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Table of contents

1. Logistics (The concept and essence of logistics. Functions and tasks of logistics. Basic concepts of logistics. Factors and trends in the development of logistics. Basic principles of logistics. Information support in logistics. Control in logistics. Types of concepts in logistics, their characteristics. Basic concepts of information logistics. Marketing logistics. Financial flows in logistics)
2. Logistics systems (The concept of logistics systems. Goals and objectives of the analysis of logistics systems. Basic concepts of logistics systems. Models of logistics systems. Micrologistic systems. Design of logistics systems. Management in logistics systems. Efficiency of a logistics system. Planning in logistics systems. Technology of operation of a logistics system. Principles and laws logistics system management)
3. Purchasing activities in logistics (Classification of inventories. Basic concepts of purchasing. The essence of purchasing activities. Order management, preparation of orders. Forms of organization of purchasing activities. Cost structure in purchasing activities. Documentation of the order. Efficiency of purchasing activities. Acceptance of supplied products)
4. Warehouse logistics (Warehouse logistics. Classification of warehouses. Basic concepts of warehousing activities. The procurement process. Logistics process in a warehouse. Warehouse documentation. Containers in warehousing logistics. Packaging in warehousing logistics. The main stages of creating a warehousing system. Methods of accounting and control of product inventories in a warehouse. Planning warehouse premises. Trade and technological processes in the warehouse. Checking the quality of products. Selecting the location of warehouse systems)
5. Transport logistics (Essence, principles and functions of transport logistics. Basic concepts of transportation and freight forwarding. Types of cargo transportation. Advantages and disadvantages of individual types of transport. Transport documentation. Transport management. Routing of cargo flows. Transport-logical chains, information support. Delivery and distribution systems. International road transport)
6. Production logistics (The essence and content of production logistics. Production cycle. Concepts and principles of production organization. Logistics processes in an enterprise. Logistics subsystems of enterprises. The concept of organizing production management. Flexible production systems)
7. Inventory logistics (The essence and content of logistics inventories. Functions and classification of inventories. Optimization and regulation of material inventories. Systems and methods of inventory management. Justification of the required amount of inventories of a trading enterprise. Inventory management)
8. Logistics costs (Logistics costs: concept and essence. Classification of logistics costs. Costs of product inventories. Costs of product quality. Costs of warehouse activities. Transportation costs)
9. Distributive logistics (Goals, objectives and functions of distribution logistics. Channels of distribution of goods. Logistic intermediaries of distribution. Rules of distribution logistics. Systems of distribution of goods. Planning of distribution of goods. Organization of the distribution system. Channels of goods distribution)
10. Risks in logistics (Essence and content, types of risks. Risk management. Organization of cargo insurance. Cargo inspection procedure and filing claims)

LECTURE #1. Logistics

1. The concept and essence of logistics

Logistics is the art of reasoning, calculating. In economics, logistics is a scientific and practical activity related to the organization, management and optimization of the movement of material, information and financial flows from the source to the end user. At the beginning of the 60th century in Russia, professors of the St. Petersburg Institute of Communications published the work "Transport Logistics", on its basis models of troop transportation were built, which received practical application in conducting and planning military operations of the First World War. During the Second World War, logistics was widely used in the logistics of the army. The active use of logistics in the economy dates back to the 70-XNUMXs of the last century. Until the middle of the last century, great importance was not attached to the creation of schemes for the supply of goods. This period is characterized by the development of production. However, by the middle of the last century, it became necessary to find ways to create competitive advantages. At this stage, monetary investment in the distribution system affects the position of the supplier in the market more than investment in production. Tracking all stages of the movement of raw materials, parts and final products allows you to see the losses allowed in the usual schemes for managing material flows. In logistically organized chains, the cost of goods at the final point is lower than the cost of the same goods in the absence of a logistics approach. This monitoring shows a clear economic benefit from the use of logistics in the economy. That is why logistics began to be used for more efficient management of material flows. The active use of logistics was helped by scientific and technological progress, which made computer technology and instant communication more accessible. This made it possible to monitor material and information flows, managing them at all stages of movement.

2. Functions and tasks of logistics

There are two types of logistics functions: operational and coordination. Operational functions are related to the management of the movement of material assets in the field of supply, production and distribution.

In the field of supply, this is the management of the movement of raw materials, materials, stocks of finished products from the supplier to the manufacturing plant, warehouse or retail store.

At the production level, logistics is management, including control of the movement of a semi-finished product through all stages of production, as well as the movement of goods to warehouses and markets.

Distribution management covers the organization of the flow of final products from the producer to the consumer. The functions of logistical coordination include: identifying and analyzing the material needs of various parts of production, analyzing the area of ​​​​markets in which the organization operates, forecasting the development of potential markets, processing customer needs data. The essence of these functions is to coordinate supply and demand. Based on the relevant information, logistics deals with matching the demand presented by the market situation and the proposal developed by the organization. From the coordination function of logistics, another direction was formed - operational planning. Based on the demand forecast, a transportation schedule and a procedure for managing stocks of finished products are developed, as a result, production planning is determined, the development of programs for the supply of raw materials and components. From the fundamental positions, the following functions of logistics are distinguished: backbone, integrating, regulating, resulting.

Backbone logistics is a system of effective technologies for providing resource management.

The integrating function is the provision of logistics for the synchronization of sales, storage and delivery processes with reference to the market of means of production and the provision of intermediary services to consumers. The regulatory function is to implement the management of material, information and financial flows to reduce costs.

The resulting function implies the activity of delivering goods in the right quantity at a certain time and place with the required quality at the lowest possible cost. The criterion for determining the effectiveness of the implementation of logical functions is the achievement of the ultimate goal of logistics activities.

The tasks facing logistics can be divided into general, global and private. Achieving maximum effect with minimum costs is the main global task of logistics. Modeling of logistics systems and factors of their functioning is also referred to as global tasks.

General tasks include:

1) creation of a system for regulating material and information flows;

2) forecasting the possible volumes of production, transportation, storage;

3) determination of the inconsistency between the need and the ability to implement it in production;

4) identification of demand for a product developed and promoted within the logistics system;

5) organization of pre-sales and after-sales service.

Based on the solutions to common problems, a network of warehouse systems is created to organize customer service and optimally attach them to production points.

Private tasks have a narrower focus and include:

1) creation of minimum stocks;

2) the maximum reduction in the storage time of finished products;

3) reduction of transportation time.

The basic rules of logistics can be formulated as follows: the right product of the required quality in the right volume is delivered at a certain time and place with minimal cost. The main object of research in logistics is the material flow. The actions attached to the material flow are called logistic operations, or logistic functions. Material resources in a state of movement, work in progress, manufactured products, to which logistics operations or functions are applied, determine the material flow.

A logistics operation is a movement coordinated with the emergence, absorption and transformation of the material and accompanying information, financial and service flow.

The logistics function is an autonomous component of logistics operations aimed at solving the tasks put forward for the logistics system and links. The combination of logistics operations and functions depends on the type of logistics system.

3. Basic concepts of logistics

The concept of a logistics system is central to logistics. A complex organizational system, consisting of fragments of links, combined in one process of managing material and related processes, is a logistical one. The tasks of functioning of the links of the system are united by internal tasks of the business structure or external goals. Certain functional links and relationships are established between the elements-links of the logistics system. Some economic and functionally isolated object is called the logistics link of the system. It fulfills its narrow role, defined by logistics operations and functions. There are several types of links in the logistics system: generating, transforming and absorbing. Often there are mixed links of the logistics system, in which three main types are presented at once, combined in various combinations.

Material flows in the links of the logistics system can converge, split up, branch out, change their content, parameters and intensity. Enterprises-suppliers of material resources, marketing, trade, intermediary organizations of various levels, enterprises of information and trade services and communications can act as elements of the logistics system.

Another concept of logistics is the supply chain. A large number of links in the logistics system represent a logistics chain.

The links in the logistics chain are linearly ordered by material, information, cash flow with the task of analyzing or designing a specific set of logistics functions or costs.

The next concept in logistics is the logistics network. A logistics network is a large number of links in a logistics system that are interconnected by material or related information and cash flows within the boundaries of the logistics system.

The logistics network is a narrower concept in contrast to the logistics system, which is characterized by the presence of a higher logistics management that implements the target function of the system.

The concept of total costs is usually associated with another concept in logistics - a logistics channel. A logistics channel is an ordered set of links in the logistics system, which includes the full volume of logistics chains or their participants, conducting material flows from the supplier of material resources needed for the manufacture of a particular type of product to direct consumers.

The concept of a logistics channel includes external, intra-production and macro-logistics groups within a certain framework of each logistics operation. Therefore, the concept of total logistics costs is fundamentally important.

4. Factors and trends in the development of logistics

In industrialized countries, interest in the development of logistics is associated with economic reasons. The development of logistics was predetermined by the following factors: increased requirements for the quality characteristics of the process, the transition from the seller's market to the buyers' market. This transition was accompanied by significant changes in distribution systems and production strategies. If earlier the sales system was adjusted to production, then in conditions of market oversaturation, production programs are formed depending on the volumes and divisions of market demand. In a highly competitive environment, adapting to the interests of the clientele requires manufacturers to respond to these requests, which leads to an improvement in the quality of service, minimization of order execution time and strict adherence to the agreed delivery schedule. Time factors, together with the price and quality of products, have become decisive for the successful functioning of the enterprise. It should be noted the complication of the implementation problem with a parallel interest in the quality of the distribution sphere. A similar reaction arose from manufacturing firms to their suppliers of resources and materials, as a result, a complex system of relations between various market representatives was formed, which required modification of existing models of organization in the field of supply and marketing. The replacement of traditional conveyors with robots has led to significant savings in human labor. The production of small batches of products has made it cost-effective to create flexible manufacturing systems. Large enterprises were given the opportunity to restructure their activities from mass production to small-scale production at minimal cost. Small firms have been able to increase their flexibility and competitiveness. Work on the principle of "small batches" in the system of organizing the provision of material resources and the sale of finished products led to appropriate changes. Often deliveries in large quantities became not only uneconomical, but in some cases were simply not needed. There was a need to move goods in small batches within tighter deadlines, but there was no need for large storage capacities at enterprises. At the same time, transportation costs were covered by funds released from the reduction in storage space. As directly determined the development of logistics, in addition to the above, it is necessary to note the following factors: the use of systems theory and trade-offs for solving economic problems, the introduction and use of personal computers of the latest generations in the field of commodity circulation and economic practice, as well as the acceleration of scientific and technological progress; in countries that carry out intensive communications with each other, the standardization of technical means of communication, moving stock and handling facilities, the elimination of various import and export restrictions. The ascent from the lower stage of development of logistics to higher ones, as a rule, is gradual or, when favorable conditions appear, zigzag. Such conditions can be considered the merger of enterprises, a change in the management regime, political initiatives. An analysis of the levels of development of logistics showed that those companies that use a versatile approach to logistics management improve their performance. The development of logistics in advanced economies in recent years is characterized by the transfer of the function of monitoring the distribution of finished material from manufacturing enterprises to specialized firms.

5. Basic principles of logistics

In order to master logistics and improve it, some firms set up advisory centers. The development of logistics is carried out in conjunction with the development of the concept of logistics and its principles. Of paramount importance in the development and creation of logistics systems are the principles that determine the nature and essence of the entire coordination device in general and its individual aspects in particular. There are several basic principles that reflect a logistical approach to solving a problem in production and economic activities.

1. The principle of synergy. This principle defines an integrated and systematic approach to achieving certain goals. Given the interaction between the mechanism of production and circulation, on the basis of this principle, it is possible to achieve a better result in the whole structure by coordinating actions in all interrelated processes than by improving the functioning of individual elements of the logistics system.

2. The principle of dynamism. Logistic systems should reflect the essence of the processes they cover and should not be frozen organizational and economic formations.

The essence of the logistics process lies in the progressive dynamics, which is determined in the development, striving for improvement. Dynamism determines the supply and marketing operations, means and objects of labor, goals and objectives expressed at the next stage of development.

3. The principle of completeness. This principle means that systems in logistics should be built as a community of several or many elements that are closely interconnected. Within the framework of the logistics system, the permanent autonomous functioning of any individual elements is not allowed. Emergencies and non-standard situations are an exception.

4. The principle of initiative. Logistics systems built on this principle presuppose the manifestation by the formed structures of the ability to determine the reaction to probable events, together with the ability to create and regulate subjective conditions that positively affect the processes of economic activity.

5. The principle of expediency. Focuses on attracting the potential that plays a positive role in achieving the goals. In the choice of organizational, technical and technological structures, selectivity is manifested, expressed by the desire to reduce costs or travel time in the conditions of the possibility of solving certain problems in several ways.

The concentration of interrelated functions in the joint structures for storage and transport facilities under a single management determines, first of all, the implementation of the principles of logistics. The transition to integrated management is carried out with a logistic approach, in contrast to the traditional one, where management is often isolated. The progressiveness of economic systems in terms of logistics is achieved not by increasing the material and technical base, but by improving it. With the logistic approach, all factors that are related to the economic system and that are associated with it are consistent. The most effective indicators in the organization of economic activity are achieved as a result of the parallelism of the mechanism of production, transportation, supply and marketing with the maximum integration of interconnected systems and subsystems on the principles of logistics. A decrease in the volume of stocks, uncoordinated material flows, a reduction in storage costs, the movement of material resources and manufactured products occurs as a result of the implementation of logistics principles.

The principles of logistics make it possible to improve the methodology and improve the quality of organizational design, to provide a systematic approach to the design of transport and storage, production, communication and information subsystems.

The practical application of logistics tasks and principles depends on the specific situation and is diverse.

6. Information support in logistics

The introduction of information and computer technologies into all business areas determines the current state of logistics. Without the use of high-speed computers, the implementation of most logistics concepts is impossible. Information support of the logistics process is so important that specialists single out information logistics, which has independent significance in business and information flow management.

Information flow is a flow of messages in paper and electronic (documentary), speech and other forms, put forward by the initial material flow in a certain logistics system, between the links of the system or the logistics system and the environment and is intended for the implementation of control functions.

It is possible to single out elementary, key, complex and basic information flows in connection with logistic actions and functions.

Information flows in connection with the logistics system are divided into:

1) passing inside the logistics system or its link, or flow;

2) passing between the logistics system and the external environment.

The most common types of information media are streams on paper and magnetic media.

According to the time of occurrence of information, flows are divided into:

1) regular (stationary);

2) periodic;

3) operational.

Regular correspond to a time-limited data transmission, periodic are strictly limited by the transmission time, and operational provide communication between subscribers in an interactive mode. Depending on the purpose, control, auxiliary information flows, information flows for conducting accounting and analytical activities, for making decisions, flows of regulatory and reference information are determined. In modern logistics, the increasing role of information flows is due to the following main reasons.

A necessary element of the consumer logistics service is information about the status of the order, the availability of goods, the time of delivery, and release documents. The availability of complete and reliable information from the position of supply chain inventory management can reduce the need for labor reserves by minimizing the relativity of the demand line. The flexibility of the logistics system is increased by information in this approach, when resources can be used to achieve specific benefits.

Logistics management has numerous indicators and characteristics of information flows:

1) terminology of transmitted messages, types of data, documents;

2) data volumes;

3) data transfer rate;

4) throughput of information channels;

5) noise immunity.

Between information and material flow there is no unambiguous synchronous correspondence of occurrence in time. The information flow either advances or lags behind the material one. Sometimes the material flow is a consequence of the information flow. Typical is the presence next to the material flow of several informational ones. The information flows accompanying individual logistic functions can be very complex and rich in terms of workflow.

The specific needs of logistics management determine the information flows in the logistics system when developing some of the details of regulatory planning, analysis and accounting. As an example, consider a diagram of sources of information and emerging information movements when predicting the dispersal of stocks of manufactured products in the distribution network. When planning an enterprise's inventory of finished products, consumer requests, sales forecasting, distribution decisions, and inventory management costs are taken into account. Information reflecting the needs of consumers details the classes and groups of consumers in a certain part of the market, the ways of delivering finished products to each group and the formation of a logistics service.

Information flows carry information about product requirements, the cost of finished products, the procedure for ordering and delivering finished products to consumers. To predict sales volume, information sources include information such as:

1) information on previous sales of a specific assortment of the market;

2) the number of sales of competitors' goods;

3) the entire volume of sales of this market segment;

4) market demand for finished products;

5) reliability and accuracy of information on previous sales;

6) planned changes in the quality characteristics of finished products;

7) economic directions in changing the structure of consumer demand;

8) short-term forecasts in the finished product distribution system;

9) forecast for the development of new markets.

Information flows characterizing decisions in the distribution system can be divided into those characterizing the temporary causes of operations in the dividing network and reflecting the accuracy and reliability of data. Information that reduces the uncertainty of timing distribution combines order fulfillment data. The time parameters of transportation are related to the choice of a delivery scheme, route, etc. The cycle of receiving an order, its duration include information about the time of delivery of the goods, the destination, the time of loading and unloading operations, and paperwork. Associated with a decrease in the uncertainty of other parameters, information flows take into account the terms of delivery, the reliability and accuracy of information when managing stocks. The considered information flow for one function of logistics management gives an idea of ​​the complexity and diversity of information flows in the logistics system.

7. Control in logistics

To achieve continuous efficiency in any type of production and economic activity, it is necessary to have an appropriate control system. Flow process control is no exception. Without an effective control subsystem, the logistics system cannot be considered fully capable. The absence of this subsystem leads to significant losses. The parallelism and coherence of the mutual processes of all subsystems and subsystems in the logistics system breaks down, the reliability of the cumulative work of various components and individual subjects of activity drops sharply. The time of unrecorded periods of non-use of machinery and equipment is increasing.

The quality of manufactured products, work performed and operations is declining, which adversely affects the level of customer service. Increased risks and significant costs in the course of regulating material, cash and other flows entail the failure to apply the necessary control. Lack of control can be a very dangerous threat, but it is not the only cause of risks. The quality of the developed tactical and strategic decisions plays an important role, because the nature of risks in production and economic activities is diverse.

Making the right tactical decision makes it possible to relatively quickly check ongoing processes and, accordingly, reduce or eliminate potential losses. Risks of a strategic nature, arising on a long-term basis, require complex insurance schemes for feasibility assessments.

8. Types of concepts in logistics, their characteristics

There are several periods of improving the systems for promoting goods and finished products: during the absence of logistics, traditional logistics and the period of new logistics. Each of these periods is characterized by conceptual approaches to the creation of these systems, as well as, respectively, to their management criteria. The management of material distribution was fragmented in the pre-logistic period.

Logistics and transport were not seen as interrelated areas of activity, but as an appendage to wholesale trade and even as a parasitic element in the organizational structure of the enterprise. On the scale of the company, responsibility for this area of ​​activity was assigned to one of the lower levels of the management vertical. During this period, the rapid development of road transport significantly increased its role in the movement of goods. Transport optimization has become a priority. In favor of efficiency was the minimum price for the movement of goods by public transport vehicles and the minimum cost of transportation by own rolling stock. At first, the tariff and route specialists performed the function of cargo flow management, then their duties began to include the selection of transport service options and various additional services.

There was a need to control transportation, check cargo accounts, packaging, weighing, and related work. The job of a freight forwarder has become more versatile. This and the above factors formed the basis for the development of logistics. It is not something completely new and unknown to practice. The problem of the rational movement of materials, finished products and raw materials has always been the subject of close attention.

The innovation of logistics consists in changing the criteria for the economic activity of enterprises, where the main role is played by the management of the methods of distribution. Another innovation of logistics lies in the application of a combined approach to the positions of the movement of commodity resources in the process of reproduction. Management of the material flow, consistency of actions with a fragmented method of management is clearly insufficient. With this approach, the necessary sequence is not observed and it is not possible to link the actions of various departments of enterprises.

Based on an integrated approach, logistics involves the consistency of methods that are interconnected with material flows, production and marketing. And along with all of the above, the innovation of logistics is to use the theory of trade-offs in the economic activities of firms. The innovative approach of logistics made it possible to move away from autonomous regulation by various methods of goods movement and to combine them, which made it possible to obtain such a result of activity that exceeded the sum of individual effects. The period of traditional logistics is distinguished by the creation of a logistics system that replaced the process of optimizing transportation in enterprises. This period is determined by the presence of several conceptual approaches to the creation of logistics systems that differ in the scope of application in the harmonization of economic interests, as well as criteria.

Economic interests within the framework of each conceptual approach had an intralogistical functional character. And they did not affect the production activities of firms.

In the first approach, the scope of harmonization of economic processes was the costs of certain logistics operations of one company with the criterion of minimum total costs for material distribution. This approach has led to certain results. It turned out to be possible to minimize the costs of the entire logistics system by increasing the costs of some operations in order to reduce the costs of other operations. A typical example of this approach is the increase in transportation costs by reducing the cost of managing stocks of warehousing. A positive economic effect while minimizing total costs was given by the orientation towards the use of intra-functional compromises (harmonization of economic interests). The cost criterion limits the financial capabilities of the enterprise, since it does not reflect the impact of demand on the ratio between profit and expenses. As a result, a transition was formed to extracting the maximum profit of the company from the logistics operation, which takes into account both demand and costs. However, the new approach also had a number of limitations.

The allocation of a logistics mechanism within the production infringed upon the interests of enterprises participating in one logistics process. Therefore, at the end of the period of traditional logistics, there were changes in its concept. The maximum profit from logistics operations of all enterprises participating in the process has become a criterion for the formation of an optimal management and distribution system.

The beginning of the 1980s was marked by a new period in the development of logistics - the period of new logistics (neologistics). The need for its implementation was justified by the fact that none of the zones operating within the enterprise, including logistics, as a rule, has the necessary resources and capabilities in order to respond quickly enough to changes in external conditions alone and work effectively autonomously. Joint efforts of all structural parts of the organization were required to optimize the response. The work required specific knowledge and experience of managers who considered the activities of enterprises as a whole. The conceptual approach is called the integrated, or enterprise-wide approach. Within the framework of this approach, the logistics functions are considered as the most important subsystem of the general production system.

What does it mean: logistics systems are created and managed based on a common goal - to achieve maximum efficiency in the work of the entire enterprise. Attention began to focus on cross-functional trade-offs, not excluding production and other non-logistics departments. Minimizing the costs of the entire enterprise has become a criterion for this approach.

9. Basic concepts of information logistics

Logistics can rightfully be considered an essential factor in the implementation of measures aimed at increasing the economic positiveness of production and marketing. In the matter of rationalizing these structures of activity, great progress can be made in the case of maximum consistency of commodity and information flows when they merge, which is the priority task of logistics. To solve this problem, it is necessary to use the standardization of material and technical relations on a large scale and organize the functioning on the basis of fundamental analysis and the use of new technologies that ensure the automation of operations.

It can be represented in the form of horizontal functional subsystems in the procurement, production and marketing sector as the main links of the logistics system, which are divided into a number of structures. Each of these elements is inevitably present in any production, logistics combines them into a system with specific goals and objectives that relate to the area of ​​minimizing the costs of the entire production, and not this individual element.

Information support of production is a tool for a similar association, starting with purchases and ending with the marketing system. The reason for success or failure in the external sphere of the enterprise's activity in the market may be: obtaining operational information about an event or situation prevailing in the market, refusal or receipt of a request for delivery.

An important role is played by the complex of information support. The connecting threads are the flows of information on which all elements of the logistics system are "put on". The creation of databases, communication within the enterprise, the presence of a number of decision-making activities involves an information network.

Even in the recent past, the main problems that worried the developers of logistics systems related to the field of physical flows of goods and raw materials.

Accompanying documentation was considered as information support for the process of movement of goods from the supplier to the consumer.

With the development of logistics systems in production, the need began to be felt for the development and implementation of logistics information systems that could combine all logistics subsystems into one.

The successful implementation of this concept into practice was facilitated by the realization that information at the present level of production development is a self-sufficient production factor.

Its potential opens up great prospects for strengthening the competitiveness of enterprises. For the effectiveness of the analysis of the information activity of logistics, it is necessary to take the entire logistics system as a base of functionally limited logistics subsystems, the operation of which as a whole is provided by information logistics to the extent of its own subsystems. Such a division is very conditional.

In practical activities, close interweaving and interaction are the mainstay of the successful work of the entire complex as a whole. One more aspect should be noted.

The main place for planning and managing production is the organic ratio of centralization and decentralization in the work of individual subsystems. As a rule, the well-organized separate work of each subsystem does not lead to the best result in the activity of the entire system. Even in the presence of highly qualified personnel, the functional isolation of individual production units can slow down the increase in the efficiency of the entire system as a whole.

The presence of such a system of information, which would allow to link together all activities and organize its management based on the possibility of a single whole, is the main component of the work of the entire production. To create an information logistics system at the production level, you need to draw up its model.

An information system at the production level is a component that links together and coordinates supply, production and marketing.

The definition of a supply coordination system consists in decomposing physical flows into independent sections of transportation and warehousing, in preparing information about the period and state of the flow on an exact time scale.

Information logistics goes well with computer technology. The computer system is mutually beneficial.

First, such a system optimizes the management of increasingly complex logistics over time. For compact production with a synchronous type of delivery, such as "just in time", the coordination of the movement of incoming goods becomes more and more important.

Secondly, the optimization of the work of information logistics in the exchange of supply data affects the increase in the level of inventory management.

Distributed to a network of firms, the exchange of supply data allows the manufacturer to reduce the costs associated with supplying the work of a complete supply chain. By optimizing its operation, the manufacturer receives tangible savings. The resulting savings are divided in certain shares between the manufacturer, supplier and transport company, reimbursing the costs invested in the creation and maintenance of up-to-date information systems, and creating additional profit from their use.

Getting the effect of the action of information logistics stimulates all participants in the logistics process to maintain the achieved level of this process, as well as to invest new funds in its optimization. The constantly growing database of the coordination system helps to evaluate the effectiveness of the logistics services.

The analysis of the existing system is one of the approaches to the formation of a scheme of information flows in production. It involves the reduction of certain production units to individual components, combining which, you can get a model for analyzing options for enterprise units.

The structural model must contain the main elements:

1) production capacities and means of realizing the material flow. Combining these elements, researchers and organizers of the system divide the entire structure of production into buffer and technological. With this approach, all types of activities are considered from the receipt of raw materials to the transfer of finished products to the consumer.

2) instant response to the slightest change in market conditions, which is a vital necessity. This response is possible with the effective functioning of the information flow and all information logistics as a whole.

10. Marketing logistics

In the modern period, the use of marketing in distribution logistics is justified, which can contribute to a more optimal course of improving marketing activities.

From the standpoint of the logistics approach, the concept of marketing is divided as a general business idea, covering the entrepreneurial activities of all services, and as a functional activity of a special service for studying the markets for products, determining prices and compiling price lists, developing promotions, etc. The most important are the following functions marketing:

1) market research;

2) its differentiation in relation to supply and demand;

3) ensuring the advantages of its product in relation to competitors;

4) development of a marketing proposal.

Development of a marketing proposal for options for a particular marketing activity is a central function of marketing.

Firms must carry out extensive research on the product market to determine the marketing proposition.

Market research is one of the defining prerequisites for organizing the promotion of goods. This process was determined in a separate structure of intra-company activities.

In connection with the orientation of enterprises to a particular market of goods, the role of market research has especially increased. Manufacturers are in dire need of detailed information about the market for their products and the transformation in consumer demand.

The information received from the employees of the sales department is sometimes incomplete for making a qualified decision.

11. Financial flows in logistics

In a developing market economy, an increase in the efficiency of promoting commodity flows is achieved by optimizing financial services, which determines the importance of studying logistics cash flows and inventory items. Commodity-material values ​​unite all types of material goods, including real estate, services and intangible assets are classified as commodity-intangible assets.

The least studied area of ​​logistics is currently the mechanism of financial service of commodity flows. In the specialized literature, some of the issues related to its content are not considered at all. There are significantly different points of view on the other part of the issues. Already at definition of essence of financial streams there are certain distinctions.

There are several approaches to determining financial flows. Cash flow refers to any movement in the macro- or microeconomic environment. Financial flow refers to movement only in the logistics system. In any way of organizing business activities, there have always been financial flows in one form or another.

The greatest efficiency of their movement, as practice has shown, is achieved by using the logistical principles of regulation of material and financial resources, which leads to the formation of a new term - the logistical financial flow.

To ensure the efficient movement of commodity flows, financial logistics flows are created and used. The need to service the process of movement in time and space of inventory and intangible assets is the specifics of the logistics financial flow.

Logistic financial flow is a directed movement of financial resources.

The need to ensure the movement of material flow is determined by the direction of the movement of financial resources in logistics.

The movement of financial resources occurs either in the logistics system or between the logistics system and the external environment. In terms of composition, logistical financial flows are heterogeneous in a number of ways (direction of movement, purpose, etc.). The need for their detailed classification necessitates the formation of more positive methods of managing logistical financial flows.

In logistics, certain signs are used to classify financial flows: relation to the logistics system, direction of movement, form of payment, type of economic relations.

Financial flows within the framework of consideration of a certain logistics system are external and internal. Outside the studied logistics system, an external material flow flows in the external environment; inside the logistics system, an internal financial flow passes, which changes when a number of logistics operations are performed.

From the external environment, the incoming financial flow enters the logistics system, starts its movement from the considered logistics system and continues to exist in the external environment, the outgoing financial flow. Logistic financial flows can be divided into groups according to their purpose: financial flows that pass in accordance with the process of purchasing goods, for the reproduction of labor, associated with the formation of material costs, investment financial flows.

All financial flows in logistics, depending on the forms of payment used, can be divided into two groups: cash financial flows that determine the movement of cash, and information and financial flows, which are characterized by the movement of non-cash financial resources.

Cash financial flows are divided into cash flows on ruble accounts and on currency settlements. In information and financial flows, there are flows of non-cash financial resources, payment requirements, etc. Along with cash flows, there are information and material and accounting and financial flows.

Logistic accounting and financial flows characterize the movement of financial components within the framework of this process.

According to the types of production relations, financial flows are divided into longitudinal and vertical. Longitudinal reflect financial resources between equal representatives of entrepreneurial activity, vertical financial flows arise between subsidiaries and parent commercial organizations.

In each specific case, it is necessary to establish its own specific composition of the classification features of logistical financial flows.

The main task of the financial service of commodity flows in logistics is to ensure their movement with financial resources in the required volumes, within a certain time frame and using the most optimal sources of financing.

In the most primitive case, a certain commodity flow corresponds to a financial flow.

The variety of forms and directions of development of the financial market is the specificity of its work under the condition of calm market relations in Russia.

It should be noted that the effective use of the details of the stock market allows you to optimize the work of financial flows and significantly improve business performance.

The analysis of the financial mechanism for servicing commodity flows showed that the existence of a commodity flow is due to the presence of a logistical financial flow.

The volume, source of occurrence and time of the beginning of the movement of the financial flow depend on the form of payment agreed with the supplier and customer of the goods and on the additional conditions prescribed in the contract of sale.

The practice of using various types of securities to optimize mutual settlements, which has become widespread in recent years, has led to a complication of the cash service scheme for commodity flows, but on the other hand, to an increase in efficiency.

In the field of logistics and financial planning, subject to certain conditions and the use of a specific financial service mechanism, the use of securities allows you to save money on the delivery of goods.

LECTURE No. 2. Logistics systems

1. The concept of logistics systems

The economic system, which has high adaptive properties in the process of performing a complex of logistics functions and operations, is a logistics system that consists of several subsystems interconnected with each other and the external environment.

Industrial or trade enterprises, territorial production complexes are objects of logistics systems.

The purpose of creating a logistics system is to minimize costs or keep them at a given level when delivering products (services, information) to the right place, in a certain quantity and assortment, and maximally prepared for consumption.

A holistic set of various elements, united in subsystems and subsystems, which are in close relationship with each other, represents a logistics system.

Logistics systems are divided into:

1) production, transport, storage, which belong to the functional subsystems;

2) informational, legal, personnel related to supporting subsystems.

As a queuing system, the logistics system has internal connections and connections with the external environment. Types of logistics links can be: material, monetary, informational, while they are direct and reverse.

Intra-system communications are more developed than communications with the external environment. They, as a rule, are cyclic in nature, reflect the sequence of transfer of material and information flows between the constituent links of the logistics chain.

The system of planning, organization and control of processes and areas of activity in relation to logistics systems is built in such a way that the influence of individual internal or external factors cannot significantly change the progressive nature of the work being done.

The connections of the logistics system with the external environment can be cyclic and synergistic.

The effect that occurs in the process of mutual strengthening of the links of one logistics system with another is called logistics synergy.

Moreover, such an effect can occur between the logistics system and the external environment at the level of incoming and outgoing material and information flows. Logistic synergy is positive and negative.

If all partners and counterparties fulfill their obligations to the initiative structure, positive synergy is possible.

It consists in improving the uniformity of production or sales of products, in the rhythm of the supply of goods, in improving technological and organizational discipline.

All this ultimately leads to improved product quality.

In the event of simultaneous failure by several main counterparties of their obligations, negative logistical synergy arises.

In this case, the loss of raw materials, time and money is possible on a large scale.

It should be noted that when end-to-end control of the management of material flows from resources to the release of finished products is carried out, in logistics systems with vertical integration, the possibility of negative synergy is significantly reduced.

In this regard, many companies and organizations are striving to create a group of enterprises subordinate to a single goal, a single logistics management center and united by a technological chain, the so-called logistics portfolio.

As an example, we can consider an intermediary trade organization that has public warehouses, provides transportation and forwarding services, provides consumers with commercial services or services for preparing products for production.

The logistics system is characterized as a system with temporary restrictions, while the violation of one of the restrictions is the reason for the application of appropriate sanctions.

Keeping within the generally accepted concepts of the system, logistics systems consist of system-forming links that are interconnected and interdependent.

The logistics system differs from other economic systems in a number of characteristic features: the presence of controlled flow processes, system integrity and its specificity, focus on the production of management organization.

The main properties of the logistics system are optimality and adaptability.

A necessary and predetermined property is optimality.

The optimality of the application of certain systems depends on the results of control actions and the assessments being implemented. Optimization decisions made in logistics systems make it possible to maintain the stability of management when making subsequent management decisions, simplify the choice of alternative options and facilitate the analysis of issues on which the primary prerequisites for solving flow process control problems depend.

The ability of logistics systems to adapt is difficult to overestimate in the face of environmental uncertainty. A wide choice of offered goods and services in the market conditions increases the degree of uncertainty in demand for them.

What is the reason for sharp fluctuations in quantitative and qualitative criteria of material, financial, informational and other flows moving through logistics systems. The indicator of the logistics cycle is the most important characteristic of logistics systems.

The logistics cycle is determined by the period of time needed to place an order for the supply of a particular product, manufacture it, including the acquisition of the necessary resources for this, and directly deliver the product ordered by the consumer to a warehouse or other destination.

The logistics cycle consists of:

1) the time to place an order in a certain order;

2) time for delivery and transfer of the order to the supplier.

When using modern means of communication, little time is spent, when using traditional communication channels (mail), the period of time increases significantly;

3) the supplier's order fulfillment time, which includes: the order waiting period, the order fulfillment period. Periods are made up of:

a) the working time required for the manufacture of products;

b) the time of interoperational downtime during production, the time of acceptance of finished products, etc.

The lead time may consist of picking time and packing time if the order is made from the stock available from the manufacturer or reseller;

4) the time of delivery of finished products to the customer.

The logistics cycle may include time to prepare products for production, time to prepare products for sale.

In practice, the most important are those elements of the logistics cycle that relate to the time the order is fulfilled by the supplier and the time the products are delivered to the destination. In relation to the customer, they can be managed and unmanaged. Sometimes in the economic literature there is the term "material flow cycle", which is close in meaning to the term "logistics cycle".

2. Goals and objectives of the analysis of logistics systems

One of the areas of logistics research is related to the relationship between logistics and production costs. An attempt to minimize the costs of any particular type of activity (transport, production, warehousing) leads to an increase in the overall cost of logistics.

Therefore, the theory involves an analysis of new introductions of any type of logistics activity, taking into account all the costs of the system. A comprehensive analysis of logistics can determine, develop a management policy. System analysis contributes to the operation and improvement of the efficiency of the logistics system, its result is new concepts, the introduction of new technologies and equipment.

Price analysis of logistics is often carried out to find ways to reduce costs in a particular market space; changes occurring in the system under the influence of analysis are important for marketing.

A thorough and qualitative analysis of the logistics system allows you to more clearly define the goals and objectives of distribution. From this point of view, system analysis acts as a marketing tool that allows you to maintain and define service standards.

3. Basic concepts of logistics systems

Logistics systems are one of the most important concepts in logistics and are widely used in the practice of enterprises.

An adaptive feedback system is a logistics system that performs certain logistics functions. It has developed links with the external environment and consists of several subsystems.

Let us analyze the properties of logistics systems, taking into account the main characteristics inherent in each.

1. Integrity and the possibility of division. The fragmentation of logistics systems into aspects can be carried out at the macro level: when the material flow moves from one enterprise to another, it is possible to consider the enterprises themselves, as well as the transport connecting them, as aspects; at the micro level, the logistics system is considered as the main subsystems: procurement, which supplies the logistics system with a material flow; planning and production management that manage the procurement subsystem in the process of performing technological operations and accepting the material flow.

Sales is the output of the material flow from the logistics system.

The unity of purpose ensures the compatibility of the elements of the logistics system, the functioning of logistics systems is subordinated to this.

2. Connections. In micrologistics systems, their elements are connected by intra-production relations.

In macro-logistical systems, the basis of relations between elements is the contract.

3. Organization. The links between the elements of the logistics system are ordered in a certain way. This means that the logistics system has a specific organizational structure, consisting of interconnected objects and subjects of management that embody a given goal.

4. Efficiency. The ability to deliver the right product of the right quality at the right time at the right place at low cost and the ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions. The use of this property allows the logistics system to purchase materials, pass them through its production facilities and release them into the external environment, while achieving its intended goals. The operational properties of the logistics system are not inherent in its elements, considered outside the system.

5. Complexity. In the logistics system, it is determined by the main properties, such as the presence of a large number of elements, the interaction between individual elements, the complexity of the work performed by the system, the existence of complexly organized control, the influence of a large number of stochastic moments of the external environment on the system.

6. Hierarchy, which means the subordination of elements of a lower level to elements of a higher level.

Each logistics system is built from a community of elements between which there are specific working connections and relationships.

A link in the logistics system is an economic or functionally autonomous object that is not subject to further transformation within the boundaries of a specific task of analysis or construction.

The links of the logistics system can be of three main types: generating, transforming and absorbing; they correspond to the information flows passing along with them. Often there are mixed types of logistics systems in which the three listed characteristics are combined with each other.

In the links of the logistics system, material, monetary, information flows can converge, branch, split up and change their characteristics.

Enterprises and their divisions, etc., can act as links in the logistics system.

The specific characteristics of the links that the logistics system may consist of are:

1) various forms of ownership and organizational and legal forms, differences in the nature and tasks of work;

2) different power and concentration of the technological equipment used and the resources used;

3) dispersal of technical means and labor resources over a large area;

4) greater mobility of vehicles;

5) the dependence of the results of activities on a large number of external factors and related links.

A large number of links in the logistics system are a connection of subjects and objects of management with their own performance characteristics, which further complicates management in the logistics system.

According to the scale of the area of ​​activity, logistics systems are divided into macro- and micro-logistics systems.

4. Models of logistics systems

When developing models of logistics systems, users must be aware of the influence of a large number of objective and subjective factors operating at a certain point in time. The main ones are the following:

1. Composition of subjects and their placement.

The system may include one or more legally dependent or independent organizations in the field of production and circulation. The need for material, economic and labor resources determines the choice of a logistics system model, as well as a marketing strategy in the market of goods and services.

When organizing a logistics system, forming new production facilities, the availability and location of suppliers is certainly taken into account. Most economic structures do not have the ability to effectively influence the localization of suppliers or consumers. Therefore, they locate their enterprises taking into account the reduction of transport costs.

2. The number and location of warehouses and transshipment points.

They can be installed directly at enterprises, combined into systems for storing and processing material resources received from suppliers, or into warehouse transformation centers focused on meeting consumer needs. If necessary, intermediate warehouses can be created in the immediate vicinity of consumers.

3. Transport models.

When forming logistics systems, several variants of transport models are developed. Each of them is distinguished by costs, type of transport, speed of delivery, reliability, rhythm, originality of packaging and warehousing.

The optimal variant under the currently formed conditions is determined and implemented. When conditions change, which entails the transformation of calculated indicators, the subjects of logistics systems should be able to use other options for transport models.

4. Communication.

The functional units of the logistics system at all levels are integrated not only with transport, control, but also with communication links, which form complex subsystems. The relationship between divisions and subsystems is implemented using telephone, telegraph, cable communication, computer network and other things. Each type of communication has its pros and cons.

The factor of fast communication plays an important role in the course of the functioning of the logistics system. It affects the level of adaptation of the system to the environment, has a direct impact on the processes of making and implementing decisions.

5. Information system.

When creating logistics systems, its presence is mandatory. Its structure depends on users, which include elements not only of a particular system, but also of the external environment.

Verification of the latter is limited. The chosen approach when processing orders has a great influence on the type of information system. Therefore, the system can be centralized and decentralized.

The degree of integration in which they differ depends on the goals set.

The process of development of logistics systems is based on logistics principles and involves the exact interaction and consistency of all the previously listed functional elements, taking into account the impact of influencing factors. The composition of the models of the logistics system is a characteristic organization of connections and relationships between subsystems and constituent elements of the system and the mutually agreed composition of these subsystems and elements, each of which corresponds to a specific function.

Logistics systems are characterized by polystructurality, which is expressed in the interpenetration of different subsystems that form several structures.

A feature of logistics systems is their relationship to systems with a variable structure. They are not static and are organized in relation to the working conditions, have the property of rapid restructuring.

A special form of experiment is logistic modeling, it consists in the study of an object according to its model.

The theory of logistics and the current practical experience make it possible to reduce the variety of features of the movement of material, monetary and other resources, as well as information in enterprises to a certain number of standard models.

This approach reduces time and saves money on the formation of individual programs. In this regard, logistics entities are classified according to various criteria.

1. According to the type of production, organizations are divided into: single, serial and mass.

2. By the nature of technological processes - into: continuous and discrete.

Special signs are used, according to which the classification of logistics entities takes place.

3. According to the structure of the supplier, according to the average distance of suppliers, according to the level of interaction with other enterprises.

A large number of features characterizing the characteristics of the enterprise, used to form models, makes the latter closer to real conditions, and therefore, calculation programs make it possible to make fewer errors and malfunctions.

The essence of modeling is based on the determination of the similarity of the systems or processes under study, which can be complete or partial. On this basis, all models of economic systems are divided into isomorphic and homomorphic.

Isomorphic models include the characteristics of a real subject, and their correspondence is complete.

Homomorphic models are based on incomplete similarity of the chosen model, in other words, the similarity is partial.

When modeling logistics systems, complete similarity simply cannot be.

The most important characteristic of logistic models is their materiality.

On this basis, they are divided into two classes: material and abstract.

Material models reproduce the main geometric, physical and functional characteristics of the studied subject or processes.

In logistics, often the only way to model is abstract modeling, it can be symbolic and mathematical in terms of expression.

Symbolic models are divided into two types.

1. Linguistic, which are based on a certain set of words that are understood unambiguously.

2. Sign models, the essence of which is that certain concepts are assigned some conventional designations, i.e. signs.

The most effective in logistics is mathematical modeling.

The most common in logistics are two types of mathematical modeling: analytical and simulation.

Analytical modeling is a kind of mathematical approach in the process of studying logistics systems. Its goal is to obtain the most accurate solutions. The process of analytical modeling itself is divided into three stages.

At the first stage, mathematical laws and dependencies are formulated that connect individual objects of the system.

At the second stage, the equations are solved and theoretical results are obtained.

At the third stage, the obtained results are compared with reality, and the adequacy is checked.

The advantages of analytical modeling are great generalization potential and reusability.

Simulation modeling is used in cases where there are no analytical methods for studying a particular logistic model or their search is costly.

Simulation modeling is used for both analysis and optimization of the operation of logistics systems and is the main method for studying flow processes. Simulation modeling is divided into two stages: the first is to construct a model of a real logistics system, the second is to conduct experiments on this model.

When using simulation modeling, two main disadvantages must be taken into account.

Firstly, this is the high cost of this research method.

Secondly, there is a high probability of false imitation, since not only streaming, but also other processes in logistics systems are approximate.

A typical logistics system consists of a specific number of elements and certain relationships. Logistic modeling allows you to match not only possible connections in the conditions of the development of the existing market, but also heuristic relationships in the predicted market. This nature of modeling the management of logistics systems takes place both at the macro and micro levels.

The modeling of logistics systems is greatly influenced by differences in the operating conditions of enterprises and even similar departments.

5. Micrologistics systems

Micrologistics management systems include intra-production logistics sphere of one or a group of enterprises united among themselves on a corporate basis.

Technologically related industries, united by one infrastructure and working for one economic result, include micrologistic functions.

The main complex functions of these economic systems are as follows.

1. In accordance with the need of production, focused on the fulfillment of customer orders, procurement and implementation of the supply plan.

2. Based on the optimization of streaming processes, the organization of management of transport and moving operations in the field of production.

3. Creation of the required conditions for the transportation and delivery of products sold, ensuring compliance with its orders, implementation and control of the marketing plan.

4. Impact on some logistics processes in the external environment.

Micrologistics systems have several levels of control. The object of management for the first level is an enterprise, or a group of enterprises in a corporate association.

The object of management of the second level - the scope of the enterprise.

The object of control for the third level is the divisions of the enterprise, and for the last, lower level, the object of control is the individual processes occurring in the division.

In the economic literature, one can sometimes find the opinion that micrologistics systems are separate links of macrologistics systems. However, this is not required.

There are internal, external and integrated micrologistics systems.

Optimize the management of material flows within the technological cycle of production of products in-house logistics systems.

Efficient use and reduction of inventories of material resources and work in progress, accelerating the turnover of the firm's working capital, reducing the length of the working period, managing the degree of stocks of actual resources, work in progress and finished goods in the manufacturer's warehouse system, improving the operation of industrial transport are the main tasks of the intra-production logistics system , if the program for the production of finished products is given. Usually, the criteria for optimizing the work of intra-production logistics systems are the minimum cost of production and the minimum duration of the production period while achieving the desired degree of quality of the finished product.

Micrologistics intra-production systems can be detailed to the production unit of the enterprise.

Solve the problems associated with managing and improving the efficiency of material and related flows, from the initial to the final destination outside the production process, external logistics systems. Elements of supply and distribution networks that perform certain logistics functions to ensure the movement of flows from suppliers of material raw materials to production units are links in the logistics system.

Typical tasks of external logistics systems are the optimal organization of the movement of material resources and finished products in commodity distribution networks, the rationalization of costs associated with the logistics activities of individual elements of the logistics system and total costs, reducing the delivery time of resources and finished goods and the lead time for consumer orders, resource inventory management and finished products, achieving a high level of service.

It is partly or completely a sales system for the supplier's products, a system for supplying the manufacturer with material resources.

The place of transfer of ownership of the goods from the supplier to the consumer is a matter of principle. Usually, the contract fixes the supply of material resources, the conditions for the transfer of ownership. Some conflict situations that arise in this case are associated with differences in logistics strategies and tasks of suppliers and consumers. This often results in the manufacturer creating its own purchasing structure, which is different from that of the suppliers.

Logistic systems consisting of links, similar, performing various operations and functions for transportation, warehousing, cargo processing, taking into account the commodity distribution network of suppliers, constitute an external system, which is often called a logistics supply system. In such a system, one of the main tasks is to coordinate logistics operations and agree on goals with suppliers and intermediaries.

The definition of the main logistics operations entailed the emergence of external logistics systems for the actual distribution, supply, etc.

But the theory of business logistics in the modern sense was fully embodied with the advent of integrated logistics systems.

In an integrated logistics system, logistics management is such a management approach to organizing the functioning of an enterprise and its logistics partners, which allows you to keep the most complete account of temporal and spatial factors in the course of optimizing the management of material, cash and information flows to achieve the strategic goals of the enterprise in the market.

Theories of minimizing all logistics costs and quality management at all stages of the production and distribution cycle are decisive for the formation of integrated logistics systems.

Sometimes considered as subsystems of an integrated logistics system, in-house and external logistics systems.

Depending on the goals and optimization criteria set for the logistics system, the main logistics functions are implemented by creating a special organizational and functional structure.

The created structure includes the highest logistics management, which performs coordination and integrated management of actual flows, and many elements of the logistics system. Elements of the logistics system can be both internal divisions of enterprises (transport, warehouse, etc.), and involved enterprises that perform certain logistics operations and functions.

A system whose purpose is not to generate profit or achieve any other corporate goals of a business organization is considered a macro-logistics system.

This system is created at the level of a territorial or administrative-territorial entity to solve socio-economic, environmental and other problems of this kind.

Macrologistic systems are classified according to several criteria.

According to the administrative-territorial basis, logistics systems are of the following types: district, inter-district, city, regional, regional, inter-regional, republican and inter-republican.

On an object-functional basis, macrologistics systems are allocated for a group of enterprises of one or more industries, interdepartmental, military, trade, etc.

The criteria for building micrologistics systems may differ significantly from the goals of creating macrologistics systems.

As indicators of optimizing work in the market business system and, accordingly, the formation of a logistics organization and management for a company, indicators such as the least total logistics costs, the maximum level of sales of finished products, the conquest of the maximum market segment, stabilization of positions in the sales market, etc. can be used. .

The most complete satisfaction of consumer requests in relation to product quality, terms of order fulfillment, the degree of logistics service is a prerequisite.

When building macro-logistics systems, in most cases, the criterion of minimum total logistics costs is used. The formation of macrologistic systems is determined by political, military, environmental goals. For example, to improve the environmental situation in the region, it is possible to create a macrologistic system for optimizing traffic flows, which solves the problems of route efficiency, regulation of traffic flows, namely, switching traffic from one mode of transport to another.

In macrologistic systems, tasks can be solved, the essence of which is: the formation of intersectoral material balances, the choice of forms and types of supply and marketing of products aimed at specific groups of consumers and producers, the placement of public warehouse complexes in a certain area, the choice of transport, the organization of transportation, etc. . P.

On the basis of interstate programs, macrologistics systems involve the creation of a single economic space, where obstacles to the movement of capital, goods, information, and labor resources are minimized.

6. Design of logistics systems

The practical use of logistics in a market economy is the most important factor in the development of entrepreneurship.

The organization of logistics systems at the first stages at the level of macroeconomics was carried out spontaneously, by trial and error. To facilitate this process in the future, on the basis of existing experience, methods were developed for the formation of organizational structures of logistics in economic entities.

By developing alternative models and comparing their characteristics with each other, the search for the most effective logistics solutions took place.

Based on compliance with the most efficient achievement of logistics goals, the best option is selected.

When designing and improving logistics systems, it is necessary to have a sufficient amount of versatile data, the accounting of which, as well as the course of collection and processing, should not stop in the future.

Basic information taken into account when designing logistics systems.

1. Market information:

1) its composition, scale, static character;

2) the number of buyers and their characteristics;

3) placement of customers;

4) demand flexibility;

5) the state of the financial area;

6) legislation;

7) the policy of state economic regulation, etc.

2. Production information:

1) the need for material resources, machinery, equipment and components;

2) the probability of deliveries through cooperation;

3) production technique;

4) the equipment of production and the degree of capacity utilization;

5) production pace;

6) the duration and specificity of the production cycle.

3. Information about material flows:

1) characteristics of the specifics and state of material flows;

2) information about the goods being moved;

3) method of work and operations during movement;

4) transport time and total delivery time.

4. Information about information flows:

1) characteristics of the specifics and state of information flows;

2) information about the information support system;

3) methodology for processing and securing information;

4) method of obtaining and disseminating information;

5) the potential for storing and accumulating information, etc.

It is very difficult, but possible, to take into account all the factors that affect the design of logistics systems.

7. Management in logistics systems

In large logistics systems, their own separate advisory boards are formed, which should ensure the correctness of decisions made by the management personnel of logistics systems and individual departments. Before considering the methods of organizing logistics management, it is necessary to determine the functional purpose of the relevant structures as fully as possible. Obviously, the organizational structure that manages the logistics system is required to perform the following functions.

1. Develop and form a logistics system, adhering to schematic principles and provisions.

As a result of production and economic activities, periodically there is a need for transformations in the logistics system existing at the enterprise. Often these changes are dramatic. Therefore, a general reorganization of the entire logistics system is being carried out.

2. Design and implement a logistics strategy, taking into account the company's market strategy.

The efficiency of the logistics system is determined by the strategic and tactical policy in the field of production, sales, investments, personnel, technologies. These and other elements need to be taken into account not only in the course of overall management, but also in the formation of a logistics strategy.

Dual responsibility is assigned to officials involved in the management of logistics.

Firstly, for accurate and timely informing top-level managers about approaches to the implementation of decisions made on logistics strategy issues, as well as the specific state of affairs.

Secondly, to the performers for the good organization and coherence of the ongoing work and activities and for bringing the results of the analysis of the effectiveness of the proposed changes.

3. Comprehensively manage the logistics system in order to rationalize flow processes.

This activity is varied and consists of:

1) management of external transport;

2) internal transport management;

3) planning and control of the production process;

4) organization planning and control over the state of stocks (not excluding material, raw materials and commodity), etc.

4. Coordinate interrelated management functions.

All management structures in business units are related to logistics.

In order to separate the areas of influence and responsibility in each production and economic system, it is necessary to adhere to the specifics of the tasks solved by a separate unit and the entire structure as a whole.

5. Solve the problems of the individuality of the enterprise.

In addition to the features dictated by the belonging of the enterprise to a specific part of the economy, management and social sphere, the characteristic features of economic structures are of great importance in the design and management of logistics systems. They play a dual role.

Firstly, they do not allow to unify logistics tools, which makes the practical experience of logistics more diverse.

Secondly, they encourage a deep, constant and comprehensive study of the possibilities, condition and working conditions of the enterprise, which favorably affects the quality of the work carried out and contributes to timely adaptation to the environment.

In accordance with the specifics of the enterprise and the corresponding functions, logistics can be centralized and decentralized, when management is carried out at the level of some departments.

And accordingly, managerial responsibility is divided between different structural units or is collected in one coordinating center.

8. Efficiency of the logistics system

Scientists in the field of logistics believe that at the moment there is no universal model for evaluating the effectiveness of a logistics system that can take into account all the variables, all the nuances and all possible situations.

However, one parameter that can link the entire logistics system, taking into account all the variables, nuances and situations, exists - this is profit. If you build a chain of material flow promotion, then it is possible for those firms that will make a profit to participate in it.

The creation of these firms is caused by the current economic situation.

The passage of each logistics operation is accompanied by costs incurred by specific elements of the logistics system.

The principle of classification of logistics operations can be taken as the basis for the classification of costs. The allocation of certain costs or a group of costs depends on the type of logistics system, management and optimization tasks in certain logistics chains and channels. The total amount of costs, taking into account the costs of logistics administration, creates the total logistics costs in the considered logistics system.

Often, in order to achieve the goal of optimizing the structure or management of the logistics system, as part of the total logistics costs, profits from the freezing of material resources, work in progress and finished products in stocks, as well as damage from an insufficient degree of quality of supply, production, distribution of finished products to consumers of logistics services are taken into account. Usually this damage is estimated as a possible decrease in the scale of sales, a decrease in the market segment, loss of profit. On the other hand, all costs can be classified into the following categories: fixed, variable, general, average, marginal costs. When analyzing the income of a company, the following varieties are distinguished: gross, average gross, marginal income.

Evaluation of the effectiveness of the system can be carried out by comparing income and costs. In this case, two approaches are used. In the first case, efficiency is determined on average over a certain time interval by comparing gross income and costs.

In the second case, efficiency is determined for a certain state of the market and supply system by comparing marginal costs and marginal costs.

If, at a certain value of the material flow, the amount of additional gross income received as a result of the introduction of a logistics system exceeds the amount of costs for the creation and introduction of this system, then work can continue. By changing the scale of the material flow and studying the size of the efficiency achieved in this case, it is possible to derive its optimal volume from the point of view of efficiency.

If it is determined that for a given scale of material flow, fixed costs are fully covered, and time costs are only partially covered, then the enterprise can remain on the market, and in logistics activities it is necessary to answer the question of how it is necessary to reorganize and optimize the work of the enterprise in order to achieve an increase in income and reducing the variable part of costs in order to exceed income over expenses.

9. Planning in logistics systems

The logistics system not only includes functional areas, but also interacts with managerial functions such as planning, organization and control.

Planning in logistics systems is considered as a functional area of ​​activity of firms and consists of several aspects: location of firms, warehouse network planning, warehouse handling system, packaging, production planning, equipment selection and transport model.

The logistics system used by the firm to develop strategy for activities such as planning and production interacts with functional areas: production and technology, marketing, and finance and administration.

In planning, logistics affects production and technology by determining the optimal location of the company, planning the warehouse network, warehouse handling, equipment selection, transport model; in the field of marketing, logistics determines the directions of distribution, the goals of distribution service; financing and administration are related to the development of the information system, inventory control and budget.

10. Technology of the logistics system

There are several main principles for the construction and operation of logistics systems.

1. System approach. Transportation, loading and unloading, inventory management, order processing, etc. as logistics functions are considered as interrelated and interacting elements of the system. This approach optimizes the entire system as a whole, rather than its individual elements.

2. Accounting for the overall integrity of the costs of the supply chain. Minimizing the sum of the costs of the chain as a whole and its individual elements in particular is a criterion for the efficiency of the logistics chain.

3. Ensuring adaptability, elasticity, reliability, high speed and quality of the entire system and its elements.

The implementation of logistics positions in practice requires the use of new technologies that ensure the optimal operation of the entire system.

Technologies are considered at two levels:

1) the macro level - the interconnected work of the elements of the logistics system;

2) micro level - the optimal operation of some parts of the logistics system.

Transport is the link between production and consumption. With the creation of logistics systems, manufacturers transfer part of the functions to forwarding companies, because in most companies transport costs amount to up to a third of the sale price of goods. They are released from functions unusual for them: packing, labeling, cargo sorting, warehousing, keeping accounts, finding an effective transportation option, following the transportation schedule, monitoring the integrity of the cargo during movement. Freight forwarding firms, in some cases, carrying out the purchase of goods from suppliers, become supply and distribution distribution centers.

The freight forwarding company thus becomes responsible for all links in the delivery of goods. It cooperates with transport companies, railway stations, ports, etc. Multimodal transport in Germany can serve as an example of new technology in terms of logistics.

11. Principles and laws of logistics system management

Logistics management is the implementation of a systematic approach to production and marketing activities.

The systems approach in economics is a comprehensive study of the economic system as a whole from the point of view of system analysis. The system approach means that each system is a whole even when it consists of separate, disparate subsystems connected by a common goal.

It allows you to see the object under study as a complex of interconnected subsystems subordinate to one goal, to reveal its properties, internal and external connections.

A characteristic feature of the formation of logistics management systems is that such a system must first be analyzed in order to establish relationships with the environment, and then relationships must be established within the system being formed.

Logistics management systems are characterized by four levels of completeness of coverage of the components of the value chain.

For logistics systems of the first degree of completeness of coverage of components, it is common to perform the functions of warehousing products ready for shipment and transporting them to consumers.

For logistics systems of the second degree of completeness of coverage of elements, the distribution of their competence to the outputs of the actual production is typical. The functions of such systems include order processing, customer service, storage of finished products.

For logistics systems of the third degree of coverage of components, it is common to extend their competence additionally to input warehouses, the delivery system for raw materials, the area of ​​​​purchases and supply, as well as the movement of materials during the production process. The logistical management of systems of the third level consists in generating proactive actions and is not limited to an adequate response to spontaneous deviations. Logistics systems of the fourth degree of coverage of elements extend their competence to all components and stages of the production and sales process, not excluding the planning and management of the actual production. The feasibility of introducing logistics management in the production and marketing system in each case needs special consideration.

The most successfully formulated and substantiated rules for building logistics management systems for beginners are in the works of foreign scientists. This review of recommendations is a generalization into one concept of approaches to the creation of logistics systems.

First rule. All production and supply and marketing operations should be directed towards achieving the main goal, which should be closely related to the strategy of the organization. This rule is decisive, and compliance with this rule greatly increases the degree of interaction of all subsystems and reduces the negative manifestations of the organizational activities of logistics structures.

Second rule. Logistics, marketing of finished products and forwarding work should be organized in such a way as to make it possible to create a single directing unit at the enterprise. It is better to optimize the solutions to these and other tasks when one person is responsible for the supply, transport and delivery of finished products in the business unit.

Third rule. Any logistics system must have sufficient information support, and each specific structural unit must have experience in its prompt and rational use. This problem is solved at the enterprises in the course of creating a complex of automated control systems.

Fourth rule. Logistics departments at the enterprise must be staffed by qualified specialists. In this case, proper staffing involves the training and retraining of certain specialists. The company should not save money on this issue.

Fifth rule. It should establish close external and internal systemic ties, regardless of the choice of production and economic activity. The entire process of economic activity of the organization should be treated as a holistic and inseparable.

With this approach, all work taking place in the enterprise or outside it is assessed as important not only for all business partners, but also for all employees of the enterprise.

Sixth rule. It is easier and more efficient for the management of the enterprise, and, accordingly, for the control center of the logistics system, to manage transport and warehouse operations, as well as the organization of customer service through accounting and planning divisions. If this requirement is met, then the profit of the enterprise can grow to the value of the profit from the main activity.

Seventh rule. It is necessary to determine the optimal level of personnel service for each specific logistics system, depending on its potential. The desire to improve customer service is ultimately rewarded with an adequate increase in profits.

Eighth rule. Of great importance is a serious, attentive attitude to any activities in the process of managing the logistics system, since it is they that make it possible to increase the integration of production and economic activities in all work areas, to resolve discrepancies in production, supply and marketing, to eliminate failures in the course of adaptation to unexpected influences of external or internal factors.

Ninth rule. To constantly search for opportunities for optimal consolidation of small consignments, which leads to a reduction in distribution costs and an increase in the efficiency of supply, marketing and transportation operations.

Tenth rule. A public assessment of the activities of the bodies of logistics of sales and transport occupies an important place in the process of logistics management. Unfortunately, the work of employees of logistics departments at many enterprises is often underestimated.

LECTURE No. 3. Procurement activities in logistics

1. Classification of reserves

Stocks require large investments, being one of the factors that determine the policy of enterprises and affect the level of logistics services in general.

Inventory, being a kind of insurance, has always been considered a factor in ensuring the flexible functioning of logistics. There are three types of inventory: raw materials, products in production, and finished products.

In turn, they are divided into appropriate parts depending on their intended purpose: transitional, cyclical, insurance. Transitional stocks include technological stocks that move from one logistics system to another. Cyclical stocks include current stocks in one batch, or created during the period of average production.

Insurance stocks include reserve stocks organized in case of unforeseen changes in demand, etc.

The main reason for the creation of inventories is the desire for economic security of the subjects of production activities.

Scarcity forecasting is the strongest incentive to stockpiling. There are several levels of costs in the presence of a shortage of stocks.

1. Costs arising from non-fulfillment or delay of the order. Lead to additional costs for promotion and sending a scarce order.

2. The cost of losing a regular customer. In cases where the customer is forced to look for another company, not only a trade deal is lost, but also a regular customer.

3. The cost of losing sales in the absence of the desired product (material, raw materials, etc.) - the customer is forced to look for it in another company. The price of lost or unrealized trades is lower than the stock shortage price.

It includes the loss of time for the manufacture of products, working time, loss of time due to transitions between complex technological processes.

Technological and transitional reserves. The volumes of transitional stocks will be large when the movement of stocks takes a long time, with long periods of sale of goods, with large time intervals between the moments of the release of the goods and its arrival at the warehouse.

Cyclical stocks, or stocks of one batch of goods.

A feature of most entrepreneurial systems is the order of a large amount of goods, excess in volume. This forces the customer to keep some of the goods in stock for some time.

Buffer, or insurance stocks. If demand exceeds expectations, reserve stock becomes the source of supply. It is extremely rare to accurately predict the demand for goods, which also applies to the timing of orders. This makes it necessary to create an "emergency source" of supply.

Determining the level of reserve stocks depends on the timing of the restoration of the level of stocks and the possibility of their fluctuations; from the volatility of demand for certain goods during the lead time; from your current customer service strategy.

It is not easy to determine the level of reserve stocks in the conditions of instability of terms of implementation and volatility in demand for goods.

The creation of inventories in firms of various sectors of the economy is determined by the characteristic role they play in the course of production. This explains the difference in approaches to the role of investment in a certain area and serves to determine the main tasks set in the production process.

At enterprises in certain sectors of the national economy, the priority task is control over resources, in others - control over finished products.

If the enterprise specializes in investment goods, then the bulk of organizational efforts falls on work in progress. Produce products according to customer orders firms that produce railway and rolling stock. In this industry, there is no need to make stocks, no one will just manufacture, for example, a diesel engine.

In the clothing industry, given the fickleness of fashion, there is a reason for a small amount of stock. Production of semi-finished products and investment in this allows you to quickly respond to changing needs of the product market.

The situation is diametrically opposite in the enterprises engaged in the manufacture of tires. The success of the enterprise depends on how quickly demand is met.

In this regard, finished products should always be available. Tires are made to order extremely rarely, consumers prefer a certain brand.

At the tire production enterprises, investments in stocks of raw materials and work in progress are inefficient and are kept at a minimum level.

2. Basic concepts of procurement

Purchasing processes cover a wide range of raw materials and materials and cover a large number of activities.

The most important issues associated with the logistics processes of procurement are:

1) timeliness and quality of deliveries, completeness. They determine the uninterrupted maintenance of production processes.

2) material and information processes at the procurement stage combine many functions and narrow tasks. The answers to the most important questions related to the main activity of any enterprise (mainly industrial) determine the main content of the procurement processes. There are a few questions that need to be answered before purchasing activities.

First, buy or produce yourself. Before making a decision, conduct a full analysis, taking into account the interests of the enterprise's divisions, and at the same time be guided by the following motives.

Own production is distinguished by a high level of added value, the presence of a unique technology, and the outstripping nature of the products. The acquisition reduces production capacity and provides access to state-of-the-art technology. The decision in favor of own production or purchase is made at an early stage of product development.

Secondly, how much to buy. This question is related to material requirements planning and inventory management.

Third, when to buy. The solution to this issue is related to the organization of supplies along with production needs and taking into account information on inventory management methods.

Fourth, where to buy. The question speaks for itself. The company must decide on the choice of place of purchase and suppliers.

As with the first question, resolving this issue requires a detailed analysis of the proposed sources of supply and possible suppliers.

3. The essence of procurement activities

Enterprises, regardless of the type of activity, purchase raw materials, materials, related products, services.

All this is necessary for the formation of economic activity, primarily production and service. Trade enterprises carry out the purchase of goods for subsequent resale.

Institutions and organizations also participate in the process of procurement of goods and services in order to perform their functions.

The special role of the procurement function for the purpose of their further processing or resale determines the prevalence of these processes for any enterprise, which makes their impact on the production economy significant, and for some parameters decisive.

The prerequisites for the importance of procurement processes for shaping the economy of enterprises are: the efficiency of meeting the requirements for materials, energy and services. Depends on the continuity of the enterprise.

The main component of the cost of operating the enterprise is the cost of the resources and materials used. There are opportunities for cost reduction here. Under the influence of procurement processes, a significant part of working capital is formed, especially the degree and structure of inventories, as well as work in progress.

In the procurement structure, progressive processes increase the share of finished parts in both the production of products and in the provision of services. Without close cooperation with suppliers, a product quality assurance strategy cannot be implemented.

These factors confirm the growing importance of the procurement process, the mandatory analysis of their course.

There are other reasons that are closely related to the logistics of procurement processes and have an impact on the economy of enterprises.

1. Ensuring high dynamics of material and information flows, strengthening the market position of the enterprise leads to cost reduction, improving the quality of customer service.

2. Buildings and warehouses, vehicles, machinery and technical equipment used for the movement and storage of materials need to involve most of the fixed assets in the production infrastructure of the procurement logistics processes.

3. The main number of employees in the procurement departments performs physical and informational functions. The presence of stocks of materials, work in progress, goods, etc. leads to an increase in storage costs.

These factors prove the significant impact of procurement processes on all activities of the enterprise. They allow you to increase competitiveness and determine the level of costs. The process of planning and organizing procurement requires an appropriate approach, a wide range of material and raw materials with varying degrees of technical readiness for use and processing.

In most enterprises, the structure of material needs is quite complex. We single out several groups of procurement objects for which similar procedures for organizing this process are applied:

1) input resources and materials to be processed at a particular enterprise in the course of implementation or technological processes;

2) ready-made components used in the assembly of products at the enterprise in the final phase;

3) semi-finished products to be processed;

4) assembly units and components;

5) general purpose materials;

6) solid, liquid and gaseous fuels, as well as all types of energy.

Listed here are several product groups that act as purchase items.

Some specific conditions must be met in the process of purchasing the products of each group. Appropriate technical infrastructure and separate agreements on the main parameters for the supply of heat and electricity or gas are required.

Agreements based on multi-year contracts are needed for the supply of technically complex units used as components of finished products.

Purchasing management is considered to be the most important activity of the relevant departments of the enterprise.

4. Order management, order preparation

The optimal quantity of goods determines such an order size at which the cost of receiving and storing one unit of goods is minimal. But this does not mean at all that the price per unit of goods should be the lowest. It is necessary to calculate all the costs associated with the order to determine its optimal size.

In any restocking system, the basic questions must be answered: when to order and how much to order. With a system of rigid intervals between orders, strictly established deadlines for the provision of orders are chosen, this solves the question "when?". You need to answer the question "how much?".

To do this, select and fix in the accounting cards or in the computer the value of the maximum or required stock for each product.

In the period until the next replenishment of the stock, the available stock and the additional receipt from the previous order must be sufficient to meet the demand.

When working on a system of replenishment of stocks at fixed time intervals, nothing prevents the use of optimal orders, namely for a product of high demand at the time between deliveries.

Customers are trying to more accurately calculate and at the right time adjust the size of the necessary stocks of goods, which contributes to the accuracy of order fulfillment and to reduce the cost of purchasing and maintaining goods.

The optimal order sizes are selected by comparing the costs of holding inventory and the costs of orders.

In order to answer the question of when to order, you need to determine the moment of ordering or restocking for each item.

The definition of such a moment is based on the delivery time of goods on orders.

Most organizations have a safety stock in case of supply disruption. The scale of the safety stock is determined by the same moment for each item of goods and is expressed as a percentage of the number of units sold during the delivery period.

The safety stock eliminates the occurrence of a shortage. To determine the moment of order, you need to determine the level of safety stock that provides the desired degree of protection against shortages.

The higher the reorder point, the less likely it is to be out of stock, but the higher the cost of maintaining additional inventory.

The problem is to determine such an order moment that the losses from the shortage are covered by the costs of maintaining additional stocks.

The probability of a shortage is the basis for determining the moment of order.

In this case, it is necessary to determine the level of risk. If an organization wants to never run out of inventory, it must have surplus safety stocks, and their size is such that it is more correct to accept the shortage and try only to reduce the frequency of its occurrence.

The moment of orders should be set at the boundary, when maintenance costs and shortage losses are the smallest, or at the boundary at which the reduction in shortage losses resulting from the addition of an extra unit at the time of order is equal to the surplus value of maintaining this unit.

5. Forms of organizing procurement activities

The choice of the form of procurement depends on the complexity of the final product, on the set of components and materials.

The main forms of procurement are:

1) purchases in large quantities (bulk purchases);

2) periodic purchases in small lots;

3) various combinations of the listed methods and purchase as needed.

Consider the most common forms:

1. Purchase of goods in one batch.

The advantages of wholesale delivery are the ease of paperwork, the guarantee of delivery of the entire batch, the increase in trade discounts due to the purchase of goods in a large batch.

The disadvantage is the great need for storage space, the slowdown in capital turnover.

2. Periodic purchases in small lots. The buyer orders the required quantity of goods, which is delivered to him in batches within a certain period of time.

The advantages of this form of purchase are to speed up the process of capital turnover, since the goods are paid for as they arrive. Savings are achieved in the process of storage and warehouse space, the costs of documenting the delivery are reduced, since only one order is issued for the entire delivery.

The disadvantage of this form of procurement is the possibility of ordering an excessive quantity, the need to pay for the entire consignment of goods at once.

3. Daily or monthly purchases according to quotation sheets.

Where cheap and quickly used goods are purchased, this form of purchase is widely used.

The quotation list contains information about the full list of goods, the quantity of goods available in the warehouse, as well as the required quantity of goods.

The advantage of this form is in accelerating the turnover of capital, the timeliness of deliveries and reducing the cost of warehouse activities.

4. Receipt of goods as needed. This form has not only similarity with the regular delivery form, but also a number of characteristic features:

1) the number of purchases is not established here, but is determined approximately;

2) Suppliers must contact the buyer prior to completing each order;

3) the delivered quantity of goods is subject to payment, the customer is not obliged to accept and pay for the goods after the expiration of the contract.

The advantage is the absence of specific obligations to purchase a certain amount, the acceleration of capital turnover, a small amount of paperwork.

5. Purchase of goods with immediate delivery. The scope of this form is the purchase of infrequently used goods, if it is impossible to obtain them as needed. The goods are ordered as needed and are brought directly from the warehouses of suppliers.

The disadvantage of this form is the increase in costs associated with the need for scrupulous paperwork for each order, the increase in the number of suppliers and the fragmentation of orders.

6. Cost structure in procurement activities

The most important element in the procurement policy is the analysis of the price of purchased goods.

Various types of calculations are used to analyze the cost of own production and purchase prices.

The indicator of total costs is divided by the indicator of manufactured products (simple calculation method).

The costs are broken down into separate items and are taken on average (calculation by equivalent indicators).

Accurate cost accounting for each operation (permanent costing).

Additional works and services, customs duties, transportation costs, preparation of documents, etc. are taken into account by price analysis.

There are several types of price analysis.

1. An itemized assessment determines the net price, taking into account preparatory costs (price analysis along the path from the appearance of the product to its receipt by the consumer). Based on estimated evaluation criteria, it is determined how much a given product or service can cost in the market (price analysis based on its demand).

2. Additional accounting of expenses for control, financing, storage (analysis of the price calculated from the total cost of the work and services performed). By dividing costs into primary and subsequent costs to determine the price of a batch of goods (price analysis, taking into account the possibility of increasing it for similar products).

3. The old and new commercial offer is compared, taking into account changes in the raw materials used, the costs of market relations (price analysis in a time period).

When developing long-term contracts, taking into account the volatility of price changes (analysis using moving prices).

4. Accounting for exchange rates, exchange rates, customs statistics (price analysis based on open data).

5. Price analysis for primary costs per unit of output.

6. Price analysis using the changing trend of new product development.

When making purchases, the buyer does not have to calculate the components of the price of the purchased goods. But recently, there has been an exchange of data between the buyer and the seller, containing the composition of production costs and other elements that make up the price of the purchase product.

This practice has become especially widespread when concluding long-term supply contracts.

In the field of view of the logistics authorities are transport costs. The type of transport, speed of delivery, partion of goods, method of their packaging, transshipment methods in the case of multimodal transport are taken into account along with the distance of transportation.

7. Documentation of the order

The use by most firms in a market economy of previously established documents in many cases does not meet modern requirements.

Regarding the maintenance of procurement documentation, it is advisable for the heads of the relevant departments to develop standard forms.

They recommend:

1) designate it, in order to highlight the order form among other documents with the word "order" or "purchase order";

2) assign a serial number to the document. It is used in the documents attached to the copy of the order (waybill, invoice, etc.).

The presence of a serial number will help you quickly find the right document;

3) indicate the name and address of the company. This information serves as information to the supplier, with whom he will have business relations, where to deliver the goods and send the invoice;

4) an official must be indicated in the order form, it is desirable that it be the person standing at the source of the order. This will help the supplier, if necessary, to solve the problems that he has with a particular person.

He can also address questions of interest to him related to the order;

5) the date, name and address of the supplier are indicated.

6) set deadlines and indicate the quantity of goods to be delivered;

7) describe the goods. The purchase order must clearly identify the required goods with references to the purchase proposal and the specification request;

8) if the delivery address is not identical to the main address of the company named in the order form, it must be indicated;

9) the price of the goods must be stated in the order form in order to avoid conflicts when paying for the delivered goods;

10) you need to provide your bank details so that various financial misunderstandings do not arise.

For the correct registration of supply transactions, it is necessary to carefully work with the documents reflecting them.

A copy of the order is sent to the consumer's subdivisions to check for compliance with the delivery notifications of the goods received.

When checking, the description of the goods is used.

The shipment notification is sent by the supplier after the products are ready for shipment. This document indicates the order number and delivery time.

When the supplier uses the transport of another company, a supplier document is issued. It states:

1) the sender's address and name, product description, number of pieces, product weight, transportation specifics, supplier's name. To inform consumer units about the fact of delivery of the goods, to control the compliance of the notification of the shipment of goods with the accounting department, copies of the order and invoice are confirmation of receipt of the delivery;

2) the number of the cover letter, the date of delivery, the method of transportation, the sender - all this is in the book of registration of goods, along with their brief description. Some enterprises do not use the above types of notification, preferring to store the necessary information directly on the computer, but if the supplier is in bad faith, it is better to have written documents;

3) it would not be superfluous to describe in some document the marriage and other shortcomings of the goods provided for the purchasing department to take the necessary measures.

8. Procurement efficiency

The basis of the economic efficiency of procurement logistics is the search for the necessary materials of satisfactory quality and their purchase at the lowest prices.

The question of prices is the main one in the study of the market, carried out by the relevant departments of enterprises, but the analysis of possible logistics costs and delivery times also plays an important role. For a wholesale buyer, an accurate calculation of costs is required. The calculation of the cost of purchasing raw materials and materials often determines the further strategy for the production and marketing of the final product.

Successful procurement involves the use of extensive information about the markets where they are made. Optimization of a link in the procurement logistics chain affects not only external factors, but also internal priorities related to the difference in understanding the optimality of work and the importance of other links, which initiates the importance of finding economic compromises between various structural divisions. Efficiency of the process is facilitated by adherence to the ethical standards of partnership. It is based on an optimized relationship between manufacturer, lender and supplier.

9. Acceptance of delivered products

Important in the implementation of the procurement plan are the acceptance of products, documenting deliveries, checking the quantity and quality of goods.

When accepting products, it is necessary to make sure that the goods received correspond to a certain quality, are in the right quantity, and are received from their supplier at the agreed time for the stipulated fee. In order to reduce time, effort and money, care must be taken that storage facilities, places for unloading and receiving goods are as close as possible to each other and close to production facilities. To save on handling costs, it is necessary to draw up a delivery schedule agreed with all suppliers. It should provide that raw materials be delivered on strictly defined days, and other materials - as needed.

These measures will make it possible not to tear workers away from the main production to unload vehicles that arrived at the wrong time.

Acceptance of goods is carried out on the basis of documents drawn up upon delivery.

LECTURE № 4. Warehouse logistics

1. Warehousing logistics

In the logistics chain, the movement of material flows is impossible without the concentration of the necessary stocks in certain places, for the storage of which warehouses are intended.

The increase in the cost of goods is associated with the costs of moving through the warehouse of living or materialized labor. The rationalization of the movement of material flows in the supply chain, the use of vehicles and distribution costs are influenced by problems associated with the functioning of warehouses.

A modern warehouse is a technically complex equipped facility that includes interconnected elements, has an appropriate structure and performs a number of functions for changing material flows, as well as collecting, processing and distributing goods among consumers.

At the same time, the warehouse is just an integral part of a higher-level system of the logistics chain, which determines the basic technical requirements for the warehouse system, dictates the tasks and positions of its optimal operation, and sets the conditions for cargo processing.

In this regard, the warehouse is considered not autonomously, but as an integral part of the logistics chain.

This approach allows us to ensure the successful implementation of the main functions of the warehouse and the achievement of a high level of profitability.

At the same time, it should be taken into account that for each specific warehouse the components of the warehouse system differ significantly from each other, both its elements and the structure itself, based on the relationship of these elements.

When forming a warehouse system, one must remember the basic principle: only an individual solution, taking into account all the accompanying factors, can make it profitable. A clear definition of work tasks and a thorough analysis of the handling of goods both inside and outside the warehouse is a prerequisite for its cost-effective operation.

This implies that any costs must be economically justified, i.e. the use of any technological and technical solution that accompanies an investment must be applied on the basis of rational expediency, and not on the basis of fashion trends and technical capabilities offered on the market.

The main task of the warehouse is the concentration of stocks, their storage and the formation of an uninterrupted and rhythmic supply of consumer orders.

The main functions of the warehouse include the following.

1. In accordance with demand, the transformation of the production assortment into consumer, which means the creation of the right assortment to fulfill customer orders.

This function is of particular importance in distribution logistics, where the trade assortment is represented by a huge list of goods from various manufacturers, differing in design, size, color, shape, etc.

Efficient fulfillment of consumer orders is facilitated by the creation of the desired assortment in the warehouse. The same factor contributes to the implementation of more frequent deliveries in the volume required by the client.

2. Warehousing and storage. This function allows you to smooth out the time difference between output and consumption and contributes to the implementation of continuous production and supply based on the emerging inventory.

Their storage in the distribution system is necessary due to the seasonal consumption of some goods.

3. Unitization and transportation of goods. To reduce the transportation costs of consumers who order lots "less than a wagon" and "less than a trailer" from the warehouse, the function of combining (uniting) small consignments for a group of customers until the vehicle is completely unloaded is carried out.

4. Provision of services. A visible element of this function is to provide customers with all kinds of services that provide the organization with a high level of customer service. Among them: packing products, filling containers, unpacking, etc. (preparation of goods for sale); checking the operation of instruments and equipment, assembly; pre-treatment of products to give them a marketable appearance; forwarding services, etc.

2. Classification of warehouses

An important link in the technological process of manufacturing enterprises for wholesale and retail trade are warehouses, which serve as the basis for enterprises aimed at staying ahead of competitors. Warehouse work requires a modern organization, advanced technologies and qualified personnel.

Warehouses are the basis of the reserves of material resources needed to adjust the volume of demand and supply, as well as the consistency of the speeds of the flow of goods in the systems of promotion from the manufacturer to the consumer.

In economic activity, a large number of varieties of warehouses are used. By appointment, the following types are distinguished.

Production. They act as warehouses for raw materials and components.

In turn, production warehouses are divided into shop and factory warehouses of finished products.

Transit and transshipment. They are organized at railway stations, ports, river piers, airports, truck terminals and are used for short-term storage of goods at the time of their reloading from one mode of transport to another.

Customs warehouses are designed to store goods pending customs clearance.

Warehouses for early delivery are built in areas where delivery of goods is possible only in certain seasons.

Seasonal storage. Warehouses for seasonal goods.

Reserve. In reserve warehouses, stock is stored in case of emergency.

Wholesale distribution warehouses that supply the distribution network.

Warehouses for commercial use. These warehouses serve any owners of goods.

Retail warehouses of trade enterprises.

Warehouses differ in terms of storage conditions for general-purpose warehouses, tanks, safes for hazardous substances, specialized and storage warehouses.

In warehouses, the conditions necessary for storage are created, taking into account the physical and chemical properties of the goods. Sometimes warehouses have equipment for filling, packing, testing and other operations.

3. Basic concepts of warehouse activity

A large modern warehouse is a complex technical structure. The warehouse consists of numerous interconnected elements, has a characteristic structure and is designed to perform a number of functions to change material flows.

The functions of the warehouse include the accumulation, processing and distribution of goods among consumers.

The main concepts of warehouse activity include: acceptance of goods and goods from the carrier (acceptance of goods is carried out in terms of quantity and quality).

Placement and stacking of goods, and the placement of goods is carried out according to several principles. Storage, selection and dispatch of goods.

Some warehouses are engaged in marking and packaging of goods, goods are marked in accordance with the developed rules and methods. The last operation is the delivery of goods to carriers.

Acceptance of goods is carried out in terms of quantity, quality and completeness and is a responsible procedure, during which shortages, damages, inadequate quality and incompleteness of goods are identified. The procedure for acceptance of goods is regulated by regulations, as a result of the discovery of deficiencies, recipients present claims and lawsuits to suppliers.

Acceptance of goods from carriers. In the warehouse, before the arrival of the cargo, preliminary work is carried out: places for unloading are determined, equipment and mechanisms are prepared, etc.

It is necessary to strictly observe the established rules for performing loading and unloading operations; when unloading vehicles, special attention is paid to special marking of goods and handling signs.

Violation of the established rules leads to damage to goods and injuries.

If the delivery is by rail, then the following work is required: checking the seals for integrity, opening the wagons, preliminary inspection of the condition of the incoming cargo; unloading of wagons with subsequent stowage of goods on storage equipment; quantitative initial acceptance of goods; delivery of goods to the receiving area.

If the goods are delivered in railway containers, then the following operations are carried out: checking the condition of the container and the integrity of the seals; moving the container to the unloading ramp with subsequent movement to the goods acceptance area; container opening; unloading of goods.

If the goods are delivered to the warehouse by road, the following actions are performed: checking the integrity of the packaging, quantitative initial acceptance, transferring the goods to storage equipment and moving the goods to the receiving area.

If the cargo is delivered in a faulty wagon, or the seal on the container is broken, the quantity and quality of the entire delivered cargo is checked and an act is drawn up, which will subsequently be the basis for filing a claim with the carrier or supplier.

Upon receipt of the goods from the carriers, the recipient enterprise must check the safety of the goods during transportation.

In the event that the release of the goods takes place without checking the places or weight, the recipient, in accordance with the established procedure, has the right to demand from the carrier that an appropriate note be made on the transport document.

Product placement. Depending on the tasks, the method of placing goods in the warehouse is chosen, taking into account the purpose of the goods, the method of storage, the maximum use of the volume of the warehouse with a rational arrangement of departments, protection of goods from damage, etc.

There are several ways to store goods:

1) sorted - a method of storage in which goods of different varieties are placed separately from each other;

2) batch - with this method of storage, each batch of goods that has arrived at the warehouse is stored separately, while the batch may include goods of different types and names;

3) batch-sorted - this method of storage implies that each batch of goods that has arrived at the warehouse is stored separately, but within the batch the goods are sorted into types and varieties, which are also separated from each other;

4) by name - a method of storage of goods, in which the goods of each name are stored separately.

They develop schemes for the placement of goods for quick placement and selection, as well as ensuring the required modes, providing for permanent storage places, the possibility of monitoring their safety and caring for them.

When developing schemes, the frequency and volumes of receipt and shipment of goods, rational methods of stacking, shipping conditions, and for some goods - the choice of the right "neighbor" are taken into account.

In the immediate vicinity of the shipping and issuing area, goods of daily demand are stored.

Allocate areas of short-term and long-term storage. Accordingly, fast-moving goods are located in short-term storage areas, and low-demand goods, which often constitute an insurance stock, are placed in long-term storage areas.

In warehouses with a large turnover, each cell accommodates a batch of goods along with the pallet or in the box in which it arrived, the passages between the racks must be sufficient for the operation of forklifts with lateral movement of the forks.

In warehouses for small wholesale and retail trade, most often the goods are placed in accordance with the grouping by size.

Goods stacking. The stacking and racking method of stacking is usually used for packaged and piece goods.

Stacking is used to store goods packed in bags, boxes, barrels.

When forming a stack, it is necessary to ensure its stability, allowable height and free access to goods.

There are three types of stacking: straight, cross-checked and reverse-checked. In straight stacking, which is most commonly used for stacking crates and drums of the same size, each crate is placed strictly and evenly on top of the crate in the bottom row.

The creation of additional stability of the stack is facilitated by direct pyramidal stacking. Boxes of different sizes are installed in a cross cage. Moreover, the upper boxes are stacked across the lower ones.

Goods packed in bags are placed in the reverse cage, the top row of bags is placed on the bottom row in reverse order.

When stacking goods, it is necessary to monitor the correct circulation of air in the room, as well as take into account fire protection and sanitary and hygienic requirements. Between the stacks leave passages and install them at the prescribed distance from the heaters and walls.

With the rack method of storage, goods in individual packaging, unpacked goods are placed on shelves located at a height accessible to the mechanisms. On the lower shelves, goods are stored, the set of which can be carried out manually, and on the upper shelves - goods that are shipped entirely on a pallet.

When packing goods, the relevant rules are observed.

1. The goods are placed with the marking towards the aisle, goods of the same type are placed in racks on both sides of one aisle, then when picking, the transportation path is shorter, if one cell is not enough to accommodate the entire volume of goods, then the remaining goods are placed in the following vertical cells of the same rack, on The upper tiers of the rack place long-term storage goods.

2. Bulk cargo in warehouses is stored in bulk, tanks are used for liquids, and mechanized hangers are used for outerwear.

Storage of goods. The organization of storage ensures: the safety of the quantity and quality of goods, their consumer qualities and the performance of the necessary loading and unloading operations; conditions for the measurement of goods, their inspection carried out by the relevant control authorities, and the repair of damage to the packaging.

When creating the necessary hydrothermal regime for storing goods, a convenient system for their stacking and placement, the preservation of the properties of goods is achieved.

Goods stored in a warehouse need constant inspection, care, control, which allows you to identify signs of damage, traces of rodents or insects.

Good storage management means keeping goods out of aisles, keeping fire extinguishers and outlets out of the way, and keeping pallets out of very high stacks. Using the upper shelves as a backup for items that do not have enough space on the lower shelves. If the goods do not fit completely in the cells, they are placed in deeper racks.

A special place is allocated for handling equipment, and unused equipment is moved there. To maintain the desired temperature and humidity indoors, thermometers and hygrometers are used, and ventilation systems and dehumidifiers are used to regulate the indoor climate. Goods stacked in piles need periodic shifting, bulk goods need shoveling.

Fur and woolen products must be protected from moths, damp goods are dried and ventilated.

To maintain a sanitary and hygienic regime, warehouse premises are regularly thoroughly cleaned.

Some types of goods experience losses during storage and preparation for release, as well as during a number of other operations. Distinguish between allowable and unacceptable commodity losses.

Permissible losses are established by the norms of natural loss. Unacceptable losses include losses resulting from damage, theft, fight and scrap of goods or poor storage conditions.

The norms of natural loss are developed on a scientific basis and approved in the prescribed manner. If the losses occurred as a result of natural wastage (shrinkage, shrinkage) and their value is within the norm, then the carrier or trading company is not responsible for them. Attrition rates are calculated taking into account positions related to the time and distance of transportation, type of transport, etc.

The norms of natural loss do not apply if the fact of theft, deliberate damage, etc. is established.

Sending goods. The release of goods from the warehouse includes the following operations: processing of goods according to availability in the warehouse, selection of goods from their place of storage, movement to the order picking area, registration, bookmarking or attaching packing lists, marking packages, moving completed goods to the loading area, loading containers, used for transportation, issuance of a bill of lading.

The task of the warehouse is to organize efficient work. Efficiency criteria are full satisfaction of requests according to the list and urgent shipments.

It is more convenient for customers to receive goods at a specific need immediately, and it is more profitable for suppliers to have regular orders for a long time. These contradictions can be resolved by applying high discounts for large quantities of goods with a long delivery time and much smaller discounts for urgent orders.

Applications received in the morning are urgent and need to be sent on the same day. Therefore, after the order is received, it is immediately processed, completed and packaged in order to ship it in the afternoon.

Orders received in the afternoon are processed the next day. Large warehouses work, as a rule, around the clock, respectively, and they also receive urgent orders throughout the day.

Selection of goods. Pickers and other warehouse workers make a selection of goods after receiving a picking list. The picking list is compiled taking into account warehouse specifics, which significantly speeds up the selection of goods.

In a large warehouse, with mechanized selection, the completed cargo is removed from the place of packaging and moved to the shipping area.

With the manual method of picking and dispensing, a small amount of goods is laid out on hand trucks and moved to the picking area.

The use of portable terminals allows inventory to be carried out without stopping the work of the warehouse.

After choosing the goods, the batch is packed.

4. Procurement process

The special role of the procurement function for the purpose of processing or resale determines the prevalence of goods procurement processes for any enterprise.

For the development and formation of the economy of enterprises, procurement processes play a special role, the most important prerequisites for them are: the rhythmic work of production, which depends on the full saturation of the needs for materials and raw materials.

The price of the materials used, raw materials and third-party services. It serves as a basic component of costs for the operation of manufacturing enterprises, according to this parameter there is a possibility of cost reduction.

Under the influence of the procurement process, a large part of working capital is formed, which is a component of inventories and unfinished products.

In the procurement structure, progressive processes increase the share of finished parts in both the production of products and the provision of services. This element increases the importance of the procurement process.

These factors clearly confirm the growing importance of the procurement process, while it is important to analyze their progress and costs.

Other reasons are closely related to the logistics of procurement processes, in addition to those noted, which also have a great impact on the economy of the enterprise.

High dynamics of material and information flows allows reducing costs, increasing the quality of customer service and stabilizing the company's market position.

In the technical component of the logistics processes in the field of procurement, recently there has been an attraction of large fixed assets.

The technical infrastructure (component) includes: buildings and storage facilities, vehicles, machinery and technical equipment that is used for the storage and handling of materials. Inventories of materials, unfinished products, goods, etc. lead to an increase in storage costs. These factors are the reason that procurement processes affect the activities of organizations. They set the degree of costs and promote competitiveness.

In most enterprises, the structure of material needs is quite complex.

Similar procedures for organizing the discussed process are applied to several groups of procurement objects.

1. Initial raw materials and materials that are subject to processing at a separate enterprise in the process of performing technological processes.

2. Semi-finished products in need of processing (for example, cast iron blanks).

3. Manufactured constituent elements that are used in the assembly at the enterprise in the final phase of production.

Listed here are some of the product groups that are considered as purchasing elements. Certain elements of the procurement process may apply to each of these groups, but in addition certain specific conditions must be met.

For example, certain infrastructure and special agreements are required on the main parameters of supply (for example, for the supply of gas or electricity). For the supply of complex assemblies, which are considered as components of finished products, approvals based on long-term contracts are needed.

Purchasing process management, therefore, should be considered the main type of functioning of the relevant departments of the enterprise.

5. Logistics process in the warehouse

The logistics process in a warehouse requires complete synchronization of stocking, cargo handling and actual distribution of the order.

Logistics in the warehouse practically covers all the main work areas that are considered at the micro level. The logistics process is much broader than the technological one and includes such areas as: stocking, supply control, acceptance and unloading of goods, transportation and intra-warehouse transshipment of goods, storage and warehousing of goods, formation of customer orders and shipment, forwarding and transportation of goods.

The work of all elements of the logistics process must be considered in interdependence and interconnection. This approach allows not only to regulate the activities of the warehouse departments, it acts as the basis for planning and controlling the movement of goods in the warehouse at minimal cost.

Roughly, the logistics process can be divided into three parts:

1) operations regulating procurement services;

2) operations directly related to the processing of cargo and its documentation;

3) operations regulating sales services.

The regulation of the purchasing service occurs in the process of supplying stocks and with the help of control over the conduct of deliveries.

The main purpose of supplying stocks is to provide the warehouse with goods, subject to the possibility of processing them in a given period of time with the complete fulfillment of the order of consumers. You can determine the need for a purchase, taking into account the capacity of the warehouse and in coordination with the sales service.

Logistics processes include: unloading and acceptance of goods, intra-warehouse transportation, warehousing and storage, order picking and shipment, transportation and forwarding of orders, collection and delivery of empty goods carriers, warehouse information services.

Let's consider these components of the logistics system in more detail. Accounting and control over the receipt of stocks and the dispatch of orders makes it possible to ensure the synchronism of the processing of cargo flows.

Also, with proper control and accounting, the volume of the warehouse is used to the maximum and the necessary storage conditions are provided.

Unloading and receiving goods. When carrying out these operations, you need to focus on the delivery conditions established at the conclusion of the contract.

Based on the information specified in the contract, unloading places for a specific vehicle and the necessary loading and unloading equipment are prepared. Reducing distribution costs and reducing vehicle downtime occurs with the right choice of loading and unloading equipment and special equipment for unloading points.

By accelerating the movement of goods from suppliers to the consumer and inventory turnover in the warehouse, a significant increase in profits and a reduction in the cost of maintaining inventory can be achieved.

Between different areas of the warehouse, the movement of goods involves intra-warehouse transportation. Transportation operations take place with the use of lifting and transport machines and mechanisms.

Transportation starts from the unloading ramp to the receiving area, then to the storage area, picking and loading ramp.

On end-to-end routes, with a minimum length in time and space, transportation within the warehouse should be carried out. Such a transportation scheme avoids duplication of operations and inefficient use of time. The number of overloads from one type of equipment to another should be minimal.

In the placement and stowage of cargo for storage is the process of warehousing. Efficient use of the volume of the storage area is the main principle of rational warehousing.

The optimal choice of a storage system, and especially storage equipment, becomes a prerequisite for the effectiveness of their use.

At the same time, taking into account the normal operating conditions of handling equipment, the space for working aisles should be minimal.

The picking process consists of preparing the goods in accordance with the requests of consumers. The maximum use of the vehicle allows the consolidation of goods into an economical batch, which in turn is facilitated by the configuration of the shipment using the information system. You need to choose the best delivery route. Loading takes place at the loading ramp.

Both the warehouse and the customer himself can carry out transportation and forwarding of goods. The most widespread is the centralized delivery of orders by the warehouse. With this type of delivery, taking into account the unitization of goods and the choice of optimal routes, a reduction in transportation costs is achieved and it is possible to deliver goods in small but more frequent batches, which leads to a reduction in unnecessary stocks from the consumer.

The collection and delivery of empty goods carriers play an important role in the expense item. Containers, pallets, packaging equipment are goods carriers and are often reusable during intracity transportation, and therefore require return to the sender.

With strict observance of the exchange schedule, an accurate determination of the optimal quantity, an effective exchange of commodity carriers is possible.

The connecting core of the work of all departments of the warehouse is the information service of the warehouse, which involves the management of information flows. Information flow management, depending on the technical equipment, can be either an independent system or an integral part of a subsystem of a general automated system.

Successfully carried out logistic service of buyers does the given enterprise favorably different from firms-competitors.

The key to the profitability of the warehouse is the rational implementation of the logistics process. Therefore, when forming the logistics process, it is necessary to achieve the optimal layout of the warehouse: allocate work areas that help reduce costs and increase the level of the cargo handling process; when arranging equipment, it is efficient to use the space that allows you to increase the capacity of the warehouse; significantly reduce the fleet of lifting and transport vehicles through the use of universal equipment that performs various warehouse operations, increase the throughput of the warehouse and reduce operating costs, minimize intra-warehouse transportation routes; significantly reduce transport costs when using centralized delivery and unitization of delivery lots; reduce the time and costs associated with document flow and information exchange by using the capabilities of the information system.

Sometimes the reserves for the efficient operation of the logistics process, perhaps not very significant, lie in the simplest things: clearing cluttered aisles, improving the quality of lighting, organizing the workplace.

There are no trifles in the search for reserves for the rational operation of the warehouse, everything must be taken into account and analyzed, and the result of the analysis should be used to optimize the functioning of the logistics process.

There are three types of systems for promoting goods through distribution channels, which are distributed according to the degree of orientation to market needs.

In pull systems, goods are shipped as they arrive and based on current orders from wholesalers and retailers in the distribution system.

In push systems, goods are issued by suppliers to wholesale and retail divisions according to a rigid and pre-agreed schedule, based on previously issued long-term orders of wholesale and retail sales structures that have been adjusted by suppliers.

The task of marketing in these systems is aimed at the preliminary and therefore advancing demand stock picking in wholesale and retail marketing links.

In "just in time" systems, the order is shipped according to a pre-agreed list, according to a pre-approved schedule and in certain quantities.

The sales task in these systems is aimed at retail, without additional (insurance) stocks. Bakeries are the most obvious example.

There is another type of system - combined. When combined, the bulk of the supply occurs through the use of electronic data exchange in real time.

This exchange assumes the existence of a computer connection between manufacturers, intermediaries, sellers and service enterprises (banks, freight forwarders, insurance companies).

Participants of the electronic exchange place and confirm their orders, as well as pay for deliveries and order vehicles, and exchange information about customers. To act quickly and in a coordinated manner allows the exchange of information.

Information is also used to reduce costs and improve customer service.

The quality of service and its price characterizes the efficiency of commodity distribution systems.

6. Warehouse documentation

Registration, accounting and movement of goods must be carried out in accordance with regulatory enactments.

The receipt, movement and issuance of inventory items is accompanied by the execution of primary documents that contain quantitative and qualitative indicators.

Primary documents are drawn up on the basis of the requirements of the "Regulations on Accounting and Reporting in the Russian Federation".

In some cases, additional details are included in the primary documents.

Responsibility for the urgent and accurate execution, their provision within the agreed time frame for the preparation of accounting, for the veracity of the data specified in the document, is borne by the persons who formed and signed these documents.

Primary documents accompanying the operation of receiving, storing and dispensing goods at trade enterprises after the end of the audit are stored for three years on the basis of a regulatory list.

If there are disputes or disagreements and initiation of legal cases, the documents are kept until the final court decision is made.

The movement of an order from the supplier to the consumer is accompanied by shipping documents, which are drawn up in accordance with the rules for the movement of goods, waybills - commodity-transport, railway, invoice.

The invoice is issued by a financially responsible person when registering the release of goods from a warehouse, when goods are accepted in a trading organization, and acts as an incoming order, or an expense document.

For the invoice, it is obligatory to indicate the number and date of issue, also indicate information about the name of the supplier and buyer, the name and brief description of the goods, its quantity and the entire amount of the release of the goods are required. The waybill must be signed by the financially responsible person who delivers or receives the goods, and is certified by the round seal of the organization.

The number of copies of the invoice is related to the type of organization, the place of transfer of the goods and the conditions for receiving the goods.

Acceptance (posting) of incoming goods is formalized by imposing stamps on the document accompanying it: waybill, invoice and other documents.

Provided that the goods are received by the financially responsible person not in the warehouse of the buyer, the necessary document is a power of attorney, which is a confirmation of the right to receive the goods by this financially responsible person.

The certificate of conformity for the purchased goods is required when purchasing or accepting the goods, so it is necessary to monitor its availability.

The log of receipt of goods is kept in any form and serves to record primary documents for the receipt of goods by financially responsible persons, contains the name of the receipt document, its date and number, a brief description of the document, the date of registration of the document and information about the goods received.

The basis for settlements with suppliers is the executed documents for the acceptance of goods, and their data cannot be revised after the goods are accepted by the organization (with the exception of natural loss and damage during transportation).

Incoming goods are put on receipt on the day the acceptance is completed according to the actual quantity and amount.

To formalize the right to act as an authorized representative of the organization upon receipt of material assets released by the supplier according to an order, invoice, contract, order, agreement, a power of attorney is used. The power of attorney is issued in one copy by the accounting department of the organization and issued against receipt to the recipient.

Form M-2a is used by enterprises where the receipt of material assets by proxy is widespread. In a pre-numbered and laced register for the issuance of powers of attorney, the issued powers of attorney are recorded. Powers of attorney are not issued to persons who do not work in the organization. The power of attorney is completely filled out and must have a sample signature of the person in whose name it is issued. The power of attorney is usually valid for 15 days. It is possible to issue a power of attorney for receiving inventory items in the order of planned payments for a month.

Receipt order (Form M-4) is issued to account for materials received from suppliers for processing. On the day the valuables arrive at the warehouse, a single copy of the receipt order is drawn up by a financially responsible person.

It reflects the actual amount of accepted material values. The column "passport number" is filled in subject to the acceptance of material assets containing precious metals and stones.

For the movement of material in the warehouse for each specific grade, type and size, a material accounting card (form M-17) is used, filled in for each material number and maintained by a financially responsible person. Entries in the card are kept on the day of the operation, on the basis of primary receipts and expenditures.

If there is a limit, a limit-fence card (form M-8) is used for the issue and registration of materials periodically used in the manufacture of products, and for monitoring compliance with the accepted limits for the issue of materials for production needs.

It plays the role of a supporting document when writing off material assets from a warehouse.

The limit-fence card is issued in two copies for one type of goods (nomenclature number). The first copy is given to the structural unit (consumer of materials) before the beginning of the month, the second copy is issued for the warehouse.

Upon presentation by a representative of the structural unit of his copy of the limit-fence card, materials are released from the warehouse to production.

The storekeeper must note in both documents the date and quantity of the issued materials, after which the balance of the limit is calculated by the stock item number of the material. The limit-fence card is endorsed by the storekeeper, and an employee of the structural unit signs in the copy that remains in the warehouse.

To reduce the number of primary documents, where appropriate, it is recommended that materials be issued directly on the materials accounting cards (M-17). With this form, consumable documents for the release of materials are not issued, and the operation itself takes place on the basis of limit cards, which are issued in one copy and do not have the value of accounting documents.

Vacation limit can be specified in the card itself. Upon receipt of an order, an employee of a structural unit signs on the material accounting card, and the storekeeper signs on the limit-fence card.

The limit-fence card is used to account for materials that were not used in production. In this case, additional documents are not required.

The issuance of material in excess of the norm and the replacement of one type of material with another is possible with the permission of the management or persons authorized to do so.

The person who set it can change the limit.

Release of material assets is made from those warehouses that are indicated in the limit-fence card.

The storekeeper sets the date and quantity of issued materials, after which the limit is summed up for each item number of materials.

After using the limit, the warehouse delivers limit-fence cards to the accounting department.

With the help of computer technology, you can get a form of a limit-fence card with details.

To account for the movement of material assets within the organization between structural divisions or financially responsible persons, the requirement-invoice (Form M-11) is applied.

The financially responsible person of the structural unit, handing over material assets, draws up an invoice in two copies. One copy is the basis for the delivering warehouse to write off the valuables, and the second is necessary for the receiving warehouse to put the received valuables into the receipt.

The same waybills accompany the processes of depositing production residues, unused materials, if they were received on demand, as well as the delivery of waste and rejects to the warehouse or pantry. This type of waybills is endorsed by financially responsible persons, the deliverer and the recipient.

Then the invoices are handed over to the accounting department to record the movement of materials.

To account for the release of material assets to the structures of its organization located outside its territory, or to third parties, an invoice for the release of materials to the party (form M-15) is used.

An employee of a structural unit issues an invoice in two copies on the basis of contracts, orders and other documents upon presentation by the recipient of a power of attorney filled out in the prescribed manner to receive material assets.

The first copy is given to the warehouse as a basis for the release of materials, the second is with the recipient of the materials.

The return of goods to the supplier in the event of a defect or defect during the sale of the goods or in case of non-compliance of the goods with standard requirements and the agreed sample in terms of quality, if the goods are incomplete, is carried out by issuing an invoice for the release of goods to the side (form M-15). The conditions for returning goods to the supplier are different and are specifically stipulated in the supply contract.

Accounting and registration of the released goods to the side depends on the method of payment for the purchased goods between the buyer and the seller. The parties at the conclusion of the contract may choose any form of payment.

Usually, a set of shipping documents contains: an invoice or an invoice indicating the distribution of goods by packages, a shipping specification for all packages, a set of packing lists, a certificate of conformity or a certificate of quality, a bill of lading, an insurance policy.

When goods are delivered by road, a bill of lading is issued, which consists of two departments, commodity and transport. The consignment note may be accompanied by other documents accompanying the goods, depending on the characteristics of the goods.

When used for the delivery of railway transport, the railway bill of lading acts as an accompanying document.

Packing lists are attached to it, which is noted on the invoice.

7. Packaging in warehousing logistics

A container is a type of packaging that is used to place products in it and serves to prevent damage and deterioration during transportation, work related to loading and unloading, warehousing and storage. Containers include boxes, barrels, containers.

The container is divided:

1) by materials: made of wood, metal, glass or combined;

2) by dimensions: large and small;

3) by the time of use: for one-time, returnable and negotiable;

4) by strength: hard, soft and semi-hard;

5) according to the device: for non-separable, folding, collapsible and collapsible-folding;

6) according to characteristic properties: for maintaining a given temperature at a certain time, maintaining a given pressure, and for leaking;

7) if possible access: open and closed;

8) by constructive purpose for transport and consumer.

The transport container is used for transportation, it is removed before retail sale. Consumer packaging comes along with the goods to the consumer. For example, a box or container belongs to a shipping container, a box for a TV set, a cup for yogurt, etc. belongs to a consumer container. A separate group is a container-equipment for placement, transportation, storage and possible sale of goods from it (barrel-trailer for trade in kvass). According to the terms of use and accessories, containers are classified as production, inventory and storage.

Industrial packaging is needed for intra-factory or inter-factory technological activities (for example, containers used for products during their transportation).

Inventory packaging is the property of the enterprise, it is subject to mandatory return to the owner (for example, baskets in self-service stores).

Warehouse packaging is used for stacking, storing, picking and placing goods in a warehouse (trays, boxes, etc.)

8. Packing in warehousing logistics

Goods must be sent in packaging that must correspond to the nature of the goods.

In order not to lose damaged containers, warehouses organize repairs of incoming containers.

Packaging serves to protect the goods from damage and corrosion during transportation by various types of transport, taking into account several transshipments along the way, as well as the shelf life, in particular its duration.

Packaging can be a means or act as a set of means that must provide protection and protect against losses during transportation, storage, stacking, transshipment and other operations.

Packaging is often a carrier of information about the product - its name is the manufacturer; as a rule, recently a barcode has been applied to the packaging, sometimes the packaging contains information on the operation, manipulation marks and transport markings are indicated on it.

Packaging plays an important role in marketing, a well-developed packaging design contributes to the sale of goods.

It is important to note the logistical functions of packaging, as they, as a rule, determine the effectiveness of handling, transport, storage and other activities.

The logistical functions of packaging include: protective, storage, transport, manipulation, information and disposal.

The main function of packaging is to protect products, it must ensure the safety of the product throughout the entire path of promotion.

Destruction or damage to the goods may result in losses at a cost not comparable to the cost of packaging.

Warehouse, transport and manipulation functions determine the suitability of the packaged goods for mechanization and automation of processes.

Therefore, the packaging must have a standard size, which facilitates further warehousing and the formation of packages.

The correctness of the information located on the packaging facilitates, and sometimes contributes to the correct storage, manipulation and management of the promotion of goods.

The recycling functions of packaging are also related to logistics processes, because the recycling and disposal of used packaging also belongs to the logistics departments.

They allow us to talk about a systematic approach to taking into account all aspects of logistics processes, including packaging, the listed logistics functions.

This means that packaging cannot be considered only from one side, for example from a marketing point of view. It must meet a whole range of requirements.

Of course, the marketing functions of packaging are considered to be more significant, but the logistics functions are also not the last in importance.

The development of packaging and the improvement of its logistics functions contribute to reducing logistics costs, increasing the continuity and reliability of logistics processes.

The cost of packaging, which is not formally related to the product, should be attributed to logistics costs.

Packaging can have a different design and be made of different materials, with different periods of use.

9. The main stages of creating a warehousing system

The warehousing system ensures optimal distribution and management of goods in the warehouse.

It is necessary to take into account all the relationships and interdependencies between the commodity flows entering and leaving the warehouse, as well as the internal warehouse flows of the object when developing the warehousing system.

Be sure to take into account the parameters of the warehouse, the characteristics of the cargo, etc.

The development of a warehouse system is based on the choice of a rational system from all practically possible systems to solve the problem posed by quantitative and qualitative assessment.

In the course of this choice, interconnected elements are identified that are assembled into separate main subsystems: type of storage, equipment used to service the warehouse, picking scheme, organization of cargo movement, information processing, a stored commodity item and the warehouse building itself, considered taking into account design features. .

The multivariance of the system increases the combination in various combinations of elements that make up the main subsystems.

This means that the choice of competitive options is carried out taking into account a certain sequence in the technical and economic assessment of each of them.

The choice of system is carried out by warehousing in the following order:

1) the actual place of the warehouse in the logistics chain and its functions are determined;

2) the overall direction of the technical condition of the warehouse system is determined;

3) the purpose is determined, on the basis of which the storage scheme is developed;

4) aspects of a particular warehouse system are selected;

5) an assessment of each competitive option is carried out from a technical and economic position;

6) a preliminary selection of competitive options is made from all actually possible ones;

7) a feasibility study of each competitive option is carried out;

8) the choice of the most optimal variant is carried out.

With the help of schemes and diagrams developed on a computer, the selection of elements of warehouse subsystems is carried out.

The next step in planning a storage system is to determine the goal to which this planning is directed, namely: the construction of a new warehouse building; expansion or restructuring of an existing warehouse; equipping with additional equipment or importing new ones; optimization of actual solutions in working warehouses.

Different approaches to the development of planning systems give rise to fundamental differences.

In the first two cases, the storage system depends on the choice of criteria for the storage facility and the identification of its design features, with the help of which optimal technological processes are carried out. In such cases, the starting point when creating a warehousing system is the subsystem "stored cargo unit", and the final subsystem will be the "building", because it is the identification of warehouse criteria that will be the result of the entire development.

When developing a system for existing warehouses, they are guided by existing buildings and their parameters. In this regard, the "building" subsystem becomes decisive for the rest of the subsystems.

10. Methods of accounting and control of stocks of products in the warehouse

If the company always has the necessary quantity for the sale of the desired product, inventory management is carried out successfully. With successful management of goods in the warehouse, no less and no more, namely as much as needed.

Natural is the desire to purchase goods for future use in anticipation of increased sales, and if working capital is not limited.

When picking a warehouse, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of a price reduction, since an excess stock of goods leads to a loss of additional profit when prices decrease.

Therefore, the goods must be purchased as close as possible to the implementation date.

Physical and moral aging and damage during storage entail losses.

Instant obsolescence of goods is caused by design changes, the choice by the consumer of a different type of product, the vagaries of fashion. But a low level of stocks is not very desirable. An enterprise cannot purchase goods at the time of receiving an order from a consumer, as delays associated with placing orders, transportation, and warehouse processing of goods are inevitable. Maintaining stocks at a certain level in accordance with the sales forecast contributes to the stability and rhythm of implementation.

In order to fulfill orders without delay, the company must always have a sufficient amount of goods. However, you should not invest a lot of money to create excess stocks, since this money will not bring profit, and the goods will be useless in the warehouse.

The optimal inventory level is relative and is somewhere between too high and too low. Inventories are not considered as a whole, it is necessary to control each item of goods.

The organizational structure of the distribution network, demand, management strategy, inventory formation and control are the main aspects of inventory management in order to accelerate turnover.

Under the condition of a systematic organization of distribution and marketing, highly efficient trade is now possible. To speed up customer service and reduce storage costs allows inventory management based on scientific methods, computerization of accounting, statistics, analysis, forecasting and processing of all documentation.

Inventory management is usually carried out under various restrictions. There are restrictions on the timing of the submission of orders and their execution, on the economic volume of parties and on the level of the stocks themselves.

Uninterrupted trade at the lowest cost and maximum satisfaction of demand is the task of the management strategy.

Non-stop trading is a type of trading in which consumer orders are fulfilled exactly on time, this type of trading is carried out with the obligatory timely replenishment of stocks.

The lowest costs are possible while respecting the budget, by placing orders according to the most optimal system.

When following the recommendations of suppliers regarding the profitability of volumes and terms of orders, a reduction in the cost of orders, receipt and storage of consignments of goods is achieved.

Achieving the specified percentage of satisfaction of orders on the list is the maximum satisfaction of demand. Due to the impossibility of storing the entire list of goods even in the warehouse system, no supplier hopes for full satisfaction of demand.

When choosing a system of work, the main role is played by the costs of the control system.

11. Warehouse planning

Warehouses differ in the type of storage facilities, namely in their design: they can be in the form of open areas, semi-enclosed areas (using a canopy) or be completely enclosed.

Closed storage facilities - a self-contained building with storage facilities; This type of storage facility is the most common.

The warehouse building can be multi-storey or single-storey. One-story, depending on the height, there are ordinary, high-rise and mixed.

One of the main tasks in the development of the system is to maximize the use of the entire area of ​​the warehouse and its full volume.

During the construction of the building, the features of the warehouse are taken into account, which directly affect its capacity. In modern warehousing, preference is given to single-storey warehouses, and taking into account the rise in the cost of land and the novelties that have appeared in the field of designing warehouses, warehouses with a high-rise storage area.

The total cost of a high-rise warehouse is several times less than the cost of a warehouse with the same volume, but lower height. At the same time, a large area of ​​the warehouse makes it easier and more rational to place warehouse equipment and use technical means.

This means that there are opportunities to increase the level of mechanization.

To create optimal working conditions for the latest high-performance, as well as lifting and transport machines and mechanisms, it is necessary that the warehouse space be unified, without partitions and with a minimum number of columns.

If the height of the storage of goods approaches the height of the warehouse, then the entire volume of the premises is used most efficiently.

For loading and unloading operations outside, along warehouses, and near large warehouses and inside, platforms are being built, to which trucks drive up or wagons have access.

When designing new or rebuilding old operating warehouses, it is imperative to allocate premises or separate zones intended for the implementation of the main operations of the warehouse technological process.

General purpose warehouses need premises: main purpose, technical, administrative, household and auxiliary.

In the premises of the main purpose, zones are allocated: unloading, acceptance of goods, grouping orders for shipment to the customer, packaging and loading.

These zones, as a rule, are interconnected by passages or driveways.

The storage zone occupies the main territory of the warehouse, adjacent to it are the picking (grouping) and packaging zones for goods.

The picking area is associated with the shipping area, and the unloading area is associated with the receiving area.

In large warehouses, the unloading area is usually separated from the shipping area.

In small and medium-sized warehouses, these zones are often combined if the two processes can be separated in time.

12. Trade and technological processes in the warehouse

The organization of trade and technological processes in the warehouse is one of the most important components of logistics, because it affects the continuity of the performance of the main warehouse functions.

In the organization of these processes, two main areas can be distinguished: the organizational structure of warehouses and organizational measures, as a link in the regulatory management of the promotion of physical and information flows.

In the organization of warehouse processes, in addition to structures, certain organizational processes have a significant place. Typical trade and technological processes associated with the work of a warehouse can be called: processes related to the technical conditions of the warehouse and its equipment, fire protection, protection against theft. The distribution function of the warehouse is characterized by its own processes, namely: the processes associated with the receipt and issuance of goods, the placement of stocks inside the warehouse. For the information function, processes related to inventory control and other information activities.

An efficient warehousing system determines the rationality of warehouse processes.

Each of these processes must be known to the warehouse staff, and their implementation is an important part of the correct flow of the warehouse process.

13. Product quality check

Products received at the warehouse in good packaging are accepted for quality and completeness.

Checking the quality and completeness of products received in containers is carried out after opening the container, but no later than the established regulatory deadlines, unless other deadlines are provided for in the contract due to the characteristic features of the delivered goods.

Machinery and equipment that arrived in containers and have warranty service periods are checked for quality and completeness after opening the container, but no later than the established warranty periods.

At the supplier's warehouse, quality acceptance of products is carried out in cases where it is provided for in the contract.

If, in preparation for the sale, trade organizations discovered production deficiencies that were not identified during the quality check upon acceptance of the goods, they have the right to draw up an act on hidden shortcomings and present it to the supplier within a certain period of time.

Latent shortcomings are those shortcomings that cannot be detected during the usual inspection for a certain type of product: they are revealed only during processing, preparation for installation, directly during installation or use and storage.

Quality control of products is carried out in strict accordance with the standards and in strict observance of the developed rules.

If a quality discrepancy is found with the requirements of the standards, the contract or the data indicated in the labeling and accompanying documents confirming the quality of the products, the recipient stops the acceptance of the products in order to draw up an act that specifies the number of inspected products and indicates the defects identified during acceptance.

The recipient must ensure the safety of the rejected products under conditions that do not contribute to further deterioration in quality and mixing with other homogeneous products.

If it is provided for by the special conditions of the supply contract, the recipient calls for participation in the continuation of acceptance and drawing up a bilateral act of the representative of the sender.

14. Choosing the location of storage systems

Large warehouses are best located close to highways, while taking into account that they cannot be built near schools, kindergartens, hospitals and residential areas.

Access roads and entrance to the warehouse should provide the possibility of unhindered passage of heavy vehicles.

Transport must move without endangering or interfering with the main traffic, in accordance with the rules of the road.

Since it is usually forbidden to park heavy vehicles along the roadsides, in front of the warehouse awaiting shipment or loading, a parking lot is equipped on the territory of large warehouses, which ensures the placement and maneuvering of road trains.

On the territory of the warehouse or in its immediate vicinity, there should be specially equipped rest areas for drivers awaiting shipment or loading.

It is advisable to place large warehouses in ground structures that are specially equipped, taking into account the mandatory presence of a ramp, the height of which corresponds to the lower level of the vehicle's cargo compartment.

When choosing a location for a warehouse from among the competitive options, the most profitable is the one that involves the minimum total costs for the construction and further operation of the warehouse, including transportation costs for sending and delivering cargo.

The territorial location of warehouses and their number is determined by the scale of material flows and their rational organization.

It is also necessary to take into account the demand in the sales market, the size of the sales territory and the presence of a sufficient number of consumers on it, the location of suppliers and buyers, the features of communication links, etc.

Allows you to take an appropriate stable position in the market and the ability of logistics systems to adapt in dynamic conditions, which is an important aspect in organizing the work of economic structures.

LECTURE № 5. Transport logistics

1. Essence, principles and functions of transport logistics

Transport logistics acts as a necessary component of the entire theory and practice of commerce logistics, since logistics as a science deals with the management of all flow movements, and material flow management is impossible without its transportation.

Logistic operations on the way of the material flow occur using various vehicles.

The cost of these operations is approximately half of the total cost of logistics.

Given this approach to transport as part of the logistics chain, commerce logistics is considered in different aspects:

1) from the standpoint of the efficiency of individual modes of transport;

2) from the point of view of the organization of transportation from the cargo producer to the recipient;

3) taking into account the interests of the client, not only the main transportation is important, but also processing, storage.

The quality of transportation is more reflected in the overall costs than their cost, so taking into account the above aspects contributes to the optimal choice of transport services.

Transport, being an important link in the logistics system, must be flexible enough to ensure the transportation process to meet changing demand.

The transport itself is divided into:

1) public transport (covers the needs of the national economy in the transportation of goods and passengers);

2) non-public transport (transport of the enterprise itself and transport belonging to non-transport companies).

The tasks of transport logistics are to provide participants in the transport process with technical compliance - this is the consistency of vehicle parameters, which allows you to work with both containers and packages; technological compliance, where technological compliance is the use of a single technology for transportation and direct reloading; harmonization of economic interests and the use of unified planning systems.

The creation of transport corridors, the choice of the mode of transport, the choice of the route and type of vehicle - all these tasks also relate to transport logistics.

2. Basic concepts of transportation and freight forwarding

The main function of transport logistics is to create a system for optimizing the transportation process, as well as in transport and forwarding support.

The basic concepts of transportation and freight forwarding include:

1) activities related to forecasting, organization and implementation of the delivery of products from the place of its manufacture to the final destination and additional transportation services;

2) registration of necessary documents;

3) legal support (conclusion of contracts) for transportation;

4) payment for the carriage of goods;

5) carrying out and organizing loading and unloading operations;

6) packaging, packaging, warehousing;

7) increase in the volume of small and reduction in the volume of large shipments;

8) information support;

9) insurance, financial and customs services.

Transport support is work associated with the movement, movement of goods and passengers, the provision of loading and unloading services and storage services.

The transportation technology consists in the sequence of technological operations in the course of the transport process.

Forwarding support is part of the process of movement of goods from the producer to the consumer and includes a number of additional works, without which the transportation process cannot be started and completed.

3. Types of transportation of goods

Information about the characteristic features of various modes of transport is the basis for choosing the mode of transport that is optimal for a particular transportation.

According to the number of modes of transport involved in the transportation, delivery systems are divided into single-type and multi-type.

Unimodal transportation is referred to as single-species, multimodal and intermodal transportations to multi-species.

Unimodal transportation, unlike intermodal and multimodal transportation, is carried out by transport of the same type. Multimodal transportation is carried out, as a rule, within the country, intermodal transportation is a system for delivering goods in international traffic.

4. Advantages and disadvantages of individual modes of transport

All of the listed types of transportation have their differences, but along with this they also have similarities, they have a common technological basis in the form of specific technological schemes.

Consider the main advantages and disadvantages of various modes of transport.

Road transport is involved in the transportation of goods over a relatively short distance (within 200-300 km), the main advantage of this type of transport is its good maneuverability, which makes it possible to deliver goods door-to-door.

This type of transport makes it possible to ensure the regularity of delivery, as well as to carry out deliveries in small batches. There are less stringent requirements for packaging.

It should also be noted the speed of delivery of goods and passengers, in terms of its speed characteristics it is second only to air transport.

The main disadvantages are:

1) high cost of transportation;

2) the likelihood of theft of cargo and theft of the vehicle itself;

3) light load capacity;

4) poor condition of roads and their insignificant length;

5) expensive maintenance, high cost of material and technical base;

6) motor transport is environmentally unfavorable, which reduces the possibility of its use.

But, despite the listed shortcomings, road transport actively provides freight transportation for all services of the national economy.

Road transport performs most of the passenger movements over short distances, in suburban traffic, as well as in intercity transportation at a distance of up to 500 km.

Rail transport is well suited for the transport of various consignments in any weather. The organization of transportation by this type of transport is regular and carried out over long distances.

The key advantage is the relatively low cost and availability of discounts.

Also, a positive aspect is the possibility of laying railway lines in almost any territory of the country and the high carrying and throughput capacity of railways.

Railway transport is characterized by relatively high economic indicators and a fairly advanced transportation technology.

For an objective assessment, it is necessary to list the shortcomings, these include: a limited number of carriers, the impossibility of delivery in the absence of railways.

The use of rail transport is beneficial in the transportation of goods (coal, mineral fertilizers, metals, etc.) over long and medium distances, between enterprises that have railroad tracks. In some cases, the use of rail transport is beneficial even with a small turnover.

Maritime transport plays an important role in the development and strengthening of economic ties with foreign countries, it is the largest carrier in international transportation.

Compared with other types of transport, maritime transport has a number of positive differences in providing mass intercontinental transportation.

Sea routes do not require additional costs, so this transport does not need additional capital investments.

This transport is characterized by: low cost of transportation, unlimited capacity.

The disadvantages of maritime transport include:

1) dependence on natural and navigational conditions;

2) the need to build a complex port economy;

3) low speed and strict packaging requirements.

Maritime transport is associated with overseas transportation and delivery of goods for import and export to countries with trade ties.

Inland water transport is characterized by low freight rates and is an important link in the overall transport system in areas where there are rivers.

River transport is distinguished by a large carrying capacity, low cost of transportation, and low capital investments.

The disadvantages are the limitation of the use of rolling stock associated with the seasonality of work, the lengthening of the routes of cargo, the low speed of transportation. River transport is efficient in areas where there are no other modes of transport.

Air Transport. The main advantage is speed. Also, air transport is distinguished by the possibility of reaching remote areas, high safety of cargo.

Air transport is mainly engaged in passenger transportation, cargo transportation carried out by it, in comparison with the volume of transportation carried out by other modes of transport, has a small weight.

Air transport is engaged in the delivery of goods to industrial centers and the delivery of vegetables, fruits and other perishable products to the northern regions, as well as mail and other valuable goods.

The high cost of transportation is the main disadvantage of this type of transport. The disadvantages include dependence on weather conditions.

Pipeline transport. Pipelines are divided into oil pipelines, product pipelines and gas pipelines. This type of transport provides low cost with high throughput and a high degree of cargo safety. The disadvantage of pipeline transport is the small amount of goods to be transported. Pipeline transport is engaged in the pumping of oil and gas from fields, the movement of oil distillation products.

5. Transport documentation

The main documents regulating the rules of transportation are the Charter of the Railways of the Russian Federation, inland waterway, road transport, the Merchant Shipping Code.

The statutes and the Code define the obligations and rights, as well as the responsibility of transport organizations and citizens using transport. They regulate the relationship of transport organizations with each other and with consumers of products.

When transporting goods, a contract is concluded in the form of an agreement under which the carrier assumes the obligation to deliver the goods by its own means from the place of destination to the final destination on time, and the sender undertakes to pay a fixed fee for transportation.

There are different contracts for different types of transportation.

The contract for the carriage of goods by rail is a waybill, which is drawn up by the sender of the goods. Road bill - a document that accompanies the cargo on the way.

Wagon sheet - a document drawn up for each loaded wagon.

In liner shipping, the contract is a bill of lading, which simultaneously serves as a carrier's receipt of receipt of the goods.

Bills of lading can be registered (drawn up for a specific recipient), order, bearer (valid upon presentation).

In foreign navigation, with a non-linear form of navigation, the contract is drawn up by a charter.

When transported by sea, the primary document is a loading order.

In direct, water or mixed traffic, a waybill is used instead of a loading order.

Waybills are issued for towing rafts and other floating objects, transportation by air.

For motor transport organizations, a standard contract has been established. A truck driver, when the car leaves for a flight, is issued a waybill, which is the main document for accounting for work, it is issued, as a rule, for one day and returned at the end of work.

The bill of lading is the basis for the customer's settlements with the motor transport company.

The list of documents required for the transportation of goods: waybill, waybills, power of attorney for transportation, specification, invoice of the supplier, power of attorney for transportation, summary sheets.

6. Transport management

At the federal level, the Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation is the central link in the state transport management system.

The creation of management structures and the distribution of functions and powers between them presupposes the existence of an organization of a system of state regulation of transport activities.

The Ministry of Transport of the Russian Federation has its own central office and departments for modes of transport and road facilities. Departments of transport carry out a thorough analysis of the state and trends in the development of the sub-sector, in accordance with the unified state policy, develop a policy for the development of transport in the region.

The central apparatus deals with strategic problems, develops, prepares, and coordinates draft laws and regulations, and their implementation on the spot is carried out by independent centers of power in the form of local administrations. The emerging system of territorial management of transport operation consists of transport administration bodies, non-administrative economic and financial divisions and coordination structures.

7. Routing of cargo flows

An important logistics method in determining the optimal route is total cost analysis.

The forwarding agent of the cargo owner is engaged in the development of the optimal route upon receipt of an order for the provision of transport services for the transportation of a new cargo for him or a familiar cargo in a new direction.

Upon completion of the preliminary assessment, several competitive options are determined, each of which is further analyzed to select the final optimal option.

Not only the cost of transportation is taken into account, but also the time of transportation, the possibility of unforeseen expenses, delays in transit and the likelihood of damage to the cargo.

After determining the optimal route option, the forwarder selects the participants in the transportation and concludes the necessary contracts.

8. Transport and logical chains, information support

The principles of logistics are most simply applied to the transportation of bulk goods (coal, iron ore, oil products).

Transport and logistics chains are most effectively implemented in the field of cargo transportation. The development of competition between market participants for quality service at minimal cost, the development of integration processes between enterprises of various industries, the use of the latest information technologies that have great potential for positive management - all this contributes to the formation of new organizational forms of interaction between supply chains and networks.

Until recently, market orientation was considered the main success factor, but for the profitability of enterprises, it is necessary to choose and combine resources correctly.

It was the resource orientation that was formed in economically developed countries, which inevitably led to an understanding of the need for unified (integrated) logistics.

The characteristic features of integrated logistics have a direct impact on the efficiency and productivity of the transport system, as well as on the quality of its functioning.

Features are in the accounting and use of resources that competitors do not have, in the ability of customers, paying for additional services, to derive additional benefits for themselves, maintaining stability in the long term.

Summarizing all of the above, we can conclude: using the "value chain", the logistics approach is focused on all participants in the commodity and logistics process. The value chain consists of four links: communication with suppliers, consumers, technological processes within the enterprise; logistics processes within the enterprise between its divisions; unified communication between the enterprises of the transport and logistics chain.

Enterprises of the transport and logistics chain seek to reduce costs due to the rapid turnover of resources, cutting the time of order fulfillment, coordination of transport work with a network of consignors and consignees.

An important strategic resource for transport logistics is logistics information.

Information support allows the most efficient implementation of business goals, it is aimed at the timeliness of deliveries and the prevention of irrational loss of resources.

The use of electronics leads to a reduction in transportation costs due to the positive management of information flows, increasing their speed and coordination.

Depending on the source of obtaining information, within the information support of transport logistics, external and internal information is distinguished.

Internal logistics information includes information about transport services, costs, tariffs, methods of transportation and delivery.

To the external - information about markets, competitors, customer needs, changes in transport legislation.

Chained transport and logistics companies are interested in obtaining correct and timely data at all levels of management.

The information obtained in this way is taken into account as a resource and an independent factor of transport and transportation activities.

The degree of satisfaction of consumer requests for transportation depends on the completeness and accuracy of information resources in transport logistics.

Dissatisfaction with information support indicates the lack of complete information about the cargo, transportation conditions and transport processes, untimely receipt of information on requests, the difference in the levels of training of the working staff that processes logistics information and uses it, the absence or underdevelopment of the communication network, the lack of technologies for monitoring the properties of information resources.

Transport and logistics processes include the search, processing and distribution of information.

Time and quality are key factors in the transport logistics system.

Transport operations are subject to the requirement of logistics, delivery of safe cargo just in time.

A logistics approach is necessary for enterprises providing transport services; The service industry must function in such a way as to fully satisfy the needs of the client.

For the delivery of goods without delay with the least expenditure of resources, a single technological process is being developed and implemented, which takes into account the integration of production, transport and consumption. A single technological process allows for smooth operation of all parts of the logistics system.

9. Delivery and distribution systems

The modern approach to transport as an integral part of a large system implies consideration of the entire transportation process from the start to the end point (from the consignor to the consignee), including the processes of cargo handling, packaging and unpacking, storage and information support for the delivery of cargo.

The complexity of this process led to the creation of special logistics centers.

These centers carry out data analysis and develop proposals for improving cargo flows, distribution of traffic across all modes of transport, picking shipments, and the procedure for concluding contracts.

In logistics chains, during the delivery of goods, technological processes arise that have their own characteristics, depending on the characteristics of the cargo.

Delivery of goods is a set of activities carried out after receiving products for transportation and before receiving them by the consumer. They include the delivery of materials, their warehousing and storage, as well as packaging and transportation by any means of transport.

This also includes operations such as scheduling and route selection. The purpose of these measures is the reliable delivery of goods and the elimination of the gap between production and the consumer. Freight forwarding service is the main part of the process of cargo movement from the producer to the consumer.

The main participants in the delivery system are forwarders, carriers, warehouses, etc.

When fulfilling an order from a cargo producer, the company acts as an organizer of the delivery process, selecting and coordinating the work of the participants in the process, and at the same time is responsible to the cargo producer and system participants. Product distribution involves the work of moving goods from producers to final or intermediate consumers.

The distribution system is based on:

1) the consistency of individual industries and firms involved in the process of movement of products from producer to consumer;

2) the totality of enterprises and organizations through which the product passes from the moment of its manufacture to the moment of its consumption;

3) the coherence of the activities of legal entities and individuals in the promotion of products as logistics providers between the manufacturer and consumer of products.

The set of distribution channels constitutes the distribution network.

With the development of the economy, the volume of foreign trade increases, and at the same time, the volume of transportation of foreign trade goods and the number of passenger traffic increase.

In modern conditions, transport occupies a key position in the integration processes. With the globalization of the economy and foreign trade exchange, new approaches to the development of transport and the search for cost-effective ways to master the transportation of people and goods are required.

10. International road transport

International transportation of goods by road provides economic ties between our country and the countries of Europe, the Middle East and Asia.

The structure of transportation is very diverse. They are divided into two main groups: transportation of foreign trade goods (machinery, machine tools, equipment, raw materials and resources) and transportation of non-trade goods (diplomatic cargo, movable property during resettlement, exhibits, etc.).

International transportation, depending on the frequency of implementation, can be regular and one-time.

International transportation is regulated by agreements on international road transport between the governments of our country and the contracting country.

Carriage of goods is carried out on the basis of permits issued for each flight and giving the right to carry out transportation there and back.

If the total mass of goods and vehicles or their overall dimensions are not included in the norms established and valid in the territory of another country, and also if it is necessary to transport dangerous goods, then, in addition to ordinary permits, special ones are also required.

All vehicles and their drivers are subject to customs control. Rolling stock engaged in international transportation must have national registration numbers and distinctive signs.

Heavy trucks and vans are used for international transportation. Movement is carried out on a through system. The crew of the car consists of two drivers.

The efficiency of international transportation by road is to ensure the delivery of cargo "from door to door".

LECTURE No. 6. Production logistics

1. Essence and content of production logistics

An enterprise at the present stage of development is considered in a long-term relationship with suppliers of raw materials and consumers of finished products; it should be part of a well-functioning logistics system to realize competitive advantages and obtain the effect of production and commercial activities. The material flow from the source of raw materials to the consumer goes through a series of production links and successive stages. Production logistics is the management of material flow, taking into account certain specifics.

The traditional definition of production logistics is the management of information and material flow in the production process.

Territorial compactness is a characteristic feature of the objects of study of industrial logistics, its purpose is to improve material flows within enterprises that provide services and create material values.

Production and logistics systems include:

1) industrial enterprises;

2) wholesale enterprises;

3) cargo stations and seaports.

Within the framework of production logistics, the participants in the logistics process are connected by intra-production relations.

The tasks of production logistics combine:

1) production management, carried out on the basis of forecasts and orders from consumers of finished products;

2) development of schedules of production tasks for departments and other components that have been agreed with the supply and sales services;

3) control and establishment of standards for work in progress;

4) participation in the implementation and development of industrial innovations;

5) organization of the fulfillment of production tasks and operational management of production;

6) control over the quality and quantity, as well as the cost of finished products.

The logistical function in the production of products is to manage the production process.

Identification of highly effective laws of organization of rhythmic production processes, their description is an achievement in the new theory of production organization.

The theory consists of several laws.

1. The law of the orderliness of the movement of objects of labor in production.

2. The law of calendar coherence of the duration of technological operations.

3. The law of the rhythm of production cycles when fulfilling an order.

4. The law of reservation for the production of the necessary resources.

All these laws affect the organization of production processes.

Their use allows you to plan work, maintaining its rhythm within the production departments of the enterprise.

The rational organization of the work of production processes is the planning of individual orders and programs. This combination ensures the rhythmic work of production units and workplaces in the continuous flow of the production process, combined with planned proportionality and economic reliability on time, with proper quality.

Rhythmic work, its organization and maintenance at each enterprise provides it with a number of competitive advantages, such as:

1) cost reduction, guarantee of delivery time, regulation of delivery volumes, expansion of services;

2) the time of the production process: the duration of the production cycle, the downtime of jobs and the time of non-use of objects of labor in production.

2. Production cycle

The production process takes place in time and space. The time of the production process is characterized by the duration of the production cycle. The actual duration of the production cycle is the final estimate that characterizes the level of reliability and quality of production schedule calculations. A change in the organization of the movement of objects of labor in time leads to a change in the duration of the production cycle.

In the manufacture of products, the law of the production cycle is manifested, which looks like an existing set of cause-and-effect relationships between partners in the enterprise's production program.

The law of the rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing products is the connections that arise when coordinating and harmonizing the quantitative organizational and technological proportions of the constituent elements of the production process in space and time and depend on the criteria of the production program and on the characteristics of the organization of production at the enterprise and at each production site.

The irregularity in the consumption of material and labor resources during the production cycle of manufacturing has been noticed for a long time. The unevenness of labor costs in size and structure during the production cycle of manufacturing products is determined by the production method. Therefore, during the launch of the main parts in the machining area, the front of jobs, at the same time participating in the manufacture of parts, is insignificant and much less than the average estimated number of jobs that, during the production cycle of manufacturing a product, are required to take part in the manufacture of parts of a set of a particular product.

The rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing appears as a natural combination of movements for expanding and curtailing the production of sets, and in each production unit - a natural transformation of the scale and composition of the work performed on each set of objects of labor. At the same time, a change in the duration of the cycle of performing work on a set of objects of labor does not change the internal proportions of the distribution of the volume of the composition of these works.

There are several possible ways to change the rhythm of the production cycle of manufacturing a product: static, statistical and dynamic.

The actual length of the production cycle of manufacturing products is divided into ten components. Each segment of the cycle length corresponds to its own area, limited by the line of physical distribution of labor intensity. There are also ten of these sections, which constitutes a variation series that reflects the distribution of labor costs of this type of work for each tenth of the actual production cycle of the product.

This is done for all types of work, and as a result, a statistical model of the distribution of labor costs, or a statistical model of the rhythm of the production cycle, is obtained.

The action with the largest number actually determines the duration of the production cycle for the manufacture of the product. If we summarize in each segment of planning the labor intensity of operations by types of work, we will obtain the distribution of the labor intensity of manufacturing a product by type of work with respect to each share of its production cycle. This will be the static rhythm of the production cycle.

The difference between the dynamic model of the rhythm of the production cycle and the statistical and static one is the ability to set the most likely deadlines for the completion of work with greater certainty.

3. Concepts and principles of organization of production

Logistics as a science aims to increase the organization of production systems, therefore it is in interaction with production organizations as a science of designing, creating and developing production systems. The basis for solving logistics problems are the laws and patterns of organization of production.

In modern conditions, in the concept of organizing production systems, a great achievement can be considered the identification and description of how the laws of organization of highly efficient, rhythmic production processes manifest themselves. We are talking about the law of ordering of objects of labor in production, calendar synchronization of the duration of technological operations, reservation of resources in production, rhythm of the production cycle of order fulfillment.

The use of the above laws allows you to plan and maintain the rhythmic work of the production departments of the enterprise, which implies work in the form of a rational organization of production processes, in which the processes of producing specific parts and fulfilling specific orders of the program are combined according to a predetermined plan.

Allows you to eliminate the traditional loss of working time resources of workers and equipment for organizational and technical reasons, the organization and maintenance of the rhythmic work of each enterprise and its production units.

In modern conditions, the survival of enterprises, the achievement of competitive advantages by them is possible only under the condition of their mandatory constant organizational and technical restructuring in order to bring the existing production closer to the optimal project that would correspond to the achieved levels of knowledge, technology, technology, organization and management of production.

The process of flexible adaptation of an enterprise to constantly changing market conditions, to the variability of tax policy and methods of state regulation is this organizational and technical restructuring.

The process of convergence of the existing model of the organization with its ideal project is necessary to achieve sustainable competitiveness in the market.

The optimal project of the organization must correspond to the modern levels of technology, technology and culture of organization and management of enterprises.

The implementation of the main principles of the organization of production leads to an increase in the efficiency of the enterprise under stable environmental influences, while the implementation of the basic and opposite principles of the organization of production also increases the internal flexibility of production, i.e. the ability to quickly adapt to changes in the production program, conditions for market of goods and services, norms of state regulation.

As a result, a dynamic organizational structure of the enterprise is formed. This is a structure of an indefinite interconnected set of methods for organizing and managing production processes in space and time, corresponding to the achieved level of knowledge and providing dynamic interaction between the elements of the system in accordance with their functional purpose.

4. Logistics processes at the enterprise

Consider the passage of logistics processes at enterprises of three types: industrial, commercial and construction.

In an industrial enterprise, the supply stream includes raw materials, materials, components, subassemblies, auxiliary materials, etc., bought in the capital goods market. As a result of production activities, finished products are created that are distributed through sales channels.

Through the mediation of trading enterprises, these products are distributed in the markets for consumer goods or means of production.

In some cases, the role of finished products is played by products that, in accordance with long-term agreements, go directly to other manufacturers.

Trade enterprises are replenished with goods, which are then sold, often to the final recipients. As a rule, certain consumers act as the latter, but they can be industrial, construction and other enterprises. Typically, such customers are served by large wholesale depots involved in the circulation of metals, building structures, electrical equipment, etc.

Construction companies have their own specifics in terms of supply chains.

Their suppliers are manufacturers or major suppliers of means of production.

It is such a product that can be sold to a certain investor, since finished products in construction are buildings, industrial facilities, etc., it is such a product that is likely to be sold to a certain investor.

At the enterprises of each of the named types, the spheres of material and informational logistics processes are different. In this connection, in addition to template functions and areas of activity, such as procurement, transportation, storage, sale, etc., they perform characteristic or unique functions, which contributes to the need to develop certain organizational solutions and form the necessary infrastructure. Industrial and commercial enterprises may have a developed distribution structure, while construction enterprises do not have it at all. The management of logistics processes must take into account the specific working conditions of a particular enterprise.

The complexity and versatile influence on the entire activity of the subject is characterized by the logistics of the enterprise, all its phenomena and processes.

Logistics processes are closely related to the functioning of the enterprise, they do not form an independent field of activity, but must obey the main goals of the enterprise and ensure their achievement.

The main goal of the enterprise, which distinguishes it from other economic entities, is called the mission of the enterprise.

In relation to the time frame, the goals are divided into strategic, tactical and operational. Although each area of ​​the enterprise may have its own goals, local goals should support the main one, which brings additional economic benefits.

Goals can be:

1) obtaining competitive advantages by strengthening the market position;

2) maximization of the financial result on a long time horizon;

3) increase in economic potential;

4) increase in the value of the enterprise for shareholders.

The goals formulated in this way do not contradict each other and allow different accents to be placed.

Clarification of the goals of logistics processes in the enterprise can simplify the achievement of the goals of the enterprise as a whole; the task of logistics is the effective implementation of these goals.

Logistics activities offer many opportunities for rationalization of costs in various parts of the chain.

The wide scope of logistics processes, having a direct impact on maximizing income from the overall activities of enterprises, can also reduce costs for it. These two main directions, which affect the achievement and retention of competitive advantages, are reflected in the financial result and in the strengthening of market positions.

These goals are achieved through logistics activities and through direct cost reduction. Logistics has an impact not only on the formation of operating profit, but also on the productivity of resources by accelerating their turnover.

The formation of market structures and a market mechanism contributes to the improvement of logistics processes in countries with a market economy.

5. Logistic subsystems of enterprises

From the point of view of logistics, there are no obstacles to representing the logistics processes in an enterprise, consisting of the phases of purchase, production, distribution. And their separate consideration does not contradict an integrated approach to the study of logistics processes in general. It allows you to carefully study both these processes and particular phenomena that are noticed at certain phases.

In industrial enterprises, various organizational models can be implemented, despite the fact that the movement of material flows is divided into the same phases. The application of a certain model is recreated in the promotion of information flows and on the managerial powers of specific elements of the organizational structure.

In modern conditions, there is an increasing awareness by management personnel that the processes of promoting material flows at a particular enterprise are one of the links in the logistics chain. Therefore, the economic results of the enterprise depend on the synchronization of these flows with other parts of the logistics flow of supplies.

This awareness leads to closer interaction with suppliers and consumers. The main efforts aimed at rationalizing the promotion of products are concentrated on the elements of their own organizational structure.

During the period of widespread use in business practice of a wide range of the latest computer technology, especially personal computers, new opportunities have opened up in the field of product promotion management and the introduction of such enterprise logistics functions as sales forecasting and planning, production programming, and procurement planning.

The subject of logistics is the management of the entire supply chain, and the connection of these branches of knowledge becomes very strong. Raw materials, materials, finished products (products), as well as information take part in the logistics processes at the enterprise.

The infrastructure of these processes is also formed by other parameters involved in the promotion of material and information flows.

The complexity of logistics processes depends on the industry orientation, since it is this orientation that determines the nature of the production processes, the methods used and, as a result, the range and scale of material supplies, the variety of production, transport and handling operations, the breadth of the range of finished products sold and the complexity of their structure.

Taking into account the properties of production processes and the technologies used, we can distinguish: enterprises with a hardware-based nature of production and enterprises with an assembly-processing nature of production.

Production processes at the enterprises of the first group are focused on the production of a wide range of final products from a narrow segment of raw materials. The opposite situation is observed at the enterprises of the second group, where a small assortment of finished products is produced from a large amount of raw materials, materials, etc.

6. The concept of organizing production management

The organization and operational management of production plays a leading role in the timely delivery of products and in improving production efficiency.

Modern organization and management of production must meet a number of requirements. The organization and timely management of material flows play a leading role in the operational management of production, in the urgent delivery of products, and especially in improving production efficiency, since they solve all issues related to the use of production resources in time and space.

The organization and timely management of production must meet a number of requirements.

1. Ensuring the coordinated work of all production departments according to one schedule and uniform output.

It is wrong to equate rhythmic work with uniform output. Working in accordance with the principles of logistics is a rhythmic work, which implies the harmonization of all production processes and the efficient use of resources.

Due to the static perception of the production process and the static methods of conducting calendar and planning calculations of the progress of production, it is very difficult to implement the requirement for the rhythmic coordinated work of all production departments of the enterprise.

2. Equipment for maximum continuity of production. The continuity of the production process has two contradictory sides: the continuity of the movement of objects of labor and the continuity of loading jobs.

The duration of all interrelated operations in the production process is aligned to a certain calendar limit. The leveling of the duration of operations occurs due to downtime of workplaces or due to lying tools, or because of both at the same time. In the conditions of non-flow production, the minimum cost of production resources can be ensured by organizing a constant load of jobs, and in flow production - by choosing an option with a minimum time of interoperational soaking of parts.

3. Ensuring the ultimate reliability of planned calculations and less labor intensity of planned work.

At enterprises using static methods of planning and production management, a number of intractable problems arise, such as:

1) lack of production capacity. Production is not on schedule due to lack of labor and equipment, resulting in additional costs;

2) non-optimal production schedules due to imperfect order selection, inefficiency of existing rules for determining work schedules and constant changes in the current state of work. This leads to interruption of production cycles and other detrimental consequences;

3) long duration of production cycles. Compensating for the above difficulties, the planning staff practices the allocation of additional time for the implementation of lagging orders;

4) inefficient inventory management. The presence of a shortage of certain items with a general surplus of finished products, a shortage of raw materials lead to a delay in production schedules, and a high level of inventory leads to high costs;

5) low efficiency of equipment. The problem appears due to poor scheduling and a number of other reasons;

6) deviation from production technology. It appears due to the replacement of permanent technological routes with specially selected sequences of operations, which leads to a decrease in the efficiency of the processing process.

4. Ensuring sufficient flexibility and maneuverability in the implementation of the goal in the event of various deviations from the plan.

The imperfection of the methods used in organizing the management of material flows was revealed in the analysis of the conditions for fulfilling the requirements for management. This is a mandatory requirement that is fulfilled in any way and due to which production plans and programs are carried out.

5. Ensuring the continuity of planned management.

To increase the level of continuity of planned management, you need to learn how to develop monthly schedules for the progress of production at each production site and be able to maintain the production process under the conditions of the drawn up schedule when it is affected by various reasons.

6. Ensuring the compliance of the system of operational management of production.

The task of creating a unified system of operational management of an enterprise with different types of production can be solved if we take as a basis not the type of production, but the form of organization of production.

The organization and management of material flows should be improved within the framework of the operational management subsystem of the main production.

The functional composition of the tasks that need to be implemented during the operation of production, and the designed production structure of the enterprise together determine the organizational structure of enterprise management.

The system school of management considers the production structure as a purposefully functioning system, relatively autonomous in the environment and consisting of interconnected elements.

One of the modern directions in the development of the concept of management is considered to be logistics management, the strategic goal of which is to provide the required level of customer service. Logistics management distributes distribution functions between the phases of production and supply; logistics management is characterized by focusing on a horizontal rather than a vertical representation of management processes in an enterprise.

The organization and management of production activities have been improved for a long time, but the systematized foundations of the organization were laid only recently.

Former structural solutions have become a source of many problems and conflicts with the introduction of logistics management.

Until now, from the point of view of functional classification, vertical organizational structures of the enterprise prevail. This classification includes such important functions as supply, production, marketing and financing. Logistics processes require horizontal coordination, while traditional functional systems are based on vertical links. This reduces the consistency and consistency of the material flow.

Logistics as a science and practice aims to improve the organization of production systems, and therefore it is in close interaction with the organization of production. The laws and patterns of production organization are the basis for solving logistical problems.

In the theory of organization of production at this time, two groups of patterns can be distinguished: production processes and patterns of production systems.

The application of the above laws of the organization of production processes allows you to plan and maintain the rhythmic work of the working units of production.

7. Flexible manufacturing systems

The elemental structure of the enterprise is formed by the object and subject structures of the enterprise.

The flexibility of adapting an enterprise to changes in external and internal characteristics of work is ensured by many factors, the main of which are the flexibility of equipment and technology, the level of training of personnel, and the flexibility of organizing production management.

Distinguish between tactical and strategic flexibility. The first determines the time required for the enterprise to master the production of new products or to create a separate production, which is in connection with innovations in engineering and technology. The second determines the significance of probable investments, effects, volume and period of reconstruction of the enterprise.

The implementation of the basic principles of the organization of production leads to an increase in the efficiency of the enterprise.

LECTURE #7. Inventory Logistics

1. The essence and content of logistics stocks

Logistics processes that take place either within an enterprise or between enterprises cover the movement of material flows and are accompanied by the constant creation of stocks. The reason for stockpiling is to smooth out the varying intensities of the flows that are in interaction.

The random factor affects logistics processes and is the reason for the formation of stocks, it makes it impossible to accurately predict, and therefore logistics decisions are made under conditions of uncertainty.

If it is impossible to achieve synchronism between incoming and outgoing flows, safety stocks are created, the creation of which is justified by the following reasons:

1) the need to insure if own needs or market demand turn out to be more than planned;

2) the desire to compensate for the possible uncertainty of supplies or their delay.

In order to be able to make purchases at lower prices, stocks are often formed. In case of favorable market conditions or due to the seasonal nature of the purchased valuables, stocks are also created. Technological progress is considered a significant factor in the formation of reserves. Its impact on stocks is complex and varied. In the field of material supply, technological progress has a particularly strong influence.

It contributes to the miniaturization of products, the emergence of new materials, types of raw materials and technologies. All this entails a decrease in the physical volume of the final product, which leads to a decrease in the need for materials. This affects inventory levels, but such changes are not necessarily proportional to changes in the volumes and composition of the materials used.

When creating a stock, you need to take into account that an increase in the range of goods on the market leads to a decrease in the product life cycle and affects the behavior of partners, buyers and competitors. The efficiency of production directly depends on the amount of stocks, stocks act as working capital. The fewer of them, the more efficient production.

The continuity of logistics processes at the enterprise is characterized by the amount of stocks maintained, as well as their productivity. Purchasing processes have a significant impact on the inventories of the materials of the production process and on the inventory of the goods of the outlet. The sales process affects inventory of finished goods and goods. The following stocks are created at a manufacturing enterprise: materials, unfinished products, finished goods.

Stocks of goods are created at a trading enterprise. In industrial enterprises with a distribution network, stocks of goods are also created.

The dynamics of inventories is associated with the dynamics of turnover, which makes it possible to reduce the inventory intensity of business processes. The inventory structure should be varied and should allow its compliance with needs to be assessed. Assessing the economic suitability of inventories is also of great importance. Optimally meeting production needs for materials at minimal cost is the main goal of purchasing logistics.

2. Functions and classification of reserves

Throughout the supply chain, stocks are present in one form or another.

Inventories are products at different stages of production and promotion.

The subject of study in logistics is not material resources, but their movement in space and time.

You can consider the stock as a material flow at a specific time interval in the course of applying logistics operations to it.

Stock classification.

1. By place in the logistics channel of products (material resources, work in progress, finished products, containers and returned waste).

2. In relation to logistics operations.

The material resources that are in the logistics channels from suppliers to producers are stocks in supply, which are intended to support the production process.

Stocks of raw materials, materials, components, containers are production stocks. Industrial stocks are divided into current, insurance, preparatory, seasonal, illiquid. In physical and cost units of measurement, production reserves are taken into account.

The size of inventories is influenced by: the need of consumer enterprises for material resources, the schematic nature of the acceptance of materials into production or the continuity of its expenditure, storage features, transportation, seasonality of production and consumption.

Stocks of finished products, transport stocks stored in the warehouses of finished products of the manufacturer, specialized to meet demand during the sale, are sales stocks. They are divided into current, insurance, seasonal, as well as promotion stocks.

Sales inventories are analyzed, planned and accounted for in cost and relative terms and can be considered both at the beginning and at the end of the period.

The sum of commodity, production, transport stocks, work in progress is the total stocks.

Stocks of material resources, work in progress or finished goods that are in the process of being transported from one element to another are transport stocks. The scale of transport stocks is determined by the distance over which the goods are moved, the parameter of the links of goods movement in the circulation process, industry and regional specialization, the time spent by the goods on the way and the standards for the delivery of goods.

A specific warehouse stock, formed without a logistical storage operation, is a cargo handling.

3. By functional purpose.

These are current stocks, which are the main part of the production and commodity stocks needed to ensure the continuity of production or sales between two deliveries. They are usually calculated from the delivery interval.

The safety stock is designed to reduce monetary risks combined with unforeseen fluctuations in demand for finished products, failure to fulfill contractual promises for the supply of material raw materials, disruptions in production and technological cycles and other unforeseen circumstances if the need cannot be temporarily satisfied in the usual way.

In order to protect against possible price increases, speculative reserves are created.

Preparatory stock. This is a part of the production stock, specialized for the preparation of material raw materials ready for production or personal consumption of products, which is formed during the acceptance, clearance of goods, loading and unloading, additional preparation for consumption.

The size of the preparatory stocks depends on the length of time required for the implementation of logistics operations to prepare material resources for consumption, as well as on the scale of their average daily consumption.

Seasonal stock. These are stocks of material resources and finished products, formed and maintained with clearly expressed seasonal fluctuations in demand or the nature of production and transportation.

They ensure the good functioning of enterprises during the seasonal break in production, consumption and transportation.

The size of the seasonal stock is determined as the product of the size of the average daily use of a certain type of material resource or finished products by the time of a break in receipt or consumption.

Stocks of promotion of finished products are accumulated and maintained in distribution channels for a quick response to the marketing policy of the movement of goods to the market pursued by the enterprise.

These stocks should satisfy the possible sharp increase in demand for the finished product of the firm.

Illiquid stocks. These are goods that have not been sold for a long period of time. They appear due to the deterioration of the quality of the goods during storage, its obsolescence, expiration of the shelf life.

In relation to links in the logistics system or logistics intermediaries, inventories are classified as held by suppliers, customers or resellers.

In the economic activity of industrial and commercial enterprises, stocks can play both a positive and a negative role. The positive role of stocks is to ensure the continuity of the production and marketing process - being a special buffer, they smooth out unforeseen fluctuations in demand, disruptions in supply and the production process, and increase the reliability of logistics management.

Stocks are used to weaken the non-production dependence between the supplier, producer and consumer, which allow the production of raw materials supplied in size-efficient batches, as well as the processing of raw materials into finished products in batches of a specific size.

Stocks of raw materials weaken the dependence of the manufacturer on the supplier of raw materials, stocks of finished products reduce the dependence of the manufacturer on the consumer, stocks of semi-finished products that are still in the process of production reduce the dependence of individual shops on each other. In a production where materials are processed in autonomous batches, an inter-shop stock of semi-finished products is needed.

Stock types.

1. The buffer stock is formed between the supplier and the consumer. It is used to balance the costs associated with the movement of materials, to reduce the dependence of the consumer on the supplier, to be able to purchase products and produce them in batches of the optimal size.

2. Stocks of finished products ensure the production of products in batches of the optimal size, satisfy the anticipated demand, and compensate for deviations in actual demand from the forecast.

3. Stocks to meet expected demand are made to meet forecast demand. Determination of such stocks does not cause any special difficulties, since the magnitude and time of demand are known.

4. Safety stock helps meet unexpected increases in demand. The presence of these reserves compensates for the discrepancy between the forecasted demand and the actual one.

3. Optimization and regulation of inventories

Stocks are formed from various goods. The concept of "goods" in logistics includes the actual goods. It can be expressed in a specific characteristic form of the product.

A group of goods that are interconnected by at least one feature is a product range, where a common feature is considered to be: a common distribution channel, a similar price range, etc.

The totality of all assortment groups of goods and commodity units offered for sale is a commodity nomenclature.

A number of positions determine the decisions made within the framework of the product policy: the range of products, the depth and width of the assortment groups, the range of sizes of each product, the quality of the product, the release of new products, the standardization of goods.

Logistics considers the company's policy in the field of inventory management, and commodity policy forms the stock of goods in the company.

"Just in time" is a method that is applied in logistics to all components of entrepreneurship, including the production, shipping and purchase of goods. The point of this method is that all unwanted inventory should be kept to a minimum. A non-logistic policy assumes that products are stocked "just in case" so that unforeseen demand can be met.

This policy is costly as it involves maintaining a large area of ​​warehouse space to store inventory.

In the course of the company's activities, a dilemma constantly arises: to build additional storage facilities on the existing area or to use the funds to expand production capacity and, consequently, to increase output.

Enterprises more often choose the second approach, the just-in-time method covers all activities during production and distribution.

The purpose of this method is to produce and ship products within a certain period of time for their further use.

Another optimization method is the quick response method. This method is a close interaction between a trade enterprise and its suppliers in order to improve the promotion of goods in distribution networks.

Its essence lies in the planning and regulation of supplies to retail and wholesale organizations and distribution centers.

In retail trade, supervision and control over a certain type of sales is carried out, information on the scale of sales according to the list and assortment is formed and transmitted through wholesalers to product manufacturers.

The quick response method involves optimizing the stocks of trading enterprises.

The use of this method reduces stocks of finished products to a certain value, but not below a level that contributes to the rapid satisfaction of the demand of most buyers. The response time of the logistics system to changes in demand is reduced, stocks are concentrated and replenished at specific points of sale, there is a flexible interaction of partners in an integrated logistics network, and inventory turnover is significantly increased.

The minimum stock is the level of stock that ensures the continuity of demand for the entire period of fulfillment of one's own request for replenishment of this stock.

The maximum stock is the stock level up to which replenishment requests can be made and the stock level at the time the delivery is received.

4. Systems and methods of inventory management

Stocks as an economic category play an important role in the production and circulation of products.

There are a large number of management methods, each of which has certain logistical costs.

At the same time, optimization criteria can be considered: minimum logistics costs associated with inventory management, minimum order lead time, maximum reliability of delivery. Consider several inventory management systems.

Logistic concept "Responding to demand" and its variants.

The concept of "Demand Response" is used to minimize the response time to changes in demand by quickly replenishing stocks in those market segments where demand is expected to increase.

The advantages of using this concept are as follows:

1) it is possible to obtain information about the needs of buyers;

2) order operations and delivery schedules for finished products contribute to better inventory management in distribution;

3) knowledge of the scale of sales and stocks of the retail network guides manufacturers in more accurate planning of supply;

4) suppliers respond more quickly to changes in consumer demand;

5) long-term partnerships between manufacturers and wholesalers and retailers are being introduced, which reduces risks and increases the efficiency of logistics operations.

The following variants of the concept are known: the concept of determining the place of the order, the quick response method, the concept of continuous replenishment, the concept of automatic replenishment of stocks. Inventory management systems, as a rule, are compiled taking into account the approximate invariability of conditions, but there are changes in the requirements for material stock, changes in delivery conditions, violations of the contract by the supplier.

To solve such problems, combined systems with the possibility of self-regulation are created. In each system, a certain objective function is established, which serves as an efficiency criterion within the economic and mathematical model of inventory management.

It contains the following elements:

1) costs associated with the organization of the order and its implementation and payment for services for the delivery of the order to the warehouse. They depend on the annual volume of work, the form of work of the enterprise and the size of the order. Changing the organizational structure, the use of automated control systems serve to reduce costs;

2) storage costs. They consist of fixed costs, variable costs, storage costs, inventory processing costs, spoilage losses, etc.

When calculating, they use the specific value of storage costs, which is equal to the costs per unit of stored goods per unit of time. Costs for the calendar period are assumed to be equal to the size of stocks and the length of the period between orders;

3) losses due to shortages. When the supply chain is held financially responsible for customer dissatisfaction, these losses occur.

5. Justification of the required amount of stocks of a trading enterprise

When calculating the maximum stock, they are guided by the satisfaction of the projected demand in the current period, the duration of which is equal to the sum of the time of the optimal order cycle and the average order fulfillment period.

When calculating the optimal order cycle, the optimal volume of the supplied batch and the forecast of annual demand are used.

In the optimal order cycle model, the volumes of certain deliverable lots turn out to be relative. They depend on the difference between the maximum stock rate and the actual stock in stock at the time of order.

The economic lot size is the size of a lot of goods that allows you to reduce the forecasted inventory requirement under certain conditions and prices. The method of determining the economic lot size is to compare the advantages and disadvantages of large and small stocks. The following assumptions apply in determining the lot size:

1) the number constituting the annual requirement is known;

2) the value of demand is constant;

3) orders are immediately executed;

4) the cost of placing orders does not depend on the size of the batch;

5) in the period under review, prices for materials do not change.

In the logistics system, the choice of the optimal tactics for ordering material resources plays an important role.

The system of the optimal amount of stocks provides for the choice of effective tactics of orders so that the warehouse does not become a place of accumulation of stocks, but also there are no costs due to the lack of goods.

A measure of the degree of inventory optimization is the minimum total costs in the presence of a distribution of order opportunities for each specific product and costs per unit of each type of product.

6. Inventory management

Solving problems related to accounting, systematization, analysis and optimization of inventory levels is inventory management. It is based on the study of the regularities of the appearance and expenditure of reserves. The stock is made up of usable but unused resources. The need to solve the reserve problem appears when the number of resources can be regulated. The purpose of solving the problem is to reduce actual or predicted costs.

Achieving optimal proportionality between the scale of production and stocks is one of the main tasks in stock management.

Inventory management is a task common to enterprises and firms in any sector of the business system. Inventory needs to be created in industry, retail, and so on. Any organization's inventory management, no matter how complex the supply chain, must answer the question of how much to order and when to order. To address these issues, there are specific inventory management systems:

1) with certain order size;

2) with a certain break between orders (with a constant level of stock).

Other systems are variations of these two systems.

Let us consider in detail a system with a fixed (certain) stock size, which is classical and simple in its structure. In this system, the order quantity is a constant value, and a reorder is made when the available inventory is reduced to a certain critical level.

This system is organized around lot size selection, which reduces the total cost of inventory management, which is formed from the cost of order fulfillment and the cost of holding inventory.

Order Fulfillment Costs are costs incurred during the execution of an order and are dependent on the size of the order. In industry, these costs are attributed to preparatory and final operations.

Inventory holding cost combines the cost of actually holding the goods in stock and the likely interest on money invested in inventory.

By applying specific data on sales, delivery time, you can imagine the process and understand what happens when you use order rules over a long period of time.

An inventory management system with a defined order size is used when inventory management costs are high and the supplier enforces minimum schedule size restrictions.

In the inventory management system, costs are not unquestionably considered, and there is no specific order quantity. At regular intervals, the quantity of inventory is checked, and if a certain amount of goods was used up during the previous check, an order is placed.

The considered systems are not the only possible ones. The choice of system depends on the following circumstances.

1. If inventory management costs are insignificant, a system with a certain level of inventory should be used.

2. A system with a constant order level is more preferable if inventory management costs are negligible.

3. If a supplier enforces minimum lot size restrictions, it is desirable to use a system with a defined order size because it is easier to balance a certain lot size once than to constantly adjust its variable order.

4. A system with a constant level of stocks is more preferable if the restrictions are related to the carrying capacity of vehicles.

5. If the delivery of goods occurs on time, a system with a constant level of stocks is more preferable.

6. If you need to quickly respond to a change in sales, a constant level system and a two-level system are often chosen.

The choice of these systems depends on financial indicators and characterizes the time of the production process, including the time of the production cycle. The last two characteristics are strongly dependent on the value of the maximum duration of one of the operations, on the average duration of operations and on the inconsistency of the course of operations.

The spatial flow of the production process is characterized by: the production structure itself, the structure of the resources available, the sequence and composition of the labor costs needed to carry out the output when the work program of the enterprise is being implemented.

A change in the organization of the movement of objects of labor in time constantly leads to the same results: the time of the production cycle changes, the total downtime of jobs changes, and the total time spent between production operations of objects of labor changes.

In the theory of organization of production, two groups of regularities can now be distinguished: the regularity of the organization of production systems and the regularity of the organization of production processes.

The description of the laws of organization of highly efficient production processes is considered a great achievement in modern theory. We are talking about the law of the orderly movement of objects of labor in production, the law of seasonal synchronization of the duration of technological operations, the law of resource reserves in production, the law of the rhythm of the production cycle of order fulfillment.

The use of the above laws of the organization of production processes allows you to plan and maintain the rhythmic work of the production units of the enterprise.

LECTURE No. 8. Costs in logistics

1. Logistic costs: concept and essence

Logistics costs are not always accountable in their pure form, their components cannot be considered independently of each other.

They are reflected in various accounting documents. Separate elements of financial processes, logistics processes cover both material and financial processes and lead to certain costs.

These costs (which have arisen in economic practice) are not always understood as pure costs.

Influencing the overall results of production, they affect its financial performance. Let's single out the following groups of economic events, which are reflected in financial indicators and are connected by logistical processes.

1. The use of labor, materials, tools, as well as external (in relation to production) services that are interconnected with the use of logistics processes.

2. Production costs that are included in value added and are elements of the costs of activities, or a component of profit:

1) taxes on real estate and vehicles;

2) costs for nature management;

3) the cost of freezing capital.

3. Reduction of production assets as a result of the inefficiency of logistics processes considered in a contractual manner, for example, for the supply of goods of inadequate quality, untimely deliveries, etc.:

1) losses due to inappropriate product quality caused by the imperfection of the promotion process;

2) losses due to aging of stocks (natural decline, partial or complete loss of consumer qualities by goods);

3) lost profits due to the imperfection of logistics processes, for example, the lack of stocks of materials that are in demand.

The components of logistics costs and financial indicators of logistics processes are reflected in different ways both in accounting and in the balance sheet of profits and losses of the enterprise and have different economic content.

In the balance of the enterprise, the main groups of monetary profits and losses are distinguished.

1. Logistics costs, which are reflected in the accounting of industrial costs with the necessary additional accounting and analytical work to identify them.

2. Force majeure costs - refer to the criteria that determine the monetary performance of production.

3. Lost profit - is not reflected in the balance sheet of the enterprise.

The area of ​​logistics costs is interpreted quite flexibly. Its scope depends on the tasks of grouping and collecting information about costs.

The practical approach to calculating and analyzing logistics costs should be as simple as possible and tied to accepted accounting, costing and balance sheet principles.

Theoretically, the most complete, comprehensive interpretation of the problems is necessary, reflecting the essence of the problem and making it possible to obtain its comprehensive assessment.

Within the framework of the applied accounting system, from a practical point of view, this may be difficult or even impossible.

The determination of logistics costs for each specific case should take into account the practical component, which does not always correspond to the theoretical models presented in the special literature.

In the model approach, logistics costs are divided into promotional costs and inventory costs.

Promotion and inventory are the main areas of operation of logistics processes. They become cost bearers.

Promotion and inventory costs consist of both material and information process costs.

In a broad sense, logistics costs look like a financial expression of the use of labor, means and tools of labor, monetary costs and the negative consequences of force majeure events that arose during the promotion of material values ​​(resources, materials, goods) at the enterprise and between enterprises, as well as during maintaining stocks.

These costs are considered as a component of the costs of the activity of production or its balance, provided that they are associated with the processes of promoting and maintaining stocks, regardless of their place in the balance of income and production costs. This balance does not take into account the more efficient investment of capital.

Until now, the problems of logistics costs in the domestic economic literature have not been considered enough.

For the first time this problem was thoroughly investigated in the works of foreign authors.

However, inventory costs have previously been studied extensively and comprehensively.

In many cases, they went beyond reserves in the literal sense of the term.

A certain part of these costs, especially the costs of promoting materials at the time of purchase, includes the costs of transportation and entry actions.

Logistics costs in the model approach can be divided into the costs of the movement of materials and the costs of their stocks. The main components of the functioning of logistics processes are promotion and stocks.

They are the main cost. The costs of promoting materials and their stocks consist of the costs of material and information processes.

2. Classification of logistics costs

Logistic costs are classified according to various criteria.

1. According to the main aspects of the flow: costs at the time of the procurement process, costs at the production stage, costs at the distribution stage.

2. Classification according to the place of occurrence of costs functional departments of management, which in turn are subdivided into the department of supply, marketing and transport; and traffic-related divisions, which are divided into storage and transport divisions.

3. According to the main components of logistics processes: the costs of physical promotion of materials, stocks and information processes.

4. By type of costs: for material costs, which consist of funds for depreciation, the use of material, fuel and resources and funds for third-party material services, and intangible costs, consisting of the cost of paying for work performed, intangible services, from the cost of using third-party capital , cash payments in the form of taxes and payments, as well as other unplanned costs that are reflected in the monetary performance of production.

5. By economic content: the cost of consumed production factors, the cost of net production, the costs covering the financial result, and lost profits.

The main structural aspects of the classification of logistics costs (by type of costs, by stages of promotion and the place of occurrence of costs, by the main components of logistics processes) are interconnected.

3. Inventory costs

Regardless of the classification, logistics costs in the consolidated balance sheet take part in the formation of the costs of the enterprise and the financial results of its activities.

Therefore, a necessary condition for their reduction is knowledge of the structure, level and factors that determine logistics costs.

An integral component of business processes are costs that are involved in all phases of production and are constantly updated due to incoming and outgoing flows.

This update leads to the need to highlight the phenomena of the formation of stocks and their storage at the enterprise.

The formation of stocks consists in their actual accumulation in the proper areas of the enterprise, namely: inventories in the warehouses of the supply industry, work in progress, at various stages of the production process and at intermediate storage points, finished products in the warehouses of the sales sector, goods in the warehouses of the distribution sphere.

4. Product quality costs

Maintaining inventories results in costs arising from both their physical storage and the freezing of specific funds in stocks, which, therefore, cannot be directed to other purposes and therefore will not bring profit. The physical and chemical properties of stocks change during storage due to the duration of storage, as well as due to storage conditions.

Sometimes changes cause a partial or complete loss of the consumer value of the stock, they can cause material damage to production.

The depletion or lack of stocks in the right place and at the right time, in the formation and maintenance of stocks, accompanied by the natural formation of costs, negatively affects the economy of enterprises.

These negative effects can be called costs due to the depletion of stocks.

With the main operations with stocks, i.e., their formation, maintenance, etc., the essence and scope of costs are associated. Inventory costs can be divided into the cost of creating inventory, the cost of maintaining inventory, the cost of running out of inventory.

In order to highlight the most important components, inventory costs are classified in great detail.

Stocking costs consist of the costs of actually building stocks and the costs of information processes directly related to the acquisition of materials.

These are the costs of promoting the material and information flows of material and information flows at the procurement stage.

When an enterprise is aimed at the consumer, the main share of the costs incurred due to the delivery of raw materials, materials and products falls on the supplier.

This affects the costs and distribution of the enterprise, and is a common occurrence in a balanced market, when efforts are made to improve sales and the enterprise uses a marketing strategy designed for the recipient customer.

The costs of information processes (for the maintenance of supply and distribution services) are mainly the costs of building stocks.

Their allocation to this group of costs occurs depending on the internal conditions of the enterprise, the scale and significance of these costs for the economy of the enterprise.

Inventory costs can vary in terms of volatility. Purchase costs are directly proportional to the size of the purchases themselves, especially if these sizes are presented in physical units. The costs of information processes and the maintenance of purchasing departments remain approximately stable.

Procurement costs, especially transport costs, are sometimes passed on to suppliers.

Inventory maintenance costs are divided into costs associated with raising capital to finance inventory, costs incurred in connection with storage, and costs of inventory aging.

The main part of the logistics costs of the enterprise are the costs of maintaining stocks.

The factors and economic nature of this group of costs are varied.

The cost of raising capital to fund inventories reflects the opportunity income that could have been generated had they not been frozen in inventories. Own capital and third-party capital are attracted to finance the reserves of the enterprise.

The level of attraction of third-party capital depends on the interest rate that the company pays to the lender. This type of cost is entered into the balance sheet of the enterprise.

Costs arising from the use of equity capital are not shown in the balance sheet. But this does not mean that they should not be taken into account when calculating the effectiveness of the capitals that are used to finance the operation of the enterprise.

The interest rate on invested capital can be a measure of such costs, since in the absence of own funds it is necessary to use a bank loan.

This rate serves as a measure of the effectiveness of outside capital used to fund reserves. The cost of raising some capital to fund reserves is variable.

As a result of a whole range of measures aimed at the rational formation of the level and structure of reserves, it is possible to minimize the cost of raising capital.

Storage costs are an important element of inventory maintenance costs. They are interconnected with warehouse functions. You can define the main functions of any warehouse: warehousing stocks, receiving stocks at the warehouse, their placement and issuance.

To implement the first of these functions, certain storage areas and volumes, as well as storage equipment, are needed.

Stocking time can be used for additional activities such as preservation, labeling, or picking.

5. Warehousing costs

The storage process incurs some costs. Classification of costs by warehouse functions: costs for warehousing and costs for actions (manipulation) associated with promotion.

The cost of handling can be further classified as the cost of physical promotion of materials in the enterprise.

This demonstrates the close relationship between the costs of physical promotion of materials with the costs of maintaining stocks and especially with the costs of in-house transportation and storage.

Storage costs are classified by type: the use of components of important funds used in warehouses; depreciation of materials, fuel and energy for the implementation of warehouse functions; wages with appropriate accruals; payment for third party services; other cash payments.

With the rational use of storage capacity, storage costs can be reduced. Also, this result can be achieved by increasing labor productivity through the mechanization and automation of warehouse operations and the implementation of a number of other measures.

Storage costs are relatively constant. The cost of manipulation depends on the saturation of warehouse work. For each specific situation, they can be variable. The total cost of storage is assumed to be fixed.

As a relatively constant component, storage costs can be used to optimize stock levels.

Inventory aging costs combine another major group of inventory maintenance costs.

Events may occur at the enterprise, as a result of which the available reserves become unsuitable for their intended use: technological progress, as a result of which new products and technologies arise, demand volatility. In these cases, we are talking about the economic (moral) aging of stocks.

Causes negative economic consequences in the form of stock aging costs, a decrease or loss in the consumer value of products (regardless of what exactly caused stock aging). The market demand for the products of this enterprise has a particularly serious impact on costs.

The main reasons that may adversely affect sales volumes are considered to be demand volatility, flaws in forecasting its scale and structures, and incorrect assessments of competitiveness.

By carefully studying the market situation, as well as taking into account the scale and structure of demand, the direction of technological progress, etc., it is possible to reduce the cost of inventory aging. To protect against the risk of high costs from inventory aging, a set of appropriate marketing activities should be used.

Stock-out costs show the lost profits that a business could make if it had the right inventory at the right place at the right time. Absence entails failures in the rhythm of production and the occurrence of unplanned costs.

The inability to fully satisfy the demand of recipients results in a shortfall in profit for both industrial and commercial enterprises.

Costs due to the depletion of stocks can be reduced as a result of improving the management of logistics processes, obtaining additional information for forecasting the demand for products and goods, forecasting the demand for raw materials and materials in the volumes of each enterprise.

Costs due to the depletion of stocks - indicators of incomplete planning of business processes, poor-quality estimates of demand, poor management of the promotion of material flows in the enterprise.

Such deficiencies can cause inventory aging costs.

These two phenomena (aging and depletion of reserves) are considered negative, but they cannot be completely excluded. This conclusion is determined both by an objectively existing lack of modern management systems, and by a variety of events that are difficult to foresee, the economic consequences of which are difficult to assess, and which are often impossible to prevent.

6. Transportation costs

As a set of actions aimed at moving material values ​​in space and time using specific technical means, transportation is a component of the technical infrastructure of logistics.

The systemic perception of logistics processes involves a comprehensive consideration, which does not exclude the autonomous working conditions of the transport sector.

Let us consider the functioning of the transport infrastructure from the point of view of minimizing the costs of the uninterrupted promotion of material values.

The reduction of transport costs depends on the choice of the most economical mode of transport, certain vehicles, optimization of routes and duration of transportation.

An important component of logistics costs are transportation costs. These costs for large consignments can be up to half of the total logistics costs.

The costs of physical promotion of materials arise primarily in the departments of internal and external transport management.

These costs are relatively fixed in nature, and sometimes turn out to be variable. These include the costs of fuel use and external transport services, which are directly proportional to the volume of these services.

LECTURE No. 9. Distribution logistics

1. Goals, objectives and functions of distribution logistics

The main goal of distribution logistics is to bring the goods to the consumer with minimal costs.

Distribution logistics is the planning and control of the physical movement of materials and finished products from places of manufacture to places of consumption. It is associated with the movement of goods in the field of distribution. The distribution of one enterprise is in close interaction with the purchase at another enterprise.

The main stages of distribution logistics consist of distribution:

1) orders between suppliers when purchasing goods;

2) cargo directly to the places of their storage upon receipt by the enterprise;

3) actual stocks between different production sites, material flows during the sale.

The main differences between distribution logistics and procurement logistics are that: the processes of product distribution and the course of purchases take place in different parts of the circulation area.

Distribution logistics and procurement logistics have different goals and objectives. In distribution logistics, the contractor is the manufacturer, in purchasing logistics it is the buyer.

The functions of distribution logistics are: profitable distribution, sale and sale, as well as the determination of consumer demand and the organization of its satisfaction, the accumulation, sorting and placement of stocks of finished products, the establishment of economic relations for the supply of goods and the provision of services to consumers, the choice of optimal forms of commodity circulation and organization of trade.

Physical distribution refers to the transportation, storage, warehousing, processing, etc. Distribution logistics refers to the activities of planning, implementing and controlling the physical movement of materials and finished products from their place of origin to their places of use to meet the needs of consumers and profit for themselves .

If logistics is understood as the science of managing economic flow systems, and distribution is the totality of commercial, channel and physical distribution of finished products and services, then distribution logistics is the process of managing commercial, channel and physical distribution of finished products and services in order to meet demand.

The objectives of the distribution logistics of the manufacturer.

1. Ensuring readiness to expand the sales market.

2. Increasing the competitiveness of goods and services.

3. Finding new markets.

4. Ensuring the delivery of goods to their destination.

5. Improved delivery conditions.

6. Establishing reliable contacts with consumers.

7. Control over the execution of purchase orders.

8. Maintaining the right level of stocks, an efficient transportation system in compliance with the required deadlines.

9. The presence of a large number of warehouses in different markets.

10. Formation of additional service points and customer consulting.

The composition of the tasks of distribution logistics at the macro and micro levels is different.

The issues addressed in distribution logistics are: the choice of packaging, distribution channels, a warehouse operator or determining the location of one's own warehouse, the development of information support, transportation, after-sales service, etc.

At the micro level, the following tasks are solved: analysis of reports for the previous sales period, planning the implementation process, organizing the receipt and processing of an order, performing operations carried out before shipment, organizing the shipment itself, delivery and control over transportation, after-sales service.

At the macro level, the following tasks are solved: the choice of distribution channels, the warehouse operator or the location of their own warehouses, the optimal location of the distribution center in the serviced area, and the management of the process of material flow.

2. Channels of distribution of goods

According to the number of intermediary links, all distribution channels are divided into channels of various levels. The link of the logistics system, whose activities are aimed at bringing the product and ownership of it closer to the end consumer, is the channel level.

Zero-level channels are characterized by a complete absence of intermediaries, i.e., the manufacturer works directly with the consumer, and first-level channels - by the presence of one intermediary, etc. Another characteristic of the distribution channel is the length, which corresponds to the number of levels between producers and consumers.

Distribution channels are divided into horizontal and vertical.

Horizontal channels are formed independently of each other by the manufacturer and the intermediary. A separate link of the horizontal channel acts as a legal entity that operates at its own risk and is trying to increase its profits.

This sometimes leads to a decrease in the overall profit of the entire system, which is contrary to the theory of logistics and the principle of economic compromises adopted within this theory.

Vertical distribution channels consist of links between which relationships are established. A common situation is when a participant in a distribution channel is the owner of the others. At the same time, hierarchical relationships of subordination are introduced among the participants in the distribution process, and the channel works as a whole.

The consumer, in modern conditions, has the ability to autonomously choose channel participants who, according to the generality of criteria, best meet his requirements.

Distribution channel planning.

1. Conducting research to collect information needed to plan the distribution of goods and services.

2. Analysis of the compliance of the goods with the requirements of the supplier.

3. Negotiations with potential consumers of products.

4. Financing the movement of goods through distribution channels.

5. Information support.

Depending on the type of macro-logistics system, distribution channels have a different structure. In logistics systems with direct links, distribution channels do not have wholesale intermediary firms. There are such intermediaries in elastic systems.

When choosing a distribution channel, the choice of the method of distribution is made.

The distribution channel is characterized not only by the number of elements included in it and the property of their interrelations, but also by the types of elements included in it, i.e., mediators working along its entire length.

3. Logistics distribution intermediaries

Various specialized transport, forwarding, transport and forwarding organizations, physical distribution companies and other enterprises act as intermediaries in physical distribution operations. Resellers may perform logistics related to physical distribution.

The main place among logistics intermediaries in distribution is occupied by resellers, who, along with exchange functions, can perform many other functions of physical distribution.

It is the intermediaries, from the point of view of logistics, that provide an effective system of commodity flows, using the market mechanism of self-regulation.

Intermediaries in the system of logistics distribution carry out a number of very important functions.

An intermediary is a natural or legal person who facilitates the establishment of business relationships between product manufacturers, on the one hand, and consumers, on the other.

The involvement of intermediaries has the task of improving the efficiency of foreign trade operations. In the event that intermediaries do not provide additional profit compared to the profit that producers receive from selling goods on the market on their own, it is pointless to involve them. But in most cases, the use of an intermediary in the trading process minimizes the costs of the final consumer.

Depending on the nature of the operations carried out, trading intermediary firms are divided into: trading, commission, agency firms, brokerage houses.

Intermediaries do not generate added value by financing the process of passing goods, but they incur significant costs, in particular when agreements include a large amount of obligations of intermediaries for market analysis, advertising, distribution network and maintenance.

All costs can only be covered from the remuneration paid by sellers and buyers, since no additional value is created as a result of the activity of the intermediary.

In this case, the intermediary must not only return the capital, but also make a profit on this capital.

Wholesale intermediaries, regardless of their specific activities, perform a trade and logistics function: direct material flows in the area of ​​circulation, produce cooperation and picking deliveries.

It is the intermediaries, from the point of view of logistics, that provide the optimal system of commodity flows, using the market mechanism of self-regulation.

Resellers are the most important component of the commodity distribution network, regardless of who owns this network.

4. Distribution logistics rules

To solve the problems facing distribution logistics, it is necessary to adhere to certain rules.

First, it should be noted that there are no resources or results inside distribution logistics, but only outside it. The result of distribution logistics is the satisfaction of customer demand and the profit of the enterprise. Getting the result primarily depends on the buyers. In a market economy, you cannot force the buyer to make a purchase, but distribution logistics can, to a greater or lesser extent, influence the decision of the buyer.

Secondly, the results of distribution logistics are achieved by exploiting opportunities, not by solving problems. This means that it is supposed to assess the market potential of the enterprise and make full use of its advantages in the course of promoting goods and services on the market.

Thirdly, to achieve the results of distribution logistics, resources must be directed to the application of enterprise and market opportunities, and not to solving problems. The decision is in which directions of the marketing policy to collect the resources of the enterprise, and not how to remove this or that problem.

Fourthly, it is possible to achieve great results in distribution logistics in the course of true leadership in the market, taking into account the laws of the market and the needs of consumers.

Fifth, there is no need to rest on our laurels. The general direction of distribution logistics, if no additional effort is made, is the path to self-destruction. Therefore, the main problem is the continuous search for a new market niche or new methods of organizing the promotion of goods on the market.

Sixth, distributive logistics without proper management, left to itself, often does not function properly.

To apply the considered rules, specific conditions are needed, knowledge of methods for the effective organization of distribution logistics.

5. Commodity distribution systems

When promoting products, commodity producers mainly face two subspecies of the market: final consumers of products, intermediaries who deliver products to end consumers.

End users often tend to receive products in small batches with a high degree of readiness. Intermediaries, as a rule, make purchases in large quantities.

In practice, the actual distribution of the firm uses both the first and second ways of selling products. There are three main types of shipment to the consumer.

1. Direct shipment from factory stock.

2. Direct shipment from the production line.

3. Shipments through the warehouse system.

If shipments to a specific consumer are less than optimal for direct deliveries, then a system of supply through warehouses is used, which reduces distribution costs and optimizes service.

Such warehouses provide a number of services to the consumer. They become distribution centers that collect inventory and provide a specific level of service to consumers. Typical promotion of products through physical distribution channels looks like this: direct shipments are made to the consumer or another company from the manufacturer’s warehouse or from finished product inventories; goods also arrive to intermediaries either from inventories or from a warehouse.

With the operation of such a scheme, it is possible to return products for revision back to production, so the promotion of products in distribution channels does not always end at the moment it is received by the consumer.

6. Planning the distribution of goods

Distribution channel planning occurs when conducting research to collect information needed to plan the distribution of goods and services.

Preliminarily, an analysis is made of the compliance of the goods with the requirements of the supplier. Negotiations are underway with potential consumers of the product. Funding is provided for the movement of goods through distribution channels, as well as information support.

The process of planning the distribution of goods is the main process performed within a certain operation of distribution logistics, along with transportation, organization of warehouse activities, pricing, etc.

7. Organization of the distribution system

Distribution logistics solves the problems associated with the choice of a product distribution scheme on the way from the producer to the consumer and the method of its implementation by the effective organization of transportation between the participants in this process.

After deciding on the level and structure of the distribution channel, it is necessary to carry out actual calculations for choosing the number and location of warehouses, the essence of which is to reduce the total costs of distribution.

With an increase in the number of warehouses, the service area of ​​a particular consumer in each warehouse decreases by the same amount. But the stock calculated for the same consumer in each warehouse does not decrease in proportion to the service area. Each warehouse must have a safety stock, although with a centralized warehouse you can limit yourself to one general stock.

An increase in the number of warehouses leads to an increase in operating costs, to the complexity of the distribution management system and, consequently, to an increase in management costs. With the increase in the number of warehouses, the costs of delivering products from warehouses to end consumers are significantly reduced. An increase in the number of warehouses means that each warehouse is closer to its consumer and the mileage of transport units is reduced.

There are three widely used methods for solving distribution warehouse placement problems.

The first method is to analyze all accommodation options. With an increase in the number of possible options, the scale of the necessary calculations grows, this process is very laborious, but gives the best result.

The second method is to make unexpected decisions. Based on his experience, an expert expert skips unpromising options, and the placement problem is reduced to choosing from among the remaining ones. At this stage, the choice of the remaining options can be made using a computer.

The third method is called the method of determining the center of gravity.

A warehouse serving a certain range of consumers should be located in the center of gravity of the corresponding system of material points.

After making decisions on the number of distribution warehouses and their location, it is necessary to make appropriate changes related to the plans of the local administration and the peculiarities of local legislation.

It should be taken into account that the creation and efficient operation of a warehouse complex also needs to take into account a number of other components, such as the organization of entrances and parking lots, meeting the requirements of the fire department, etc.

After making such important decisions that determine the structure of the distribution channel, it is necessary to move on to the use of certain performers for certain work on the actual delivery of products to consumers and organize the documentation of transportation processes.

The best form of organizing economic relations for the implementation of distribution operations are sales contracts.

They provide for the quantity, assortment, terms and order of deliveries, quality and completeness, as well as the responsibility of the parties entering into contractual relations.

On the basis of these agreements, it is possible to attract well-known and reputable companies specializing in forwarding services.

Firms involved in the complete distribution process are called physical distribution companies.

8. Distribution channels

The totality of various organizations and individuals associated with the movement and exchange of goods is the channels of commodity circulation. Regardless of the number of levels, distribution channels can be grouped into three groups.

1. Direct, when economic relations between counterparty enterprises are direct.

2. Indirect, when there is one or more intermediaries between them.

3. Mixed, when direct connections arise with a specific group of consumers, and indirect with others, or when contacts with the customer are direct for some types of products, and indirect for others.

In a simple channel, the promotion of goods is created on the basis of direct economic relations with consumers according to the scheme: manufacturer - end consumer. The one who uses the products directly to satisfy their own needs is the end user. This option is used when the manufacturer does not want to give part of the profit to intermediaries or when the product is highly profitable, and the demand for the product is high.

But this option has limitations in terms of time, space and means. This happens because the manufacturer of products is interested in the supply of transit quantities of goods based on the scale of the vehicle load - the "transit rate".

The channel, where the presence of an independent participant in the movement of goods, is called indirect. In this case, the manufacturer loses part of the profit, but despite this, the use of intermediaries makes it possible to optimize the distribution process. Through their contacts and experience, specialization and range of activities, intermediaries offer the company more than it can do alone.

The choice of a distribution channel depends on the financial condition of the company, its image, and production capabilities.

The choice of channel is influenced by the number of competitors, consumers, their attitude to the purchase of goods, their requirements for the assortment and quality of goods, the solvency of buyers and the characteristics of the goods themselves. Of great importance is the qualitative level of organization of intermediary activities in a particular region.

LECTURE No. 10. Risks in logistics

1. Essence and content, types of risks

In any practical implementation, the logistics system, from the process of movement of goods to the processes of moving orders in the market space, covers a large number of heterogeneous aspects, the work of which is influenced by various factors and is associated with a certain risk.

Reliability is one of the principles of logistics. The risk of the functioning of the logistics system must be minimized, or completely neutralized.

Risk is the basic concept of insurance. This term is understood as the probability of occurrence of an insured event, as well as the approximate amount of damage from it.

The risk of the logistics system as an integral part of entrepreneurship has various types.

1. Commercial risk. It is expressed in the disruption of supplies, shortage of products, violation of delivery dates, failure to fulfill financial obligations, loss of a share of income (profit) due to irrational purchases, transportation, storage, etc.

2. Risk of loss of property due to poor environmental conditions, including natural disasters.

3. The risk arising in connection with theft and theft of inventory items, taking into account the theft of vehicles.

4. Environmental risk. It is expressed in damage to the environment, for example, during transportation or storage of products.

5. The risk of civil liability arising from damage caused to legal entities or individuals in the course of logistics activities.

6. Technical risk. The risk associated with the operation of technical means of the logistics system.

Risks and associated material damage can be largely reduced by the work of personnel involved in the logistics process.

2. Risk management

In the insurance system, the purpose of which is to ensure high reliability of the logistics system, the main place is occupied by management.

In this segment, there are groups of factors that determine the effectiveness of management:

1) the variety and purposefulness of control actions on the flows of material and financial resources that affect the process of commodity circulation;

2) a complex of logistics infrastructure, i.e. a system for servicing and ensuring the progress of goods movement.

To implement the above groups of factors, one should not forget about the purpose of the functioning of the logistics system, which is presented in a variety of ways and includes:

1) achieving a broad and narrow balance of supply and demand, ensuring competitiveness and using manufactured products;

2) the implementation of a reliable material and technical supply as a direct injection of material resources into production;

3) ensuring the necessary parameters for the movement of material resources along the path of the flow of goods at the lowest cost;

4) compensation to commodity producers and other participants in the logistics process.

To achieve these goals in a particular situation, it is possible to introduce the following control actions:

1) acceleration of the promotion of material resources from suppliers to consumers;

2) replacement of some material components by others;

3) the use of reserves of wholesale trading companies, insurance of supplies at the expense of commodity stocks on the basis of operational maneuvering of material resources;

4) general stock management;

5) changing the composition of the material flow and the frequency of supplies, streamlining the use of material resources, including the regulation of their consumption and consumption;

6) urgent purchases of material resources.

The above list does not exhaust the completeness of the aspect of control actions. The expansion of this list actually increases the reliability of the logistics operations and the logistics process as a whole.

3. Organization of cargo insurance

For buyers, it is advisable to insure the goods (cargo). In this case, the object of insurance is the cargo, and the insurance contract with the insurer is concluded at the initiative of the owner of the cargo. Cargo insurance is organized as follows:

1) for each individual carriage;

2) for each individual delivery lot;

3) for an annual term, according to the annual term of insurance.

When insuring goods, the conditions "against all risks" or "against an accident" are taken into account, it is possible to insure individual or additional risks.

The condition of insurance "against all risks" provides for compensation for those losses that may arise during the carriage of goods. Under the condition of "accident" insurance, those losses are indemnified that were incurred as a result of damage to the cargo due to the destruction or damage to means of transport in road accidents.

In international transportation, there are cases when the carrier is responsible for compensation for losses incurred as a result of transportation. The carrier's liability is limited to a certain amount in the relevant currency.

The amounts of the carrier's liability depend on the type of transport and work.

4. Cargo inspection procedure and claims

After delivery of the cargo to the consignee, the cargo itself and the documents accompanying it should be checked and, guided by the current instructions, inspect vehicles, containers, packages, determine possible damage, shortage, or total loss of the cargo. The consignee must present a claim to the carrier or consignor within the shortest possible time.

A written claim for damage to cargo, its shortage or hidden damage must be presented to the carrier within the prescribed time limits:

1) for sea transportation - a period of 3 days from the date of transfer of the goods;

2) in case of air transportation - a period of 14 days from the date of transfer of the cargo;

3) in case of railway transportation - a period of 7 days from the date of receipt of the goods;

4) in case of road transportation - a period of 7 days from the date of transfer of the goods.

If a written claim is not presented to the carrier within the prescribed period, the right to claim is annulled, and the transport company-carrier is not responsible for the damage caused.

Author: Mishina L.A.

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