principles are implemented inside the machine. The architecture does not depend on programmatically inaccessible machine resources. If the computers have the same architecture, then any machine code program written for one computer works the same way on another computer with the same results.

To perform its functions, any computer requires a minimum set of functional blocks.

The architecture of today's computers has classic features, but there are some differences. In particular, the storage device (memory) of the first computers of the classical structure was divided into two types:

1) internal, containing information that was processed in it at some point in time;

2) external, which is a repository of all information necessary for the operation of a computer.

In the course of technological progress, the number of levels in the memory hierarchy of computers has increased.

The arithmetic logic unit and the control unit form a single unit called the central processing unit. The list of devices for input and output of data includes various drives on magnetic, optical and magneto-optical disks, scanners, keyboard, mouse, joystick, printers, plotters, etc. The structure of a modern PC contains two main parts: central and peripheral, while it is customary to refer to the central part of the central processor and internal memory.

The central processing unit (CPU) is a device that processes data and performs software control of this process. The central processor consists of an ALU, a control unit, and sometimes the processor's own memory; it is most often implemented in the form of a large integrated circuit and is called a microprocessor.

Internal memory is a device designed to store information in a special coded form.

Random access memory, or random access memory (RAM), is a CPU that interacts with internal storage. RAM is used to receive, store and issue all the information that is required to perform operations in the CPU.

External storage devices are needed to store large amounts of information that is not currently used by the processor. These include: magnetic disk drives, magnetic tape drives, optical and magneto-optical drives.

Virtual memory is a combination of RAM, VZU and a set of software and hardware.

The configuration of a computer is a certain composition of its devices, taking into account their features.

An input operation is the transfer of information from peripheral devices to central ones, an output operation is the process of transferring information from central devices to peripheral ones.

Interfaces are pairings that carry out communication between PC devices in computing.

2.3. Memory in personal computers

The power of a computer depends on its architecture and is determined not only by the clock frequency of the processor. System performance is also affected by memory speed and bus bandwidth.

How the CPU and OP interact depends on the computer's memory and the chipset installed on the system board.

Memory devices are used to store information. Their functions include its recording and reading. Collectively, these functions are referred to as memory access.

One of the most important characteristics of memory is capacity and access time. Most often, the memory includes many identical storage elements. Such elements previously served as ferrite cores, which were combined into a bit memory matrix. Currently, the memory elements of the OP are large integrated circuits (LSI).

When processing information by the processor, it is possible to access any cell of the OP, on the basis of this it is called random access memory, or RAM. Typically, PCs have OP, which is performed on dynamic-type microcircuits, with cells assembled in a matrix.

In static type memory, information is stored on static flip-flops. For static memory, regeneration cycles and reload operations are not applied, i.e., the access time to static memory is much less than to dynamic memory. The speed of the processor is highly dependent on the speed of the operating system used. At the same time, it affects the performance of the entire system. To implement one storage element of dynamic memory, 1-2 transistors are required, for static - 4-6, i.e. the cost of static memory significantly exceeds the cost of dynamic. Based on this, a PC most often uses dynamic type RAM, and to improve system performance, ultra-fast, or cache memory. Super-rapid memory is made on elements of a static type. In this case, the block of data processed by the processor is placed in the cache memory, but the RAM is accessed only when there is a need for data that is not contained in the cache memory. The use of cache memory makes it possible to coordinate the operation of the processor and the operating system on elements of a dynamic type in terms of speed.

Memory integrated circuits are produced in small quantities by Japanese, Korean, American and European companies.

Read Only Memory, or ROM, is designed to store the BIOS, which in turn makes the software invariant to the motherboard architecture. In addition, the BIOS contains the necessary set of I / O programs that ensure the operation of peripheral devices.

In addition to I/O programs, the ROM includes:

▪ POST test program when turning on the computer;

▪ a bootloader program that performs the function of loading the OS from disk.

Due to the declining prices of flash ROMs, BIOS storage elements are used to store information in which information can be erased electrically or using ultraviolet radiation. At the moment, flash memory is most often used for these purposes, which allows you to make corrections to the BIOS.

2.4. The concept of a command and computer system software

Every computer program is a sequence of individual commands. A command is a description of an operation that a computer performs. Usually, an instruction has its own code (symbol), source data (operands) and result. The set of commands that a given computer executes is a system of commands for a given computer.

Computer software is a set of programs, procedures and instructions, as well as technical documentation related to them, that allow using a computer to solve specific tasks.

According to the areas of application, computer software is divided into system and application.

System, or general, software acts as an "organizer" of all computer components, as well as external devices connected to it.

The system software consists of two components:

1) operating system - a whole complex of control programs that are an interface between PC components and ensure the most efficient use of computer resources. The operating system is loaded when the computer is turned on;

2) utilities - auxiliary maintenance programs.

Utilities include:

▪ computer diagnostic programs - check the computer configuration and the functionality of its devices; First of all, hard drives are checked for errors;

▪ disk optimization programs - provide faster access to information stored on the hard drive by optimizing the placement of data on it. The process of optimizing data on a hard drive is better known as the process of disk defragmentation;

▪ Disk cleaning programs - find and delete unnecessary information (for example, temporary files, temporary Internet files, files located in the recycle bin, etc.);

▪ disk cache programs - speed up access to data on the disk by organizing a cache buffer in the computer operating system containing the most frequently used disk areas;

▪ dynamic disk compression programs - increase the amount of information stored on hard drives by dynamically compressing it. The actions of these programs are not noticeable to the user; they appear only through an increase in disk capacity and a change in the speed of access to information;

▪ Packaging programs (or archivers) - pack data on hard drives through the use of special information compression methods. These programs allow you to free up significant disk space by compressing information;

▪ anti-virus programs - prevent infection by a computer virus and eliminate its consequences;

▪ programming systems - a set of programs for automating the process of programming computer scripts.

Application software is a special program that is used to solve certain practical problems. Currently, programmers have developed many applications used in mathematics, accounting and other fields of science.

2.5. Basic Input/Output System (BIOS). Understanding CMOS RAM

The basic input-output system (BIOS) is, on the one hand, an integral part of the hardware, and on the other hand, one of the OS software modules. The emergence of this name is due to the fact that the BIOS includes a set of I / O programs. With the help of these programs, the operating system and application programs can interact with various devices of the computer itself, as well as with peripheral devices.

As an integral part of the hardware, the BIOS system in a PC is implemented as a single chip installed on the computer's motherboard. Most modern video adapters and storage controllers have their own BIOS that complements the system BIOS. One of the developers of the BIOS is IBM, which created NetBIOS. This software product cannot be copied, so other computer manufacturers have been forced to use third-party BIOS chips. Specific BIOS versions are associated with the chipset (or chipset) found on the motherboard.

As an OS software module, the BIOS system contains a POST (Power On Self Test) test program when the computer is turned on. When you run this program, the main components of the computer (processor, memory, etc.) are tested. If the computer is having problems powering up, i.e. the BIOS is unable to complete the initial test, then the error notification will appear as a series of beeps.

The "immutable" memory CMOS RAM stores information about the configuration of the computer (the amount of memory, types of drives, etc.). This is the information that BIOS software modules need. This memory is based on a certain type of CMOS structures (CMOS - Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor), which are characterized by low power consumption. CMOS memory is non-volatile, as it is powered by a battery located on the system board, or a battery of galvanic cells mounted on the system unit case.

Changing settings in CMOS is done through the SETUP program. It can be invoked by pressing a special key combination (DEL, ESC, CTRL-ESC, or CRTL-ALT-ESC) during boot (some BIOSes allow you to start SETUP at any time by pressing CTRL-ALT-ESC). In AMI BIOS, this is most often done by pressing the DEL key (and holding it) after pressing the RESET button or turning on the computer.

Author: Kozlova I.S.

<< Back: General theoretical foundations of computer science (The concept of computer science. The concept of information. Information coding system. Coding of text information. Coding of graphic information. Coding of audio information. Modes and methods of information transmission. Information technology. Stages of development of information technology. The emergence of computers and computer technologies. The evolution of the development of personal computers. The structure of modern computing systems)

>> Forward: Hardware and software architecture of IBM compatible technologies (Microprocessors. Motherboards. Buses, interfaces. Control tools for external devices. Information storage devices. Video controllers and monitors. Information input devices. Information output devices. Information transmission devices. Other peripheral devices)

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