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Psychology of work. Lecture notes: briefly, the most important

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Table of contents

1. Work (The concept of work. The pros and cons of work. The concept of unemployment)
2. Labor psychology (The concept of labor psychology. The relationship of labor psychology with other disciplines. Scope. Goals of labor psychology. Tasks of labor psychology. Subject of labor psychology. Object of labor psychology. Subject of labor. Methods of labor psychology. Influence of labor psychology on production)
3. The history of the formation of labor psychology as an independent discipline (Sciences on the basis of which the psychology of labor was formed. The time of the formation and formation of labor psychology. The initial interests of labor psychology)
4. Practical application of labor psychology (Organizational psychology. Psychological service. Position of a psychologist in an organization. Job responsibilities of an organizational psychologist. Principles of personnel selection. Personnel policy. Rules of conduct when hiring)
5. Methods and tools of labor psychology (Methods of labor psychology. Natural experiment. Laboratory experiment. Observation. Questionnaire method. Method of expert assessments. Anamnesis method. Testing method. Requirements for the results of organizational research)
6. Professional orientation (The concept of professional orientation. Professional self-orientation. Factors of professional orientation. Professional self-identification. Vocational training)
7. Professional consultation (The concept of professional consultation. The purpose of professional consultation. Informing about various specialties. Professional suitability. Professional selection. Significant personality traits. Responsibility)
8. Professional adaptation (The concept of professional adaptation. Elements of professional self-identification. Adaptive professional behavior. Non-adaptive professional behavior)
9. Organizational development (The concept of organizational development. Independent groups. Commitment to the organization and factors of its formation. Types of commitment to the organization. Formal and informal groups within the organization)
10. Labor collective (The concept of a labor collective. Psychological characteristics of labor activity. The nature of a person’s labor. Individual style of labor activity. Labor invested. Group dynamics. The concept of a corporation. Corporatism. Industrial ethics. Professional position. Needs and abilities in a production team)
11. Leadership (The concept of leadership. Labor position in the organization. Position. Components of the position. Psychology of management. Ethics of the leader. Moral and psychological qualities of the leader)
12. Professional conflict (The concept of conflict. Psychological tension. Types of conflicts. Stages of conflict. Professional conflicts. Ways to resolve professional conflict)
13. Labor motivation (The concept of motivation. Theories of motivation. McClelland's theory of the need for achievements. A. Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory. ERG theory (according to D. Schultz, S. Schultz, "Psychology and work"). Two-factor theory by F. Herzberg. The theory of work characteristics by J. R. Hackman and G. R. Oldham (according to D. Schultz, S. Schultz, "Psychology and work") Cognitive theories of labor motivation (according to D. Schultz, S. Schultz, "Psychology and work" ))
14. Job satisfaction (The concept of job satisfaction. Personal qualities that affect job satisfaction. Job satisfaction criteria. Employee behavior in connection with job satisfaction. Motivation, job satisfaction and wages. Factors of involvement in the labor process. Factors influencing involvement in work)
15. Labor mobility (The concept of labor mobility. Types of mobility)
16. Labor physiology (The concept of labor physiology. The history of the formation of labor physiology as an independent discipline. Physiological principles of labor rationalization. Factors of the production environment. Efficiency. Fatigue. Aesthetics of production. The role of color and music in the aestheticization of production. Extreme and unusual working conditions. Categories of extremeness of work)
17. Working conditions (Location of the organization. Care of children and dependents of employees. Design of the office and workplace. Nature of work)
18. Safety measures (The concept of safety measures. Factors affecting labor safety. Prevention of accidents. Occupational diseases)
19. Ergonomics (The concept of ergonomics. The history of the formation of ergonomics as an independent discipline. The subject of ergonomics. The methodological basis of ergonomics. The purpose and objectives of ergonomics. Reliability of a person as part of an ergatic system. Workplace. Working posture. Monotony of work. Working conditions. Psychophysiological foundations of ergonomics. Pros and cons production machines)
20. Work as a source of stress (The concept of stress. Causes of industrial stresses. Forms of manifestation of industrial stresses. Prevention of industrial stresses)
21. Psychological aspects of social and labor rehabilitation of sick and disabled people (The concept of rehabilitation. Legislated attitude towards people with disabilities. Social rehabilitation. Activities aimed at the rehabilitation of disabled people. Design of management bodies for the disabled)
22. Professionalization (The concept of professionalization. Stages of professionalization)
23. Deviant behavior at the enterprise (The concept of deviation. Alcoholism. Drug addiction. Theft. Failure to fulfill duties. Rudeness. Damage to equipment)
24. Consumer psychology (The concept of consumer psychology. Methods for studying consumer psychology. The nature and purpose of advertising. Advertising promises. Trademark identification. Studying the effectiveness of advertising campaigns. Consumer behavior motives. Personal factors affecting the consumer)

Work

1. The concept of work

Work - materially rewarded human activity aimed at creating certain benefits. Work is human labor, and labor is understood as conscious, purposeful activity, the application of mental or physical efforts by people to create useful products or to achieve positive production results, provided that a person satisfies his material and spiritual needs.

The presence or absence of work affects the status characteristics of the individual, the possibility of realizing the potential of the employee. Work can also mean unremunerated financial activity, but supported by other motives - the desire to achieve fame, gratitude, convenience, etc. Work in a general sense is considered an activity aimed at achieving a certain result, and implying a positive orientation.

2. Pros and cons of work

Like any activity, work has its pros and cons.

Work is a source of wealth:

1) livelihood - this includes such items as wages, subsidies, benefits provided by the enterprise to the employee;

2) the possibility of self-realization - the possibility of a creative approach to work, the introduction of innovations and innovations in the labor process, the implementation of their ideas;

3) the acquisition of a certain status - career opportunities, financial position, professional authority;

4) the possibility of acquiring new skills and knowledge, professionalization - work experience in a particular specialty, specialization in any area;

5) satisfaction of the need for self-identification with a certain group - identification with a certain group, defining oneself as a member of it;

6) the opportunity to acquire a new social circle - the acquisition of new acquaintances, communication opportunities at a new level, a new social circle.

Work as a source of trouble:

1) fatigue - constant activity throughout the established working day, and, as a result, physical and moral fatigue;

2) harm to health - the impact of working environment factors on the human body;

3) loss of time - the expenditure of time resources of the individual for the performance of labor tasks;

4) stress - the presence of many stress factors in the workplace;

5) dissatisfaction - the inability to realize the potential due to various reasons - insufficient wages, rigid framework of the labor process, etc.;

6) lack of growth prospects - limitations in the career plan caused by certain reasons, peculiarities of work, lack of proper training of the employee to work in a higher position, etc.;

7) bad team - a discrepancy between the interests, norms of values ​​of the employee and the majority of members of the work team.

Attitude towards work largely depends on the degree of interest in it and job satisfaction. Work, labor processes, labor motivation and labor satisfaction are studied by labor psychology, or organizational psychology.

A certain level of efficiency of an individual's labor activity is based on psychophysiological characteristics, labor motivation and inclinations for certain professional types of work.

3. The concept of unemployment

Under unemployment refers to the absence of work for a certain period of time for people of working age (16 years) and able to work for health reasons.

Protracted unemployment largely affects the moral and physical condition of the worker, reduces his needs and opportunities to find a decent job. Often, the unemployed expects help from other people, relies on other people's solutions, doubts his professional training, avoids solving professional problems, and there may even be an underlying reluctance and fear of getting a job, adaptation to the lack of work and refusal to look for it. Another variant of the behavior of the unemployed is possible, which is characterized by an active position, constant job search, possible retraining and active adaptation to working conditions, to a new team.

The Employment Service, within 11 calendar days after the submission of all necessary documents, determines and makes a decision on recognizing a citizen as unemployed. At the same time, it does not matter when the citizen was fired from the previous place of work and why, how much time has passed, etc.

The following cannot be recognized as unemployed: citizens under the age of 16; people who are entitled to a pension; sentenced to corrective labor; people deprived of their liberty; who refused within 10 days from the date of registration with the employment service from two options for a suitable job, study, etc. If a person refuses to register at a given time, he can re-apply to the employment service later, after two weeks.

The legal status of the unemployed includes: the definition of the unemployed, the rights and obligations of the unemployed, the liability of the unemployed and guarantees of social rights and compensation.

LECTURE #2

Labor psychology

1. The concept of labor psychology

The concept of "labor" is considered by several scientific disciplines. Such as, for example, physiology of labor, organizational psychology, sociology of labor, economics, management, etc., consider labor activity only as a general object, while using specific methods and knowledge inherent in a particular discipline. All these disciplines consider labor activity to solve practical problems aimed at humanizing labor activity and increasing efficiency. As for the psychology of labor, the study of labor activity uses the entire system of data that only exists in modern psychology.

Labor psychology at the moment is an independent branch of psychology that allows you to most effectively use human labor, take into account his personal characteristics and influence on production as a whole, predict the development of industrial relations, and much more.

The psychology of labor is primarily focused on the person and his interests, on minimizing production losses and optimizing labor activity for the employee.

2. The relationship of labor psychology with other disciplines

The psychology of work does not have clear boundaries with other disciplines. When studying the psychology of labor, several categories of sciences can be distinguished that are intertwined and interact to varying degrees with the psychology of labor. These are, firstly, the economics and sociology of labor, pedagogy, medicine (some of its sections), hygiene and labor protection.

Secondly, this is practically the entire area of ​​biological knowledge about a person, a social system, and so on.

Thirdly, technical disciplines that study the design of machines and instruments that are used by the worker in the labor process, that is, tools.

Let us consider in more detail the disciplines that have a relationship with the psychology of work:

1) philosophy and political economy consider in their teachings and research: the subject, the object, the tools of labor, the process, etc.;

2) the sociology of labor considers labor as a process of formation of a person and society, the functions of social labor, social factors in choosing a profession, labor in conditions of technological progress, attitudes towards labor, etc.;

3) labor economics considers labor resources, productive value, labor organization, regulation, payment, labor planning, etc.;

4) labor legislation considers and studies labor contracts, working hours, holidays, duties, rights, benefits of various categories of employees, labor dispute procedures, etc.;

5) physiology, occupational health, industrial sanitation in relation to the psychology of labor study the mode of work and rest, working capacity. Thus, we can say that the relationship with other disciplines in the psychology of work is very extensive. Almost all existing sciences and disciplines cover or pay attention to the psychology of work in their teachings. Indeed, in almost all sciences there is a mention of the study of the human resource, namely, the human resource and everything connected with it underlies the study of labor psychology.

3. Scope of application

The scope of the psychology of work is very wide, since work is the main activity of every person. Many professions provide a wide field for research in the field of labor psychology and are aimed at developing certain methods of working with people of various professions.

At most enterprises, there are rates of a psychologist, whose duties include personnel selection, and conflict resolution in production, and much more.

Psychology at work allows not only working with people as employees of the company, but also contains in the context of solving the problems of employees outside the walls of the organization that affect productivity, for example, family problems. In addition, workplace planning, work to ensure labor safety, advertising, negotiation are also within the scope of interests of labor psychology. Nowadays, any self-respecting organization should have a full-time psychologist. This not only raises the level of prestige of any organization, but also shows both employees and clients the degree of development of the organization.

4. Goals of labor psychology

The main goals of labor psychology are:

1) optimization of the psychological climate of the enterprise, that is, taking into account the psychological characteristics of each member of the enterprise and optimizing interactive processes within the organization;

2) forecasting the possible results of management decisions, tactics and management strategies, which implies a deep knowledge of production processes, taking into account the specifics of business negotiations, a well-organized advertising campaign and information collection. To achieve these goals, the psychology of work uses various tools, which are reflected in the tasks and stem from the scope of its application. In many ways, the features of the methods of labor psychology depend on the profile and specifics of the production of the organization in which the organizational psychologist operates.

5. Tasks of labor psychology

The tasks of labor psychology can be divided into two groups: theoretical and applied.

The first group will include tasks that are closely related to the psychological characteristics of a person (subject). The theoretical tasks include:

1) the study and study of mental processes, the main psychological properties of the subject (considering them in the context of labor efficiency and increasing efficiency);

2) study of the characteristics of labor activity;

3) the study of socio-psychological factors affecting a person, the social environment, the psychological microclimate in the organization, job satisfaction;

4) the study of the emotional sphere of the individual and volitional qualities that contribute to the regulation of labor activity;

5) the study of the disclosure of the subject and his personality in the labor process and the pattern associated with this;

6) study of the problem of motivation, analysis of ways to solve the problem of the motivational system;

7) development of the most appropriate management method; planning tactics and management strategies;

8) preventive psychological work aimed at the formation of a healthy lifestyle;

9) improving the living conditions of workers;

10) improvement of working conditions;

11) development of the main criteria for hiring;

12) development of recommendations for improving the methods of training and retraining of employees;

13) rational restructuring and renewal of professions.

The second group of tasks, applied, which is mainly aimed at achieving the final practical result, will include the following tasks:

1) development of norms, rules and procedures for safety;

2) development of psychological means of motivation;

3) development of optimal modes of work and rest time;

4) development of theoretically substantiated effective procedures for certification and training;

5) development of specific requirements and working conditions in the development and implementation of new technologies, taking into account personal capabilities;

6) development of ways to solve the problem of labor orientation; optimization of procedures for professional training and adaptation of the individual;

7) improvement of production relations and improvement of the quality of labor;

8) minimization of emergencies;

9) work with the norms, values ​​and corporate culture of production, etc.

6. The subject of labor psychology

The subject of labor psychology are the psychological features of a person's activity in working conditions in such aspects as his formation as a professional, professional orientation and self-determination, motivation of the labor process, the mechanism of work experience, quality of work, adaptation of a person to working conditions.

The study of human activity in production conditions allows not only to enrich the theoretical base of labor psychology, but also to delve into the practical activities of the enterprise and make adjustments to the direct labor activity of employees.

It can also be said that the subject of labor psychology is the components that serve as an incentive and encourage a person to work, direct and correct his labor activity, as well as the personal qualities of an individual person, through which the process of implementing labor activity passes. The scope of the psychology of work is very wide, and its boundaries with other disciplines are rather arbitrary and insignificant. We can say that the psychology of work is the core around which all psychological teachings and research in the field of studying the human resource are concentrated.

7. The object of labor psychology

The object of labor psychology is labor as a specific activity of a person who identifies himself with a certain professional community and produces the reproduction of skills, attitudes, knowledge in this type of activity.

The object of labor psychology is the activity of the individual in the conditions of production.

There was an opinion that the process of labor activity includes four cycles: exchange, consumption, distribution, consumption.

At the moment, it is believed that all these processes are inextricably linked and there is no need to single out several cycles, since a person simultaneously acts in several modes.

8. Subject of labor

The subject of labor is each employee of the enterprise directly involved in labor activity and having the opportunity to initiate the production process. It is precisely because of the subjectivity of work that an individual approach to each employee is necessary, the ability to notice a person in a team. The subject of labor can be considered both the employee as such and the enterprise as a whole.

9. Methods of labor psychology

In practice Labor psychology uses various methods to study the characteristics of human functioning in working conditions. With the help of these methods, the selection of candidates for employment, the study of the psychological characteristics of employees and other aspects of a person's labor activity are carried out. The main methods of labor psychology:

1) testing;

2) included and non-included observation;

3) conversation;

4) interviews and surveys;

5) trainings;

6) role-playing games;

7) analysis and synthesis of information. These methods will be described in more detail in lecture No. 5, paragraph 7.

10. The influence of labor psychology on production

The study of labor psychology, labor relations directly affects the efficiency of labor and the emotional comfort of a person in the workplace.

An important area of ​​labor psychology is the study of various aspects of performance related to fatigue, circadian rhythm, optimal work regime, individual adaptation processes for the formation of such working conditions under which the quality and productivity of each individual would be combined with the protection of the health of workers. For this, special methods have been developed, such as tests, participant observation, questioning of employees, the performance of an employee in various working conditions is studied, the method of exercises and trainings in production is used.

At this stage, new professions are constantly being formed, working conditions, forms of work and possible incentives to increase production efficiency are changing, requirements for product quality and working methods are changing. Labor psychology is designed to study changing aspects and recommend the most optimal options for changes, taking into account working conditions, production, ethics and enterprise capabilities.

LECTURE #3

The history of the formation of labor psychology as an independent discipline

1. The sciences on the basis of which labor psychology was formed

The psychology of labor took shape under the influence of medicine, physiology, psychology, technology, and sociology. Each of these disciplines added its own aspects, which was reflected in the formulation of the tasks of labor psychology. Initially, the prerequisite for providing a full-time position for specialists in this field were calculations confirming the need and economic benefits for organizing the activities of such an employee. Work psychology draws on many disciplines and can be considered multidisciplinary industry psychology. We can say that labor as an activity for the creation of material wealth was considered by Marx as the main developing factor in the development of a reasonable person. For many years, psychology was part of general psychology, without having its own subject, but at the moment it occupies a worthy place among the sciences about man, his functioning in society.

2. Time of formation and development of labor psychology

Today, the role of the human factor in the system of professional activity is very high. This is primarily related to the development of society. The latest technologies and technical development have come to the aid of human labor, but still this is not enough for the full efficiency of labor.

Every year, the burden on a person in the performance of his labor duties increases, as the level of information flows increases, social and psychological tension increases.

All this requires a more rigid and responsible approach to the organization of labor, and sets before science the task of studying both the mental and personal qualities of a person.

Of course, much time was devoted to study and research in the field of labor psychology. From the history of the formation of labor psychology as a science, it can be seen that it has its roots far into the past. American explorer J. Christensen expressed the opinion that the concept of the interaction of man and tools correlates in time with the concept of "humanity". Even in ancient times, people already understood that it was possible to significantly increase the efficiency of their activities using tools.

J. Christensen identified two main stages in the development of knowledge about the human factor:

1) "age of hand tools", meaning a historically long period with a slow accumulation of primitive knowledge about the interaction of man and a simple tool;

2) "age of machines", implies a transition to understanding the cognitive aspect of the interaction between man and tools. This relatively short historical period begins in the middle of the 1750th century. and continues to the present. It includes several periods of revolutionary changes in the development of knowledge about man at work. The period of the industrial revolution, which falls on 1870-1748, is associated with the emergence of the first industrial enterprises (manufactories) and the formation of the profession of an engineer. Interest in technology is also transferred to the study of man as an analogue of a mechanical system. In XNUMX a polemical book was published J. Lametrie "Man - machine", in which the author tried to consider a person by analogy with the device of a machine. The person felt like an element of the external environment, which needed to be improved for the convenience of the worker.

The period of the energy revolution covers approximately 1870-1945. The widespread use of power engines has turned people's ideas about the possibilities of tools. At the same time, the issue of human adaptation to the labor process and equipment became more active. F. Taylor develops his famous system for optimizing labor actions.

During this period, the idea of ​​the "best way" arises, that is, the only optimal way to carry out a particular work activity.

The emphasis is on research in the field of professional selection, education, training. Man is considered as a link in the "man-machine" system. The idea of ​​industrial engineering of the human factor is being actively developed. There is a scientific registration of the system of knowledge about a person in the labor process.

The period of "intellectualization" of machines began in 1945, after the end of World War II. Due to scientific achievements in physics, chemistry, mathematics, biology, psychology and other sciences, the question arose of creating artificial intelligence, expert and predictive systems, and computers. This contributed to reaching a fundamentally new level of labor activity in general and, in particular, the interaction of a person with a tool of labor. The main thesis of modern times postulates the creative aspect of the interaction between man and tool. At the same time, personal and psychological levels began to be considered as the central object of attention in the labor process. It should be noted that with the transition of human labor to a new level, the issue of production safety has become acute. To solve the problem that has arisen, aspects of vocational training and management began to be considered. These aspects of labor organization determine the main trends in the development of knowledge about labor activity in the XNUMXst century. This necessitates the deep development of a special science dealing with the issues of the human factor in labor, which was the psychology of labor.

Labor psychology arose at the turn of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. as a discipline that studies the organization and management of work. It is a relatively young industry. The first scientific system for organizing work - Taylorism - was proposed by an American engineer, and later a big businessman F. Taylor (1856-1915). In his opinion, the growth of labor productivity is possible only with the standardization of methods, techniques, tools of labor.

F. Taylor proposed a system of rationalization and production management, aimed at increasing labor productivity through the optimization of labor activities and the intensification of the labor process. Standardization concerned, first of all, individual operations of the temporary mode of operation and tools.

F. Taylor considered stimulation to be the most important aspect of labor organization. The basic principle is the principle of material interest. According to F. Taylor, there is no place for charity in the production system. It was necessary to establish the price of each type of labor, because only in this case it is possible to speak about the effectiveness of labor. The use of this principle has led to an increase in the individual responsibility of the employee for his own well-being and the effectiveness of his work. Labor motives are just as important factors of production as tools or methods of labor. Taylor also identified a number of socio-psychological phenomena that affect labor activity, and for the first time formulated the principles that became fundamental in management theory. Consider a few of the points included in Taylor's principles: the purpose of production is to continually increase the comfort and well-being of mankind; the mission of scientific management is to make a constructive contribution to the economic and social progress of society; the responsibility of business leaders for the observance of the interests of private capital will increase with the development of civilization and others.

It can be said without hesitation that Taylor and his followers laid the foundations of modern management and the scientific organization of labor. But it should be noted that simultaneously with the teachings of Taylor, a number of other scientific studies of labor activity arose.

In fact, the first studies received scientific formalization at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. within the framework of psychotechnics (G. Munstenberg, G. Meade, O. Lipman and etc.). The term "psychotechnics" was proposed in 1903 by a German psychologist V. Stern, who tried to apply his experimental psychological developments in real work conditions.

For example, he developed the most optimal layout of letters on a typewriter, taking into account human reaction time. The founder of psychotechnics is G. Munstenberg (1863-1916).

G. Munstenberg dealt with a variety of issues, which later became classics of labor psychology. Research in the field of professional selection, vocational guidance, vocational training, management theory, ergonomics, professiography, vocational diagnostics, etc. were first scientifically analyzed in the research of this particular scientist. G. Munstenberg laid the foundations of psychotherapy and psychohygiene, studied the mechanisms of the psychological impact of advertising, developed professional tests (for car drivers, telephone operators, navigators). He first tried to model the labor process in order to study it. The multilateral interests of G. Münstenberg in the field of studying labor activity were summarized in the first monograph on the psychology of work, called "Fundamentals of Psychotechnics" and published in 1914. In it, G. Münstenberg outlined in detail three main problems that, in his opinion, should be solved psychotechnics:

1) professional selection;

2) analysis of labor activity in order to optimize it;

3) the study of the psychological qualities of the individual, activated in labor.

G. Munstenberg's research for the first time demonstrated the widest possibilities for the practical application of scientific and theoretical studies of psychology in ensuring the labor process. At the beginning of the twentieth century. psychotechnics began to develop at a rapid pace. Also in the development of psychotechnical problems took part such scientists as O. Lipman, F. Giese, D. Draver, F. Waumgarten, E. Stern and more

In the 1950s the development of the psychotechnical direction has found its application not only in Germany, but also in Russia and the United States.

Quite actively developed this area of ​​research in England. A study of the psychological factors of labor organization and practical conditions, conducted under the guidance of G. Mayer (1920), was the basis for major state research programs.

Particular attention has traditionally been paid to the analysis of individual differences for the purpose of professional selection. A. Vernon's test programs, published in 1947, are still relevant today.

Also, the rapid development of research in the field of labor psychology was received in Sweden and Poland. During the Second World War, the development of psychological science in Europe stopped. This allowed Americans to take a significant step forward in the study of labor activity. American scientific literature is still the most authoritative source on the psychology of work for most European countries.

Second half of the XNUMXth century characterized by the formation of a fundamentally new direction in the study of labor activity. The attention of researchers is increasingly focused in the field of studying the personality of an employee in the organization system. A new direction began to take shape, which was called organizational psychology. Many problems studied in the psychology of labor passed into it. Today, labor psychology deals with particular issues of organizing the labor process, namely: it explores the characteristics of the individual and the ergonomic aspects of labor, as well as employee behavior patterns.

3. Initial interests of labor psychology

Questions of professional selection at first were the main task of labor psychology. The development of recruitment criteria, the analysis of differences in labor productivity among workers with approximately the same knowledge, skills and abilities, but with different returns and involvement in the production process, is reflected in the concept professional ability.

The psychology of labor accumulated a theoretical and practical base, studied a person as a subject and object of labor activity, the characteristic features of an individual of labor, the culture and subculture of various professions, the reasons for professional choice, patterns and mechanisms for the implementation of labor activity.

LECTURE #4

Practical application of labor psychology

1. Organizational psychology

Organizational psychology, or labor psychology - Applied science, where practice, work in the "field" is of decisive importance. The main conductors of labor psychology are psychologists, personnel officers working at the enterprise. Continuous improvement, change in labor processes is their duty, on the other hand, the collection of information about labor processes allows us to develop the theoretical basis of labor psychology. The subject of observation and research of organizational psychology is the behavior of people in the organization, mental phenomena.

2. Psychological service

Psychological service - a structural subdivision of the organization that uses psychological methods in work, on the basis of which hiring is carried out, planning the strategy and tactics of the organization, and further development is predicted. The staff of the service includes specialists in the field of psychology of organizations, psychology of labor and psychology of the sphere in which the organization operates. The psychological service was introduced into the activities of organizations not so long ago, but has already shown its need for labor activity. A full-time psychologist monitors not only the life of the enterprise, but also takes into account the factors that affect the labor activity of employees, and seeks to reduce their negative impact and increase the positive one. To this end, the enterprise creates its own infrastructure, which includes medical care, cultural and leisure programs, the provision of tourist recreation centers for the employee and his family, which allows stimulating employees and forming attachment to the enterprise.

3. The position of a psychologist in an organization

The position of a psychologist in an organization is granted to persons with a higher specialized education. Priority is given to experienced employees with at least three years of work experience. The specificity of the psychologist's activity implies a responsible attitude to one's duties and the presence of the appropriate personal qualities necessary for this work. The presence of the position of a psychologist speaks of a developed, modern enterprise focused on innovation, caring for employees, focusing on modern working methods, and an adequate perception of the labor market.

4. Job Responsibilities of an Organizational Psychologist

In order for the activity of a psychologist to be effective and justified, he needs not only theoretical knowledge and skills in this field, but also experience, objectivity, the ability to analyze problem areas and correctly define them and be able to solve all the problems that have arisen related to the field of labor psychology. The professional skills necessary for the effective work of an organizational psychologist cover a wide range of his actions in the performance of professional functions and duties. He needs to be able to objectively comprehensively analyze the conditions and factors, goals and objectives of the work and life of the employee. Job responsibilities of an organizational psychologist include:

1) the study of the human factor in the labor activity of the enterprise;

2) search and selection of personnel;

3) development of a selection tool - tests, questionnaires, interviews, etc.;

4) monitoring the skills of employees;

5) assistance in organizing labor and workplace of employees;

6) participation in the development of product design;

7) development of the company's brand;

8) advertising of the organization's products;

9) conducting marketing research of the market, which receives the organization's products.

The activity of the psychologist is aimed at achieving the maximum efficiency of the work of employees, the quality, convenience and external attractiveness of the company's products and ensuring that the organization is recognizable and respected in the market.

5. Principles of personnel selection

One of the important tasks in labor psychology is the development, substantiation and application of a system of professional psychological selection. Assessing the professionalism of a candidate for a vacant position or an already working employee and determining professional suitability - this is what professional selection is mainly aimed at. Research in this area has been going on for more than a hundred years, and they have brought positive results. It was found that individual psychological, physiological characteristics, professional training, and other characteristics are associated with indicators of productivity and labor safety.

G. Munstenberg introduced professional selection and made a huge contribution to its popularization. It cannot be said that it was G. Münstenberg who became the founder of professional selection, since many psychologists were engaged in it before him. But it was he who proved the advantage of the scientific experimental psychological approach in identifying the professionalism of employees in comparison with intuitive or worldly ideas. The followers of G. Munstenberg used somewhat different methods during the professional selection, namely: they studied professional selection using the methods of differential psychology, while only some functions were studied, for example, memory, attention. Also, studies of neuropsychic stress in the course of work were actively used and experiments were carried out to study the candidate, etc.

The emergence of professional selection significantly reduced the time employers spent on incompetent employees, as it made it possible to overcome the inconsistency between the candidate and the position, profession, and the professional selection method helped to achieve high results in labor efficiency, while achieving maximum employee satisfaction in the performance of labor activity.

In this regard, it seems necessary to define professional selection. Under professional selection is understood as a set of measures that is aimed at a specific person to identify his health, psychological and physical characteristics, his level of education and degree of learning.

During the "examination" of a person, professional selection includes not only an analysis of his professionalism, but also medical, physiological and mental aspects.

Psychological professional selection can be called a specialized procedure that allows you to determine the degree of development of the totality of the psychological qualities of a person. The right approach to professional selection can largely reduce financial costs and staff turnover, which is important.

One of the aspects of the work of an organizational psychologist is the selection of personnel.

The principles of personnel selection are divided into:

1) methods of recruiting;

2) advertisements on the Internet, newspapers - the most effective way of recruitment in modern conditions;

3) recommendations from acquaintances and relatives already working in the organization;

4) direction of the employment service;

5) meetings with graduate students of the required specialty;

6) offers to transfer to work for employees of other organizations.

The personal qualities of a recruiter are of decisive importance, especially for those who first get a job. The candidate agrees or disagrees depending on the behavior, friendliness, ability to listen and the provision of complete information about the company by the HR psychologist.

Usually candidate selection methods include:

1) testing;

2) survey;

3) personal interview. In addition, the presence of letters of recommendation, work experience, compliance with the work profile is taken into account.

Testing usually includes the SMIL test (a standardized multivariate personality test), the Luscher color test, the anxiety level test, and some other tests.

Testing is designed to identify some of the personal characteristics of the candidate for compliance with professional requirements. The survey is aimed at identifying the candidate's biographical data, work experience and behavior in the previous job, reasons for dismissal, etc. A personal interview allows you to form a certain impression about the candidate.

6. Personnel policy

HR policy should be aimed at strengthening the stimulating role of remuneration, the creation of modern methods and technologies for personnel selection, the development of personnel development programs, the development of a social program, and much more.

Personnel policy should not be discriminatory.

Discrimination - infringement of the interests of the employee on any grounds. Discrimination factors:

1) gender - women's work is usually less paid, and women, especially young women, are usually reluctant to hire because of the possible birth of a child and maternity leave;

2) age - employers tend to provide jobs to people from 25 to 45 years old, older or younger people usually find it difficult to find a job, because they either do not have experience or are considered unpromising (old) workers due to the fact that early retirement is possible , frequent absences due to illness, etc.;

3) nationality (race);

4) place of residence and registration;

5) state of health - negative attitudes towards people who have health problems and, therefore, do not perform work duties to the full extent;

6) sexual orientation;

7) external data;

8) religious beliefs.

7. Rules of conduct when applying for a job

Depending on how the first meeting goes, perhaps with a future employer, your future career and the success of building it in this organization depend.

At the interview, an opportunity is provided to show oneself from the best side: to arrive on time, dressed appropriately, to show off the knowledge of good manners. In a situation where the head or recruiting manager of the organization you came for an interview was a little late and came to you at the wrong time, try not to show your displeasure and indignation, as you need to make a positive impression.

Before you go to an interview, try to determine what your goal is during your first meeting with a potential employer. Try to be like your interlocutor, be his equal. Present yourself as a successful, career- and personal-achieving employee. The initial opinion about a person consists of the following components: a neat hairstyle, clean shoes, business-style clothes, a pleasant smell should accompany you, nails should be well-groomed.

When meeting with the person who will conduct the interview, thank him for his time, shake his hand. Do not forget that you came to the interview, and after greeting and shaking hands, wait until your interlocutor invites you to sit down and indicates where. In order for the interview to be positive and you "do not lose face", follow the following rules:

1) try to sit straight in a chair, do not pinch, behave confidently;

2) do not take any objects from the table of your interlocutor, do not touch anything on the table at which your interlocutor is sitting;

3) do not look into his papers lying on the table;

4) Listen carefully and answer briefly. Try to pronounce all the words clearly; if you have problems with speech, then before the interview you better practice in front of the mirror - this will allow you not only to behave more confidently, but also help you to some extent get rid of "parasite words";

5) try not to gesticulate strongly - this may not only not please your interlocutor, but also show you not from the best side.

If your interlocutor behaves too relaxed and allows himself to emotionally gesticulate, raise his voice, etc., do not pay attention, as this can only be a provocation and a test for you, something like a test of reaction in a stressful situation;

6) at the end of the interview, in one sentence, emphasize your desire to work in this organization.

Following these simple rules, you can perfectly present yourself, perhaps to a future employer.

LECTURE #5

Methods and tools of labor psychology

1. Methods of labor psychology

Under method is understood as a system of theoretical and practical actions, models for the study of certain problems and directly the practical activity of a psychologist. The psychology of labor contains a huge number of general psychological methods, while introducing content into them that is characteristic only for the psychology of labor. This is primarily due to the fact that in the psychology of labor there is a rather specific object and purpose of research. In the psychology of labor, a number of specific methods are used to study and study the personality of a person, his behavior in his work activity.

The methods applied and used in labor psychology can be divided into two large groups: experimental and non-experimental.

As you know, the experimental method is the fundamental method of psychology. It lies in the fact that research and analysis of this or that action, events take place in a specially created environment or in a natural environment for this action. All actions observed and studied by this method can be corrected, certain conditions can be created, the result is accurate and clearly visible. As for the experimental method, it can be considered from different aspects of its organization, namely: the natural and laboratory ways of organizing an experiment.

2. Natural experiment

natural experiment It is carried out only in natural, familiar working conditions for the subject, where his working day and labor activity usually take place.

It can be a desktop in an office, a carriage compartment, a workshop, an institute auditorium, an office, a truck cab, etc.

When using this method, the subject of the study may not know that some kind of study is currently taking place. This is necessary for the "purity" of the experiment, because when a person does not know that he is being observed, he behaves naturally, relaxed and without embarrassment. It's like in a reality show: when you know that you are being filmed, you will never allow yourself to do what you could do without cameras (swearing, immoral behavior, etc.).

An example of a natural experiment is an artificially created fire situation in a hospital in order to look at and analyze the actions of the attendants, i.e. doctors, if necessary, correct their actions and point out errors so that, under real circumstances, all hospital staff know how to behave and managed to provide the necessary assistance. The advantage of this method is that all actions take place in a familiar working environment, but the results obtained can be used to solve practical problems. But this method of experiment also has negative aspects: the presence of uncontrollable factors, the control of which is simply impossible, as well as the fact that it is necessary to obtain information in the shortest possible time, otherwise the production process will be disrupted.

3. Laboratory experiment

Laboratory experiment takes place in an artificially created situation, as close as possible to the professional activity of the subject. This model allows you to establish control over the course of observation, regulate actions, create the necessary conditions, and allows you to repeatedly reproduce this or that experiment in the same place under the same conditions. A laboratory experiment is most often used to simulate a situation or one aspect of work, thorough analysis and research.

In order to conduct a laboratory experiment in production, it is necessary that the psychologist carefully study the labor activity of the subject in the real conditions of his work.

The psychologist needs to highlight the key points of the subject's labor activity, identify its features, etc.

To conduct an experiment, it is necessary to have accurate information, to study all possible errors, the causes of these errors and solutions. Like a natural experiment, the laboratory one has its drawbacks. The difficulty lies in the fact that it is necessary to develop and artificially create a situation to the smallest detail, and the subject himself is in a new environment, he is lost, cannot concentrate, which significantly reduces the efficiency and rationality of the experiment.

4. Surveillance

The most common method used in non-experimental methods is watching. In the process of observation, the psychologist receives all the necessary information about the manifestations of labor behavior in various situations, about communication processes, about working conditions, etc.

Traditionally, it is customary to distinguish two types of observation: external and internal.

External, also called direct, allows you to accurately describe the methods and actions of the employee and compare with normative goals. Usually direct observation is planned and carried out exactly according to the plan. The method of observation boils down to the fact that individual elements are singled out from real labor activity and the observation of precisely the selected elements is carried out according to a clearly drawn up plan in advance. All information obtained during the observation is recorded. For the observation process, the comparison approach is important, which involves the study of the behavior of people standing at different career levels, with different length of service, of different age categories. This comparison reveals the so-called reason for the successful career of some and the failure of others.

The disadvantages of the observation method are the masking of shortcomings, often the inaccessibility of important elements.

For a more precise, objective and clear picture, methods such as "photography" of the working day, timing, self-observation and analysis of the results of labor activity are widely used.

Timing, as a rule, serves to determine and analyze labor standards and determine their duration.

It is expedient to clock auxiliary technical and logical operations - both manual and machine-manual, related to the operational or preparatory-final period.

Timing is used for:

1) determination, and sometimes the establishment of time standards that are necessary for the performance of labor operations. Basically, the time standards established for performing a certain type of operation depend on the degree of complexity of individual elements;

2) checking the already existing documented time standards and the degree of their implementation in labor activity;

3) identifying the reason for non-compliance with established standards;

4) determining labor costs when operations are too short and cannot be fixed by other methods.

For timekeeping, a regular or graphical form of a chronocard is used. Before conducting timing, the psychologist needs to inform the employee and talk about the tasks and goals of the upcoming timing, try to relieve stress from the employee. "Photo" of the working day is a temporary registration of all labor actions performed by an employee during one working day, work schedule, rest time, forced stoppage of work, etc. For a more complete and most accurate observation, "photos", it should be performed in stages:

1) preparation for observation;

2) conducting observation;

3) processing of surveillance data;

4) analysis of the results and preparation of measures to improve the organization of labor or the establishment of norms and standards.

In preparation for the observation, the following parameters are studied: 1) the technological process that is performed by the administrator when performing his labor functions;

2) organization of labor in the workplace;

3) maintenance procedure;

4) technical characteristics, modes of operation.

All the data obtained are recorded in a special form, according to which a schedule is subsequently built, reflecting the alternation of work and rest during the working day, the ratio of functions and the time required to perform these functions.

Introspection, mainly in a field such as labor psychology, is very common and is self-reported, and sometimes in the form of the use of labor methods. If we consider self-report, then this is a process when the employee himself records all his actions, every operation and activity every minute. Sometimes not a record of each action is used, but the pronunciation by the employee himself of all the actions, movements, processes performed by him. However, it should be noted that when self-reporting, it is very difficult for an employee to perform direct work, and at the same time either pronounce or write down his actions. There are also positive aspects that are associated with the fact that after a period of adaptation, the employee himself will be able to pay attention to those elements of his work activity that he did not pay attention to before, which will lead to an increase in labor productivity.

With the labor method, the psychologist himself acts as a worker, whose activity is fixed, i.e., acts as a student, while the psychologist will be able to fully know the profession from the inside, highlight the difficulties, positive and negative aspects in the performance of labor actions. This method allows you to obtain information by self-observation of those moments that can be hidden or disguised during self-report. Also, this method allows you to study professional activity, while the psychologist himself considers the process of mastering the profession, and in general this method is the most reasonable for making adjustments to optimize and rationalize work activity.

The negative points when using the labor method is that it can only be applied to professions that are not difficult to master and do not require a lot of time for learning; the information received is recorded at the end of the working day, and the psychologist can be very tired, which will negatively affect reporting.

Analysis of products of labor activity, as a rule, is not used as the main method, but as an addition to the direct method. The method is based on the study of official documentation, labor statistics, analysis of fixed products of labor, etc. Using this method will allow you to analyze the dynamics of working capacity, as it helps to trace changes during the working day, determine labor requirements and compare them with the psychological capabilities of a person . You can also analyze accidents at work, the number of defective products, accidents, downtime at the workplace and their cause.

5. Survey method

An equally popular non-experimental method is polling method. Most often, the survey method looks like an oral survey and / or a written survey (questionnaire).

As for the oral survey, it can be both a conversation and an interview.

The conversation is one of the most frequently used methods used not only in labor psychology, but also in psychology in general. It is necessary when studying the structure of work, personal attitude to work, job satisfaction, finding out motivation for work, personal and professional characteristics, functional responsibilities, work preferences, and much more.

The conversation must be thought out in advance, planned, analyzed its rationality, it is necessary to include only those questions that are not inspiring in nature and do not put pressure on the point of view of the interlocutor.

As a rule, the beginning of the conversation is carried out from the preparatory stage, which includes all the preparatory moments related to providing the psychologist with the necessary materials, familiarizing him with the goals of the survey, tasks.

It is necessary to form key questions, prepare forms for entering information received from the respondent into them.

In order to get a positive result from the conversation, it is necessary to win over the interlocutor, create a comfortable, pleasant atmosphere around him.

To do this, it is necessary to inform the subject about the objectives of the survey, to state them not in a scientific, but in a language understandable to the subject, to emphasize complete confidentiality.

You can register the received information both in the process of communication and after the end of the conversation. But it is best not to record the answers to the questions directly during the survey - this may confuse the subject, he may become confused and even give false information.

Questionnaires involves receiving answers to specific, pre-formulated questions in writing. At the same time, leaflets with questions may not be distributed by a psychologist, but, for example, by a manager or immediate supervisor. Questionnaires are used only in cases where it is necessary to obtain information from a large number of people. The method is very convenient to use, as it does not distract the employee from work and does not take much time to fill in the answers to questions. In order for the method of applying the questionnaire to give positive results, it is necessary to take into account the fact that sometimes employees may not be entirely clear about some questions in the questionnaire or the goals of the survey themselves, and they may simply not answer a number of questions or return questionnaires completely blank. To avoid this, it is necessary to clearly and clearly formulate the introductory text, correctly and correctly formulate questions, the questionnaire should be easy to read, printed without errors and blots. Depending on the tasks and objectives of the survey, a group of subjects should be formed. For example, a questionnaire with questions about obtaining a doctoral degree should not be directed to university applicants.

Questioning has many advantages over conversation. One of them is that in the survey there is no such stretch as in a conversation, the analysis of the result is faster.

6. Method of expert assessments

Method of expert assessments involves a survey of a specialist about the elements of his work activity, his behavior in a certain situation in order to draw up a conclusion.

When using the expert method, there is no certainty in choosing a specific method, most often they are used in combination. Expert assessment can be individual and group.

The most common method of group assessment is the method of generalization of independent characteristics. The essence of this method lies in the fact that the professionally important qualities of a particular specialist are described, while the sources of information about the individual are different, i.e. they can be managers, subordinates, colleagues, relatives, etc. Experts, approximately 5-7 people, evaluate and describe a certain feature of the employee's personality according to a pre-compiled scale. The use of this method does not require any additional knowledge and skills from the expert, since the psychologist himself provides all the necessary information on the method and interpretation. All points received from each expert are averaged by calculating the arithmetic mean of the score.

Another expert method used only in labor psychology is the method of critical incidents. The meaning of the method lies in the fact that professionals in their field give real examples of situations that have once developed, ways to resolve them, and most importantly - indications of the behavior of specialists in a given situation. At the same time, they speak not only about effective activity, but also affect the negative aspects. Only those examples are given in which behavior depends only on the person himself, and not on others. Most often these are examples of critical incidents, each such example contains a description of the situation, prerequisites for behavior, a description of the behavior of the individual, the dependence of the individual's behavior on herself or on external factors, etc.

Critical incidents are formed by experts based on the results of observation, survey. The number of incidents received depends on the complexity of the activity being assessed. In simple types, there can be from 50 to 100 of them, and in more complex ones - up to several hundred.

All collected incidents receive a certain classification depending on the purpose of the study. When carrying out this method, results are obtained that allow one to formulate criteria for the success of a particular profession, draw up tasks for checking professional activity, improve vocational training, etc. This method is mainly used to identify professionally important qualities of an employee and criteria for compiling and selecting tests for professional selection.

7. Method of anamnesis

Anamnesis method is a collection of information related to the history of the development of a particular individual, his formation as a subject of labor. With this method, the psychologist studies the biography of the individual, the features of her mental and physiological development, living conditions, her professional activities. The sources of obtaining information are both the answers of the employee himself to the questions posed and his statements, as well as official documents, such as a personal file, a diploma of education, certificates, etc.

8. Test method

The test is is one of the most common methods. Using this method, it is possible to obtain comparable qualitative and quantitative indicators of the degree of development of psychological properties and personality traits. Basically, two types of tests can be found in the literature: standardized and design. When considering standardized tests, they can be further divided into two types, namely: test questionnaires and test tasks.

The test questionnaire consists of a series of questions, the answers to which can be used to judge the psychological qualities of the person being studied. In cases where the subject is invited to take a test task, he should complete a number of specific, specific tasks, the result of which will determine the presence and degree of character traits developed in him.

With the help of standard tests, you can get a quantitative assessment, which assesses the severity of certain traits in the subject, and compare them with the average indicators. The disadvantage of these tests is the fact that if the subject knows the content of the test, he can influence the final result.

In some situations, the use of this type of test is inappropriate, since the subject may not wish to recognize negative personal qualities in himself, and sometimes the motives of behavior. In such a situation, they mainly resort to another testing method - project testing.

As a rule, the design type of tests determines the personality traits and its behavioral qualities in certain situations. Such tests are based on the mechanism of projection, in which the individual tends to shift the shortcomings of his behavior onto other people.

This technique has a number of advantages: a person, in his perception of situations related to his life, transforms them in accordance with his individuality, personality.

There is no single classification of design tests. Many researchers and scientists classify design tests in their own way (L. F. Burlachuk, S. M. Morozov, I. B. Grishpun and etc.).

Testing methods: individual and group, computer and paper.

Types of psychological tests:

1) tests of cognitive abilities (for the level of intelligence);

2) preference tests;

3) tests of special abilities;

4) psychomotor tests;

5) personality tests.

Consider the most common tests both when applying for a job during an interview, and during the passage of labor adaptation: a test for determining neuropsychic stress and a test "Non-existent animal".

The first type of test is used mainly during the interview and contributes to the analysis of the individual and personal characteristics of a candidate for a vacant position, as well as a person's stress resistance and his ability to interpersonal interaction.

Basically, the technique is used for people over 18 years old, without educational restrictions. The test is called "Non-existent animal".

This method is pictorial and it is built on the theory of psychomotor communication, with which you can register the state of the human psyche.

If a situation arose in which the real movement for some reason did not materialize, then in the corresponding muscle groups the share of the energy tension necessary for the response movement is summed up. For example, fear of something stimulates the appearance of tension in certain groups of leg muscles or in the muscles of the hands, which indicates a readiness to either run away or use fists.

A person is given a sheet of paper, which is a model of space. The method allows you to determine various kinds of experiences not only at the present time, but also in the past and future. We can say that this space is also associated with the activity of the human psyche. The space to the left and behind the picture is a connection with the past and inaction, while the left side and the bottom of the space are primarily associated with negative and even depressive emotions of a person.

If on the right side and at the top there is a space free from the drawing, then this indicates a future period and effectiveness. The right side is always associated with positive emotions, activity, energy and concreteness in actions.

The research procedure is simple and consists in the following: the test person is offered a sheet of clean A4 paper, a simple pencil of medium softness and slightly sharpened. The person passing the test must draw an animal that does not exist in real life, that is, a fantastic one invented by the person himself.

The subject is not required to have any skills in the arts.

Instruction for the subject

Invent a non-existent animal, draw it and give it a name, also non-existent. At the same time, try not to draw animals that exist in myths, fairy tales, and legends.

Processing Results

The drawing is analyzed on the basis of its spatial image, symbols, as well as drawing lines. If necessary, the experimenter asks the client clarifying questions (about body parts, their functional purpose).

When the drawing is located in the middle, this indicates that a person does not seek to change himself in the living space in which he is located, it suits him.

The drawing is placed at the top of the sheet - this means that he wants to stand higher on the social ladder, that he is not satisfied with the position that he currently occupies.

If the lines seem to fall down, then this is a sign of depression in a person. If the legs or tail are drawn with lines pointing upwards, then this is a symbol of high energy.

In order to see how the lines are drawn, it is necessary to observe the drawing process.

The sharper the pressure, the greater the anxiety during the drawing period. Weak pressure, in some places the line is barely visible - this indicates passivity, sometimes even a depressive state in the painter. Lines pointing down and drawn with strong pressure indicate depression, tension.

Strong pressure, the pencil deeply pushes through the paper - the person is too impulsive and at the moment he is tense. If in the process of drawing an animal, super-strong pressure on the pencil is visible, then this indicates conflict and even aggressiveness of this subject.

Sometimes pressure occurs only in several parts of the drawing, in which case it is necessary to pay attention to where exactly it was made - on the bearing semantic part of the drawing or not. If it is on the supporting part, then this is where the source of anxiety lies: defensive aggression.

The test is characterized by six types and species of animals. Depending on which category of animal is drawn, one can understand the state of mind of a person. If we consider the painted animals in appearance, then we can distinguish three categories:

1) a large, strong animal (a huge predatory animal with claws) indicates a threat;

2) a medium-sized animal indicates neutrality;

3) a small animal, such as a butterfly or other insect, indicates that the person feels in danger.

Animal type

If the painted animal really exists in life, then this indicates violations both emotionally and intellectually.

An animal that existed before (for example, a mammoth) or an animal that exists in culture speaks of the poverty of the imagination.

The painted animal is assembled from body parts that belonged to other animals, it speaks of a person’s uncreative approach when performing any kind of task.

Built according to the original scheme, not reminiscent of ordinary animals, speaks of a creative approach to the task.

If the animal turned out to be too original, then this indicates demonstrativeness, schizoidness of the subject.

If the drawn animal is too similar to a person, then one can judge the high dissatisfaction of a person in communicating with other people.

An animal drawn with outward limbs indicates extroversion.

Closed, without limbs or with limbs directed towards the body - about introversion.

The nature of the support for the body of the animal

If the body of the drawn animal stands on strong legs, paws and at the same time they are slender, then this indicates that the person builds his conclusions on solid, well-verified data and is confident in the truth of these data. If the legs are straight, strong and run parallel, then we can say that the subject's reasoning is generally accepted.

Too thick legs drawn in an animal indicate a need for support.

If the figure has weak legs (for example, like chicken or fly legs), this indicates that the person is not sure of the information that serves as the basis for his thoughts and conclusions; keeps to the touch, is not always rational. If the legs are weak and tortuous, this is a sign of people with excessively increased self-control, difficulty in making decisions, constant doubts about the impeccability of their logical constructions.

If the legs consist of joints, this is a sign of difficult logical constructions, indicates the difficulty of making decisions if there are no sufficient and clear reasons for these decisions; reasoning is characterized by increased control, frequent rechecking of conclusions.

If the legs are not connected to each other, this means a random orientation, the reasoning is affective, emotional and superficial.

If the legs are different, not similar to each other, or there are a lot of them, this means non-conformity, originality, brightness of thinking.

If the legs are drawn in the form of a pedestal, this means that the subject is a rigid person who does not doubt anything, moreover, he tries to impose his will and opinion on other people.

If the legs are not visible, the animal lies on its belly, then the subject is confident, calm, not imposing his decisions and views, his conclusions on anyone (in this context, confidence and calmness are considered not as a trait of character, but as a feature of the logical constructions of the reasoner).

Features of drawing eyes, ears, mouth

In the form of open eyes, a person depicts his fear.

Eyes or an eye with a well-drawn iris is a sign of fear in a threatening situation.

If the iris is not drawn, then this means readiness for fear, but only with a real stimulus, very strong and adequate, which usually causes fear in everyone.

If the eyes are closed and eyelashes are also drawn, there is no fear.

No eyes - autism, asthenia, subdepression, sometimes schizoid; empty, without iris and pupils - asthenia, autism, sometimes asociality; the form is grossly distorted - a neurotic state, asociality, sometimes - a mental illness.

Well-drawn ears are a sign that a person wants to be well informed about how others treat him.

This individual is highly dependent on others, constantly has in mind what they will say or think. If the painted ears of the animal are large, then we can say that the person is overly suspicious and anxious.

Well-drawn lips indicate either sensuality or a tendency to talk, especially with an open mouth with teeth or tongue. The latter means that the individual loves not only to talk, but also to gossip. If the mouth is drawn in the form of a solid line, when there are not even lips, this is a sign of a silent person, who reacts with difficulty to situations that require his participation in contacts with people.

Excess of the sense organs - anxiety.

Features of drawing the tail and other details

If the tail is a pipe and directed upwards to the right, it means that the person is satisfied with himself and his activities.

If the tail is pointing down and to the right, this is a sign of regret that the person did something wrong.

If the tail or tails (sometimes several pieces are drawn) point to the left - this is a sign of an assessment of one's own capabilities and abilities, up and to the left - high self-esteem, down and to the left - low self-esteem. The tail is lowered down - speaks of depression.

When a drawn animal has a clearly defined thick tail, this, as a rule, says that the sexual sphere and belonging to it are important for such a person.

Sexual organs, female breasts, udders, or details that resemble them in shape, no matter how they are named, are the high significance of the sexual sphere.

If the subject draws a cub, the problem of children is not resolved.

If the animal is decorated with patterns or long hair, then we can say that the person who painted this animal is too demonstrative and likes to show himself in all his glory.

The presence of wings in an animal speaks of the dreaminess of its author, sometimes even such a person has a wild imagination.

When any wounds or scars are visible on the animal, then we can talk about the author's mental illness.

Features of the details that outline the figure

A person draws, as a rule, as many details as necessary for an unambiguous reading of the drawing, no more. Namely: head, torso, tail, legs.

If the author endowed the drawn animal with two or more heads, then this indicates an internal conflict, confrontation with oneself.

In the presence of some peculiarity of the psyche, perhaps deviations from the norm, the drawing is characterized either by an abundance of details (scales, wool, all kinds of processes, outgrowths in the most unexpected place, etc.), or, conversely, by excessive stinginess, only a contour is drawn, no more.

The nature of the details also matters. The freer the combination of details, the more unexpected their combination, the more creative possibilities a given individual has.

A drawing with soft outlines without sharp corners indicates that there is no aggression at the moment.

The presence of sharp corners (horns in the form of sharp corners, scales, fangs, tires, etc.) indicates aggression.

If sharp corners are concentrated on the head (teeth, horns), then this is a sign of defensive aggression in case of an attack; sharp lips or nose - defensive aggression in verbal and rude form.

If there are no sharp corners in the mouth, but only horns on the head, then this indicates verbal aggression of an attacking, cocky person.

If sharp corners are drawn right along the body, i.e. inside the figure, this indicates that the subject has a tendency to aggression and its manifestation.

If aggressive lines, that is, sharp corners, are drawn so that they face the right side of the sheet, then aggression appears and manifests itself in interaction with other factors, there is no aggression outside the interaction.

If sharp corners are drawn at the bottom and directed downward, then aggression is one of the evaluation factors - there is a willingness to condemn another, find flaws, think badly about another person.

If sharp corners are drawn on the back and directed upward, then aggression is directed against the strong, standing at the top, against those who have power over the subject, who can force him, forbid something, or have the opportunity to interfere with him. In this case, aggression can be both defensive and arbitrary, attacking.

Increased thoroughness, a large number of the same type of details speaks of anxiety, sometimes perfectionism, accentuation.

A small amount of detail in an animal indicates the impulsiveness of this person.

Additional drawing features

Erasing and correcting lines - anxiety as a state at the time of examination, stressful condition, emotional tension, anxiety, self-doubt, sometimes perfectionism.

If the author has shaded his animal, then we can say that the person has some kind of anxiety at the moment (this action is not taken into account if the subject is a professional artist or a person associated with this area).

Hatching with strong pressure, crossing out the entire drawing or part of it speaks of emotional tension, acute anxiety.

The disintegration of the form, an indefinite, often open contour, speaks of an intellectual disorder, a borderline neurotic state, a mental illness.

Lines and strokes that do not belong to the main plot, filling the entire sheet, speak of impulsivity, acute anxiety, a borderline neurotic state, and sometimes psychotic arousal.

Gross distortion of form and proportions - intellectual impairment, organic brain damage, negativism, reduced conformity, socialization disorders, borderline neurotic state.

Figure title

In people of the thinking type, all the details of the picture are connected by a common name (for example, pig fish, elephant hippopotamus).

Repeating syllables or name-like names of animals (names like: "ot-ot-ot" or "mu-zu-la") indicate a lack of self-control and the presence of infantilism.

Very long names, sometimes for a whole line (for example, "enominosandroveribog"), testify to complicated thinking, pedantry, but the complexity of thinking is sometimes present only in purely formal constructions.

Scientific names with Latin endings (for example, "comma", "krinkulus") are a feature of demonstrative personalities who show their inner mental capabilities, their education with such a name (not features of behavior or appearance that distinguish them from others, namely, features of knowledge and education).

Names in which there is a tendency towards an aesthetic assessment of the sounds that make it up (for example, "zolianna") indicate that a person approaches everything from an aesthetic point of view, the main criterion for him is "like - dislike" (Wenger A. L Psychological drawing tests, Moscow: Vlados press, 2002).

Consider another type of test that can determine the neuropsychological tension of a person, it is called "Scale of neuro-psychological stress".

With the help of this test, it is possible to determine, as mentioned above, neuropsychological tension. This scale of criteria was developed T. A. Nemchin. The age of people taking the test must not be less than 18 years old, there are no restrictions on education.

The essence of the technique is that the subject from the proposed answer options should choose only one that is closest to him.

The selected option is recorded in the form, which indicates the full name, gender, age, profession, occupation, nature of the situation and activity.

The method consists of 30 questions:

1) the presence of physical discomfort:

a) the complete absence of any unpleasant physical sensations;

b) there are minor discomfort that does not interfere with work;

c) the presence of a large number of unpleasant physical sensations that seriously interfere with work;

2) the presence of pain:

a) complete absence of any pain;

b) pain sensations periodically appear, but quickly disappear and do not interfere with work;

c) there are constant pain sensations that significantly interfere with work;

3) temperature sensations:

a) the absence of any changes in the sensation of body temperature;

b) a feeling of warmth, an increase in body temperature;

c) sensation of coldness of the body, limbs, chills;

4) the state of muscle tone:

a) normal, unchanged muscle tone;

b) a moderate increase in muscle tone, a feeling of some muscle tension;

c) significant muscle tension, twitching of individual muscles of the face, hands, tics, tremor (trembling);

5) coordination of movements:

a) normal, unchanging coordination of movements;

b) increasing accuracy, dexterity, coordination of movements during work, writing;

c) deterioration in the accuracy of movements, impaired coordination, deterioration in handwriting, difficulty in performing small movements that require high accuracy;

6) the state of physical activity in general:

a) normal, unchanged physical activity;

b) increase in motor activity, increase in speed and energy of movements;

c) a sharp increase in motor activity, the inability to sit in one place, fussiness, a constant desire to walk, change the position of the body;

7) sensations from the cardiovascular system:

a) the absence of any unpleasant sensations from the heart;

b) a feeling of increased cardiac activity that does not interfere with work;

c) the presence of unpleasant sensations from the heart, a sharp increase in heart rate, a feeling of compression in the region of the heart, tingling, pain in the heart;

8) manifestations (sensations) from the gastrointestinal tract:

a) the absence of any discomfort in the abdomen;

b) the appearance of single, quickly passing and not interfering with the work of sensations from the digestive organs - suction in the epigastric region, a feeling of slight hunger, periodic moderate "rumbling in the stomach";

c) severe discomfort in the abdomen - pain, decreased appetite, nausea, thirst;

9) manifestations from the respiratory system:

a) the absence of any sensations;

b) increase in depth and quickening of breathing, not interfering with work;

c) significant changes in breathing - shortness of breath, feeling of insufficient inspiration, "lump" in the throat;

10) manifestations from the excretory system:

a) the absence of any changes;

b) moderate activation of the excretory function - a slightly more frequent desire to use the toilet while fully maintaining the ability to abstain (endure);

c) a sharp increase in the desire to use the toilet or the inability to abstain, the presence of a strong urge to urinate, etc.;

11) state of sweating:

a) the usual state of sweating, without any changes;

b) moderate increase in sweating;

c) the appearance of copious cold torrential sweat;

12) condition of the oral mucosa:

a) the normal state, without any changes;

b) moderate increase in salivation;

c) a feeling of dryness in the mouth;

13) coloring of the skin:

a) the usual color of the skin of the face, neck, hands;

b) redness of the skin of the face, neck, hands;

c) blanching of the skin of the face, neck, hands, the appearance on the skin of brushes of a marble (spotted) shade;

14) susceptibility, sensitivity to external stimuli:

a) the absence of any changes, normal sensitivity;

b) a moderate increase in susceptibility to external stimuli, which does not interfere with the main work;

c) a sharp exacerbation of sensitivity, distractibility, fixation on extraneous stimuli;

15) a sense of self-confidence, in their abilities:

a) the usual, unchanged feeling of confidence in one's own strengths, in one's abilities;

b) increased self-confidence, confidence in success;

c) a feeling of self-doubt, the expectation of failure, failure;

16) Mood:

a) normal, unchanged mood;

b) elated, elevated mood, a feeling of elation, pleasant satisfaction with activity, work;

c) low mood, feeling of depression;

17) sleep features:

a) normal, normal sleep without any changes compared to the previous period of time;

b) a good, full, strong refreshing sleep the night before;

c) restless, with frequent awakenings and dreams, sleep during the previous several nights, including the day before;

18) features of the emotional state in general:

a) the absence of any changes in the sphere of emotions and feelings;

b) a sense of concern, increased responsibility for the work performed, the appearance of passion;

c) feeling of despair, fear, panic;

19) noise immunity:

a) the normal state, without any changes;

b) increasing stability in work, the ability to work in conditions of noise, other interference and distracting stimuli;

c) a significant decrease in noise immunity, inability to work with distracting stimuli;

20) features of speech:

a) normal, unaltered speech;

b) increasing speech activity, increasing the volume of the voice and speeding up speech without compromising its quality characteristics (literacy, logic);

c) speech disorders, the appearance of too long pauses, stammering, stuttering, an increase in the number of unnecessary words, a too quiet voice;

21) general assessment of the mental state:

a) normal, unchanged state;

b) a sense of composure, increased readiness for work, mobilization, the rise of mental and moral strength, high mental tone;

c) a feeling of fatigue, lack of concentration, confusion, apathy, decreased mental tone;

22) Memory Features:

a) regular, unaltered memory;

b) memory improvement - it is easy to remember what needs to be remembered at the moment;

c) memory impairment;

23) attention features:

a) normal attention without any changes;

b) improving the ability to concentrate attention, distraction from extraneous matters;

c) deterioration of attention, lack of concentration, inability to concentrate on business, confusion, distractibility;

24) ingenuity:

a) normal, without any changes in intelligence;

b) increased intelligence, resourcefulness;

c) deterioration of quick wit, confusion;

25) mental performance:

a) normal, unchanged mental performance;

b) increase in mental performance;

c) a significant decrease in mental performance, rapid mental fatigue;

26) phenomena of mental discomfort:

a) the absence of any unpleasant sensations and experiences from the mental sphere as a whole;

b) single, weakly expressed and not interfering with work changes in mental activity, or, on the contrary, a feeling of mental comfort, pleasant experiences and sensations;

c) pronounced, numerous and seriously interfering with the work of violations of mental activity;

27) the degree of prevalence of signs of tension:

a) single and weak signs that should not be ignored;

b) clearly expressed signs of tension, which not only do not interfere with the activity, but, on the contrary, contribute to its success and productivity;

c) a large number of various unpleasant manifestations of tension that interfere with work and are observed from many parts of the body, respiratory organs and systems;

28) assessment of the frequency of occurrence of stress:

a) tension almost never develops;

b) tension develops only in the presence of really difficult situations;

c) tension develops often and often without sufficient reasons;

29) assessment of the duration of the state of tension:

a) very short, no more than a few minutes, quickly disappears, even before the difficult situation has passed;

b) continues during the entire time of being in a difficult situation and performing the necessary work, but stops shortly after its completion;

c) a long duration of a state of tension that does not stop for a long time after a difficult situation has passed;

30) general assessment of the severity of stress:

a) complete absence or very weak tension;

b) moderately pronounced tension;

c) pronounced, excessive stress.

Processing Results

After filling out the documents, the subjects can count the points scored. At the same time, for the mark put by the test subject against item 1, 1 point is awarded, against item 2-2 points, item 3-3 points.

The amount of points that the subject can score can vary from 30 to 90.

If a person has a weak mental stress, then the number of points scored by him will range from 30 to 50.

If the level of stress is not very high, then the total score will range from 51 to 70. If the stress of the neuropsychic state is high, the total score will be 90.

Interpretation of results

Weak neuropsychic tension is characterized by a slightly pronounced state of discomfort, mental activity adequate to the situation, readiness to act in accordance with the conditions of the situation.

Excessive neuropsychic tension is characterized by the presence of severe discomfort, anxiety, fear, readiness to master the situation, which, most likely, may be the result of frustrations and conflicts in the sphere of significant personality relationships.

9. Requirements for the results of organizational studies

Requirements for the results of organizational research:

1) objectivity;

2) control over the conduct of the study or careful observance of all conditions of the study - taking into account environmental factors, the state of the respondent, the amount of time that the respondent can devote to the study, and others;

3) the validity of the results (reliability);

4) the possibility of checking the results;

5) the real need for research and the relevance of the problem under study.

LECTURE #6

career guidance

1. The concept of vocational guidance

Vocational guidance is aimed at developing recognition in the professional sphere, discovering abilities, etc. for a particular field of activity - it is understood as a set of economic, social, medical, psychological actions. It is generally accepted that vocational guidance includes both vocational consultation and vocational selection. Career guidance is aimed at helping young people, schoolchildren, applicants and students, as well as people who are looking for work, in choosing an educational institution and specialty. The main forms of vocational guidance are vocational education, education of a conscious need for work and professional counseling.

For people who first determine the direction of future work, career guidance is associated with specialized education and primary education. For already working people, career guidance is aimed at providing professional advice and, if necessary, additional training or retraining.

Vocational guidance includes information about a variety of professions and their hierarchy and specialization in any area.

2. Professional self-orientation

Professional self-orientation - the selective attitude of the individual to the world of a variety of professions, both in general and to a particular profession. The core of self-orientation is a conscious choice of profession, taking into account their personal characteristics, capabilities and necessary requirements of professional activity and socio-economic conditions.

Professional self-orientation does not end with the choice of a profession, it is carried out throughout the entire professional life, as a person constantly reflects, rethinks professional guidelines and asserts himself in the profession. Professional self-orientation is an important characteristic of the socio-psychological maturity of a person and his need for self-actualization.

3. Career Guidance Factors

The choice of a profession by a person depends on many factors - marital status, personal interests, inclinations and opportunities, place of residence, biography. The study of the labor motivation of an individual makes it possible to predict his professional development and career growth. It is also important that a person is aware of the realities of the labor activity of the chosen profession, the criteria for suitability and remuneration. Entering the labor market can disrupt the idea of ​​the chosen profession and provoke intrapersonal conflict, because at the time of training, professional training, a person was guided by the best, brightest representatives of the profession. To prevent such a phenomenon, there are professional counseling centers, industrial practice for students.

4. Professional identity

Professional identity rebuilds the inner world of the individual, its system of values ​​and norms and is the most important component of human life. The competitiveness of a specialist in the market largely depends on the realization of his abilities in line with his profession, education, work experience, adaptive abilities of the individual. Professional self-identification increases with the accumulation of practical experience, interest in work and status characteristics of the profession. Usually they talk about the characteristics of a professional group of people, for example, about the mentality of doctors or mathematicians, implying a certain image, the presence of certain personal qualities.

The presence of a positive initial self-identification can change when confronted with practical activities.

5. Professional training

Professional education is the most important condition for acquaintance and mastery of one or another type of activity.

Training is conducted on the basis of specialized educational institutions and aims to form in the individual a professional worldview, skills, abilities and knowledge necessary for this profession. In the process of learning, a person goes through three crisis stages:

1) 1 course- self-identification crisis;

2) 3 course- a crisis associated with doubts about the correct choice of profession;

3) 5 course- the crisis associated with entering the labor market. The task of an educational institution is to make its graduates competitive in the labor market, confident in their knowledge and skills, and form a respectful attitude towards the profession.

Education includes a set of specific subjects, a specific curriculum, practice in the specialty. The main goal of the internship is to integrate the student into the professional community, to allow them to see the realities of work activities and form their own worldview, to adapt to the working environment.

Practical training should maximally contribute to the assimilation of educational information by the student, the listener. Factors affecting the acceleration of the learning process:

1) the optimal language for presenting information - information should be understandable, interesting and readable;

2) taking into account the knowledge and skills of the student - the discrepancy between the level of knowledge of the student reduces interest in learning, both in the case of excessive complexity of the information, and in the case when the teacher gives already known material;

3) providing feedback in the educational process - the presence of the student's own opinion indicates that the material has been carefully studied, classes in the dialogue mode allow you to better assimilate the educational material;

4) development of a system of motivation for learning;

5) the optimal mode of training and rest - both overload and insufficiency of the training load negatively affect the learning process;

6) the connection of training with practical activities - allows you to transfer theoretical knowledge into the field of practical activities.

LECTURE #7

Professional advice

1. The concept of professional advice

Professional advice mainly intended for young people for the purpose of vocational guidance, taking into account the characteristics, temperament, inclinations, interests, capabilities and needs of the individual. concept "advising" It is used not only in the psychology of labor, but also in many other areas and industries. For example, it can be applied and viewed as a special kind of helping relationship, as a psychological process. Consulting can also be considered in terms of its goals and objectives.

Professional consultation has an educational goal, allowing you to understand the essence of various professions, the content of the labor process, the requirements for employees and the prospects for the development of the industry as a whole, the status of the profession and the mechanism for obtaining education within a particular work activity. In modern Russia, professional advice is necessary not only for young people, but also for people who have lost their jobs. The reorientation of the unemployed is an important aspect of professional counseling, as it allows the reintegration of a person into the professional community.

There are three main functions of professional consultation: diagnostic, informational and corrective.

Diagnostic the function is designed to examine the state of health and the degree of development of a person's psychological characteristics, which must meet the requirements of the profession.

Informational the function is intended to inform schoolchildren about specific professions, the features of a particular profession and ways to implement professional plans.

Correctional the function is that it gives recommendations to the optant on the relevant field of professional activity and specific professions in it and corrects professional plans if professional requirements do not correspond to personal qualities.

Professional consultation is carried out in several stages:

1) the communicative stage is based on establishing contact with the optant and forming his positive emotions in relation to counseling. The effectiveness of this stage depends on the communication skills and abilities, as well as the degree of psychological tact of the consultant;

2) the psychodiagnostic stage of professional counseling lies in the fact that the main focus is on the study and assessment of the level of severity of psychological and psychophysiological characteristics of the optant (the motivational sphere of the personality, abilities and characteristics, self-esteem and preparedness of the personality are studied);

3) the correctional stage involves working with the optant and correlating him with a specific professional area that is most suitable for him, corresponding to his abilities and personal interests, qualities. The effectiveness of professional advice depends on the consultant's compliance with a number of ethical principles and the level of his professional preparedness.

2. Purpose of professional advice

The main goals of professional counseling include: optimization of the capabilities, needs and interests of the individual within the framework of professional self-determination. Professional advice is especially important during the period of graduation from educational institutions. In addition, professional consulting provides information about the status characteristics of the profession, its opportunities and difficulties, and the compliance of certain data of the candidate with the requirements of the profession.

Counselors place the main emphasis on increasing the personal responsibility of the client in relation to his own life.

It is easier for consultants to work with a client if they can teach their clients to help themselves and be more confident in making their own decisions, which would mean that the client himself could become a consultant for himself and determine the area in which he wants to work all his life or at least get an education in the most interesting profession.

The tasks of professional counseling are to diagnose the characteristics of the personal qualities and abilities of the optant, his motives and characterological features, to show the psychological cost of mastering a profession, to assist in choosing a profession, etc.

3. Informing about various specialties

Information about various specialties especially relevant during the period of graduation and career choice and is closely related to the concept of professional suitability, which includes:

1) information about educational institutions that train professionals in any specialty;

2) information about the demand for specialists of various professions in the labor market;

3) information about the realities of the activities of specialists in various professions;

4) information on the average salary of specialists;

5) information about the possibility of self-realization and career growth in the chosen profession.

Information about various specialties is usually provided by specialists from job centers or representatives of educational institutions. It is especially important that a person facing the choice of a future profession be aware of the chosen specialty in a complex of professional factors: his own professional suitability, interest in this profession, employment opportunities in the chosen specialty.

4. Professional suitability

Professional suitability is mainly determined by the totality of the individual characteristics of the individual, which affect the success of the development of any labor activity and the effectiveness of its implementation.

Vocational suitability reflects the real level of development of professionally significant qualities of a person that are characteristic of a particular work activity. Vocational suitability is determined by the level of job satisfaction, its process and results. Today, satisfaction with work and one's profession depends not only on the process itself, but also on external factors. Such factors include the conditions of activity, the prevailing microclimate in the team, the motivational level, the prestige of the profession, involvement in the profession, etc.

The concept of "professional suitability" is used only to characterize a person from the standpoint of his compliance with the requirements of work activity. Professional suitability for a certain chosen work activity directly reflects how a person sees himself in this profession, whether he is comfortable in realizing himself in this environment, thereby predetermining success in the chosen specialty.

In order to assess the professional suitability of a person, it is necessary to familiarize yourself with the elements of a single system for preparing a person for work and ensuring its most successful implementation throughout the entire professional path.

The process of formation of professional suitability goes through several stages:

1) labor education and training - the stage at which preparation for work and the choice of profession takes place. At this stage, it is necessary to instill in the child a love for work, to help in mastering the simplest tools and methods of labor, to form a readiness for work, a need and understanding of its necessity, the development of general labor skills;

2) during professional orientation, assistance is mainly provided in the form of professional education, acquaintance with professions, analysis of the desires and abilities of the person to whom the consultation is provided;

3) professional selection - determining the degree of suitability of a person for a certain type of activity based on a comparison of his individual characteristics with the requirements of the profession, it is also possible to solve the problems of distributing specialists, recruiting educational and professional groups, selecting a specialist for a functioning group, etc.;

4) professional training is a kind of core of the entire learning process, as a rule, it includes not only programs for which training will be conducted, but also trainings, simulators, as well as methods by which a beginner will be assessed in a new field of activity;

5) professional adaptation is aimed at the complete entry of a beginner into a new field of activity, while there are peculiar methods for assessing the features of a particular person in adapting to a new one;

6) professional activity - ensuring the rational organization, conditions and process of labor activity, high efficiency, quality, labor safety, professional development, health protection, job satisfaction;

7) professional certification is sometimes also called an assessment of professional skills and the correspondence of a person’s qualifications to the position held. Based on the results of the certification, the certification commission makes a decision: corresponds to the position held, corresponds to the position held, subject to advanced training, and does not correspond to the position held;

8) professional rehabilitation - restoration of the functional state of the body and psyche after hard work and past diseases with the development of persistent negative dominant states as a result of frequent professional failures, etc.

It should be noted that the content of each stage is very peculiar and specific, if we consider them in terms of goals, objectives, methods, means and timing of their implementation.

But there is something that unites them - common between all eight stages, namely, the need to determine those indicators that are criteria for the effectiveness and rationalization of the diagnostic procedure.

We must not forget that a creative approach to work, job satisfaction, a system of financial and moral incentives help in the formation of professional suitability. This aspect is of great importance in complex types of labor that require special responsibility and physical endurance. With the accumulation of experience and its transformation into labor activity, we can talk about the formation of the professional suitability of an individual.

Professional consultation focuses on the professional requirements for an individual as a carrier of a profession, for example, on medical and psychological indications and contraindications for this type of activity.

5. Professional selection

professional selection - this is a procedure for assessing the professional, personal and other qualities of an employee for compliance with the requirements established in the organization. Only after passing the professional selection procedure, it is possible to make a decision on enrolling an applicant for a vacant position, place. Most often, tests are used to determine professional suitability. There are five categories of tests used in professional selection.

1. Intellectual tests.

Short, holding time - from 12 to 30 minutes, and simple. This type of test was specifically designed to study the lower and middle personnel in the industry. Such tests may have relatively high validity for certain occupations, or may have no validity at all.

There are more complex tests for intelligence, but these tests require the professional qualifications of a psychologist and a lot of time. They are mainly used for the evaluation and selection of senior managers.

2. Ability tests.

The need for career selection and training has contributed to the creation of a large number of aptitude tests.

Unlike intelligence tests, aptitude tests are recognized to reveal an employee's ability to learn quickly and effectively.

3. Psychomotor tests.

Aimed at assessing the speed and accuracy of motor coordination. Most of these tests are carried out on real equipment or simulators.

4. Personality tests and interest tests.

Such tests are based on the assumption that an individual will be a more successful worker if the structure of his personality and interests is similar to that of a person who has reached heights in professional activity and career.

The main drawback of this type of test is that many subjects may distort answers or answer questions insincerely.

5. Projective tests.

Test materials with a blurry, indefinite meaning are used, for example, black spots, an unfinished sentence, plot pictures, etc.

Initially, these tests were created by clinical psychologists to analyze human anomalies. In general, the validity of such tests is low.

6. Significant personality traits

Significant personality traits imply the definition of a set of professionally significant personality traits.

Within the framework of a certain production, certain criteria for hiring are formed, the main of which are the personal characteristics of the employee. It is possible to single out the main personality traits that are most in demand in modern conditions:

1) communication skills;

2) purposefulness;

3) responsibility;

4) high intellectual development and good learning ability;

5) compliance of psychological characteristics with the profile of work.

Of particular importance is the correspondence of psychological characteristics to the profile of work, since different professions put forward different requirements for psychological characteristics, for example, goodwill, the ability to listen and the desire to help people are important in social work; in military specialties - patriotism, responsibility, discipline and moral stamina.

To determine a set of professionally significant personality traits, there are certain methods, both in educational institutions and in psychological services at work, they usually consist of passing tests and interviewing candidates. The most important quality of a person when applying for a job is responsibility.

7. Responsibility

Responsibility It is manifested in the control of the subject of labor over the quality of the performance of certain duties, taking into account certain norms and rules established at the enterprise. In many ways, responsibility is based on work motivation, professional identification, acceptance of the culture, norms and values ​​of a certain professional community.

At many enterprises, the lives of other people, the safety of equipment and the safety of people living in the immediate vicinity of the enterprise depend on the personal responsibility of employees.

LECTURE #8

Professional adaptation

1. The concept of professional adaptation

Under professional adaptation usually they understand a system of measures and activities that contribute to the professional development of an employee and form the appropriate professional qualities in him, as well as help the employee to master the elements of organizational culture and adopt a new social status. Professional adaptation includes self-identification with a new role, status characteristics and acceptance of the culture and values ​​of the professional environment.

Adaptation - one of the important milestones in a person's life, through it he forms his worldview and formation as a person.

The socialization (adaptation) of an employee in a new workplace depends on how well the person is accepted by the team, and the whole organization as a whole. Socialization is difficult in the case of role uncertainty, when job responsibilities are not clearly defined and structured, and role conflict, when the requirements of the organization come into conflict with the personal standards of the employee.

Resocialization - re-socialization associated with the transition to a new position or to another place of work while maintaining the previous position.

Correspondence of the employee and the organization is based on the correspondence of the values ​​of the employee to the values ​​of the organization.

In order for the adaptation process to be painless for the employee, and indeed to pass and give a positive result, four stages must be observed:

1) it is necessary to assess the level of preparedness of a beginner in order to form an individual adaptation program specifically for this specialist. It will also reduce the adaptation period for newcomers who have extensive experience in this field, or increase its period for a beginner who does not have experience in this field;

2) it is necessary not to theoretically acquaint the newcomer with the front of his future work, but to clearly show the workplace and talk about the requirements that will be imposed on him;

3) it is necessary to adapt the newcomer to his new status in this organization, to draw him into interpersonal relationships with colleagues. If necessary, assign a mentor to the newcomer, who will familiarize him with his job responsibilities and introduce the newcomer to colleagues, help to attract the newcomer to the team;

4) the stage of completion of the adaptation process is reduced to the gradual overcoming of production and interpersonal problems and the transition to a stable performance of work duties. This stage occurs approximately after the first year of work in the new organization. But if you fully control the adaptation process, you can reduce it to a couple of months, which is very beneficial for the financial side of the organization.

2. Elements of professional self-identification

The main elements of professional self-identification are:

1) statuses and roles offered by society;

2) social groups and institutions within which professional self-identification is carried out;

3) values, social norms, knowledge, abilities, skills necessary for the formation and maintenance of professional status;

4) social technologies for the production, reproduction and transfer of norms, values ​​and cultural patterns of this profession to other people. Professional adaptation, superimposed on the individual's existing attitudes, supplementing them, helps a person to socialize in a given status characteristic and manifests itself in the individual's attitude to work.

The involvement of an individual in labor relations is an indicator of his professional self-identification and adaptation.

By the degree of involvement of an individual in labor relations, one can judge the prospects for his career and personal growth. Labor relations, in turn, are built on labor behavior. According to L. Sh. Krupenikova, labor behavior can be divided into adaptive and non-adaptive.

3. Adaptive professional behavior

Adaptive professional behavior includes:

1) functional behavior, i.e. corresponding to a given professional role and adequate in these conditions;

2) economic behaviorwhen an individual is guided by the optimal balance between the contribution to the labor process and the compensation of the invested efforts;

3) stratification behavior- orientation towards achieving certain status characteristics;

4) innovative behavior, which involves the introduction of innovations in labor activity;

5) conforming behavior, which is characterized by the adaptation of the individual to the attitudes and opinion of the majority in the team;

6) conventional behavior based on the establishment of an agreement (explicit or latent) to maintain certain status-role positions;

7) ceremonial subordination behaviorwhich includes the observance of professional etiquette, the production and transportation of cultural patterns of the profession and professional traditions.

4. Maladaptive professional behavior

Non-adaptive professional behavior is considered:

1) characterological behavior, which refers to the projection of personal characteristics (mostly non-contiguous) on the work environment;

2) illegal behavior;

3) administrative behavior exceeding official and professional powers;

4) dysfunctional behaviorincluding professional incompetence;

5) individual target behaviorassociated with the implementation of personal goals, regardless of the wishes of the team;

6) imitation behavior, manifested in the pseudo-activity of the employee;

7) deviant behavior, characterized by antisocial habits and inclinations in professional activities (Social work / Under the general editorship of V. I. Kurbatov, Rostov-on-Don, Phoenix, 2000). Through labor behavior, a person not only adapts to the working environment, but also transforms it in accordance with his professional attitudes in order to achieve optimal professional activity and activity. Labor behavior reflects individual personality traits, attitudes and, of course, motivation.

LECTURE #9

organizational development

1. The concept of organizational development

organizational development - irreversible, directed and regular change in time, which is an objective process, independent of the desire or unwillingness of the members of the labor collective. We can say that organizational development is a planned, controlled change in the organization and most often occurring due to certain circumstances and reasons. There can be many such reasons, for example: a change in leadership, a merger or split, a change in production technologies, a change in the scale of production, a change in the operating environment, and much more.

Organizational development can be of several types:

1) planned and spontaneous development;

2) structured and unstructured development;

3) directive or joint development;

4) personal or non-personal development;

5) revolutionary or evolutionary development.

Ways of organizational development:

1) sensitivity training;

2) monitoring of skills, competitions;

3) role-playing games;

4) group discussions;

5) feedback - an assessment of the feelings and attitudes of employees.

All these methods are aimed at achieving the most efficient production, updating the information base, striving to meet the criteria adopted in more advanced organizations. Recently, in solving production problems, team methods of work are increasingly used.

When forming teams, the following points should be considered:

1) human relations - fair assessment of the contribution of employees, the possibility of direct participation in decision-making form the employee's commitment to the organization, a good attitude from the employer increases self-esteem and self-esteem;

2) human resources - the number of employees, their knowledge, ideas, opportunities, creative proposals;

3) degree of involvement in work - greater independence allows you to delve deeper into the essence of the work task, at the same time, responsibility falls on the shoulders of the employee and forms independence and confidence.

2. Independent groups

To solve a problem in an organization, they often create independent groups. D. Schultz, S. Schultz The book Psychology and Work talks about some of the positive aspects of independent groups:

1) the level of individual responsibility is higher;

2) independent monitoring of labor activity and independent search for feedback;

3) labor productivity increases, since the employee himself makes adjustments to work actions;

4) assistance to colleagues in improving product quality (Shultz D., Shultz S. Psychology and work, St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg, 2003).

3. Commitment to the organization and factors of its formation

Organization commitment factors, according to D. Schulz and S. Schulz:

1) enrichment of the content of the work;

2) autonomy of labor, that is, independence;

3) variety of labor;

4) positive attitude towards the team;

5) support and care of the organization for employees;

6) satisfaction with the leadership style;

7) heterogeneity of personnel.

4. Types of organizational commitment

D. Schultz, S. Schultz distinguish several types of organizational commitment:

1) emotional - based on the employee's self-identification with the organization, acceptance of the values, attitudes and requirements of the organization;

2) behavioral commitment is based on the principle of the benefits of working in this organization;

3) normative commitment is based on a sense of duty that encourages you to stay with the enterprise.

5. Formal and informal groups within the organization

Informal groups within the organization. In the work of any organization, the formation of small groups is inevitable. As a result of joint work, the team begins to break down according to interests, age characteristics, place of residence and other characteristics. The larger the team, the more groups are formed. Usually they talk about initiative groups, about a support group, about working groups. The initiative group is focused on improving the labor process, introducing innovations, and establishing new contacts. This group has a creative approach to the labor process, is interested in work, and is attached to the team and the enterprise. It is this group that is the driving force of the team, usually the holidays are organized by this group. The support group does not offer initiatives on its own, but always supports the initiative group, helps in the implementation of projects and programs.

Often, groups of social dependents are formed at the enterprise - people whose dismissal is difficult due to their experience or high status.

Social dependency implies reduced work activity due to belonging to a certain group and the absence of individual responsibility for the production process. Usually social dependents demonstrate pseudo-active activity, not really doing anything.

An important factor in the formation of groups is cohesion. Group cohesion - the degree of closeness of group members. The group develops its own norms and values, gives a sense of psychological comfort, security. Group cohesion is influenced by:

1) the number of group members;

2) lifestyle, interests of each member of the group;

3) working conditions of group members;

4) remuneration of members of the group;

5) external pressure on the group as a whole.

The formation of corporate spirit, a healthy psychological atmosphere in the team and successful collective activity depends on the cohesion of the group as a whole.

LECTURE #10

Labor collective

1. The concept of a work collective

Labor collective - a group of people united by one labor and professional activity, place of work or belonging to one enterprise, institution, organization. The labor process, status characteristics of the group as a whole, working conditions (both psychological and professional) depend on the composition of the team. The labor collective establishes intra-group norms, values ​​and produces a certain culture.

The labor collective is understood as a professional group of people working at the same enterprise or organization. The team consists of the entire staff of the organization and includes both management and ordinary employees. The team is divided into small teams within the enterprise - teams of departments, divisions, etc. The formation of comfortable psychological conditions and attachment to the enterprise depends on how close the team is and whether small teams oppose each other. Corporativeness in the team is one of the most important conditions for the successful functioning of the enterprise.

The labor collective performs two main interconnected functions: economic and social.

The economic function is that the team carries out joint labor activities in the organization, as a result of which values ​​are created. The economic function is the leading function in the labor collective.

The social function is aimed at satisfying the social needs of all members of the labor collective, which are expressed in the opportunity to work, receive material benefits, recognize oneself among colleagues, self-realization, use one's right to rest and leave, education, use of cultural values ​​and much more.

2. Psychological features of labor activity

In practical work, a person goes through several psychological stages: professional choice, professional adaptation and self-identification, the formation of one's own space in the workplace, building relationships with the team, and others. Each period has its own characteristics, and the task of an organizational psychologist is to reduce the negative aspects in the labor activity of each individual, to motivate and interest in work, to form positive attitudes in relation to the labor process and the organization as a whole. Coming to the enterprise, a person begins to form his own social circle, correct psychological attitudes towards the team, based on the experience of communicating with team members, forms his own opinion and attitude towards the organization. When adapting, the employee enters a certain regime, and the main psychological problem in an established team is industrial conflicts, the solution of which determines the quality of work, the psychological state of workers, and the characteristics of labor activity. The peculiarities of labor activity mean not only conflict and adaptation, but also labor motivation and the formation of professional identification and corporatism. In many ways, these processes depend on working conditions, the composition of the team, and the personal characteristics of the employee.

3. The nature of human labor

There are several criteria that affect the understanding of the need for labor activity by an employee, which characterize labor processes in production:

1) the purposeful nature of the work;

2) compliance of the work with the subjective requirements and needs of the employee;

3) tangible result of work;

4) reliable reinforcement (material, moral, psychological);

5) optimal load, complexity and intensity of labor;

6) completion of work.

4. Individual style of work

Work experience can be assessed according to several criteria - efficiency, speed of production, involvement and interest of the employee, psychological compliance, individual characteristics of the employee, labor motivation of each individual. Labor activity as such involves the contribution of each employee to the production process, and in order to increase production efficiency, and hence profitability, it is necessary to take into account the expectations of each employee both in terms of the work plan and financial rewards, returns, and reactions to employee initiatives. Employee stimulation is a necessary step in the development of production, the growth of its prestige and compliance with modern market requirements.

5. Labor invested

Invested labor - a psychological phenomenon consisting in a particularly careful attitude of the subject of labor to the moral, physical and material contribution to the labor process and the need to recognize the contribution as significant on the part of other subjects of labor. In the absence of recognition or insufficient assessment of the labor invested, the individual's labor productivity drops, motivation and interest in continuing activities at a certain level, creative activity disappear.

6. Group dynamics

During the working activity in a team or professional group, several stages of group interaction can be traced - group dynamics: integration stage, confrontation stage, assimilation stage.

Coming to a new team, a person begins to form a new social environment, including changing the existing one in the new workplace. At the stage of integration into a new society, a person tries to show the best qualities and looks closely at each member of the work team, analyzes the main characteristics of the workplace and the team.

Making changes in the workplace, a person invariably acquires a certain amount of negative assessments and thereby provokes a kind of confrontational circle. After some time, this circle can disintegrate by itself or develop into persistent rejection if the norms, rules and values ​​of this circle are unacceptable to the new employee. If, after a certain period of time, a person accepts the values ​​of the working society or is able to adjust them in accordance with his own norms and values, the groups can come to a consensus, and the person will successfully assimilate into the work team on an equal footing with other rights.

7. The concept of a corporation

Corporation - association on the basis of certain professional interests and professional identification. It is based on the concept of corporatism, which is understood as identification with a certain group, functioning in its interests and observing and maintaining its status characteristics, norms and values. A corporation is a large organization that includes many small ones (for example, the McDonald's or Microsoft network), or a community abstracted from the concept of "organization", for example, doctors or the military, chemists or mathematicians.

8. Corporate

Under corporatism community, support by the professional community of the interests of each member of the community, work to improve the professional status of an enterprise or group, activities in its interests.

Corporatism implies the existence of norms, values, traditions of a given group of people.

Corporateism is usually attributed to a specific profession or organization, for example, the professional community of doctors and corporate ethics. The tradition of corporatism at the household level can be considered male solidarity, female solidarity, the community of neighbors of the same house, etc. Corporativeness involves supporting the ideas of the organization at every level, protecting the rights of each employee, constant communication and information exchange between management and ordinary employees. Typically, corporateness is based on the commitment of employees to their organization.

9. Work ethics

Ethics is understood, in the broad sense of the word, as a set of universal moral, psychological and moral norms of behavior. The ethics of industrial relations is based on the general rules of behavior of people in the process of joint labor activity. Ethical norms are accumulated and transformed taking into account the requirements of the labor market, compliance with state legislation, moral requirements and a responsible attitude towards the labor process and work colleagues. Compliance with the ethics of production increases the self-esteem of each employee and the status of the enterprise as a whole, makes the brand of the enterprise respected and contributes to the acquisition of regular customers and partners.

10. Professional position

Professional position - the system of relations, the role and place of a specialist in the field of his professional activity. The professional position includes the attitudes of the individual, the system of his orientation in the labor market, internal expectations and assessment of his own capabilities as a professional, understanding his mission. The basis of a professional position is the status of an educational institution, personal characteristics and the system of values ​​of an individual, his professional interests and priorities.

11. Needs and abilities in the production team

A professional society imposes certain requirements on the employee and the team as a whole.

Often, group methods of work are preferable to individual ones, which leaves an imprint on the psychological characteristics of the team as a whole - the ability to listen to others, a tolerant attitude towards others, the ability to resolve conflict situations, accept the point of view of others, and much more are required. First of all, the needs of the team should be higher than the needs of each individual employee, but one should not forget about individual needs either.

Abilities in group interaction also undergo a transformation, which manifests itself as an adaptation to group methods of work, the ability to recognize oneself as a leader in a group, or recognition of the leadership of another member of the group. Depending on the psychological warehouse of the employee, his abilities, leaders, outsiders and an intermediate comfortable group can be distinguished. In each of these types, a person's abilities are manifested quite clearly - this is either the ability to manage people and organize work, or follow the instructions of the leader, or be a leader in some narrow area, for example, highly specialized mathematical modeling of the production cycle.

As a person adapts in the work team, the employee adapts the environment, taking into account his own interests and inclinations. The task of management personnel is not to limit the employee, but to promote his personal growth, creative approach to work, which has an impact on interest in work, financial and psychological returns, the formation of new ideas and the improvement of production methods. The development of the needs of the subject of labor directly depends on its status characteristics in production and on the needs of the production process as a whole. The formation of corporatism, the inclusion of an employee in the production environment enable each employee to make adjustments to working conditions, the production process, improving production as a whole and raising the status of the organization's brand.

Activities within the framework of professional identification are characterized by a high degree of mastery of the subject of labor and are based on the frequent repetition of certain actions. Can be distinguished perceptual, intellectual и motor skills. Depending on the working conditions, labor motivation and the physical condition of the subject of labor, they can turn into automatism.

LECTURE #11

Мanagement

1. The concept of leadership

Мanagement - targeted impact on employees, the team, as a result of which an increase in labor productivity is achieved. Leadership can be called a process in which the leader is given the right to power over subordinates.

Management includes many aspects, including the development of tactics and strategies for organizational policy, the ability to manage personnel, communicate with people, calculate and predict the introduction of new methods and forms of work into the enterprise, and others. There are several leadership styles. The main ones are democratic, authoritarian and liberal management styles.

Democratic management style characterized by the fact that decision-making is based on a discussion of the problem, while taking into account all the opinions and initiative of employees. Control over the decision-making is carried out not only by the manager, but also by the employees themselves, i.e. this indicates the maximum possible democracy and freedom of self-realization, the manifestation of interest and goodwill towards the individual, the absence of discrimination. The democratic style of management is the most rational and effective. This is due to the fact that the probability of making the right decision with this style of leadership increases, since it is the most balanced and deliberate collectively. This style of management will be justified if the leader in the organization has a sufficiently high level of intellectual, organizational and communication skills.

Authoritarian management style, it is also often called dictatorial, it is characterized by a tough one-man decision-making by the leader, he also exercises strict constant control over the implementation of the orders given to him, and if he deviates from the norm, punishment follows, care for the individual is in last place or is completely absent, there is no interest to the workers. Due to the fact that subordinates are constantly monitored, the results of work are always at the highest level (profit, productivity, product quality, and much more), but the big disadvantage of this management style is the high probability of erroneous decisions, suppression of initiative, slowing down innovation, stagnation, passivity of employees, etc. It is expedient and justified only when the organization is in critical condition and it needs time to "rehabilitate".

Liberal-anarchist management style characterized by the maximum possible democracy and minimum control over workers in the organization. Each employee can express his point of view and position, while not defending them. As a rule, with this leadership style, productivity is low, people are not satisfied with their work, work directions are made up of the preferences of the leader of the microgroup, etc. In practice, few leaders adhere to one management style, as a rule, there is a mixture of two, and sometimes all three styles.

2. Labor post in the organization

Under labor post in the organization is understood a certain status, which carries a set of duties and privileges for the employee. Usually includes the concept of career growth - growth along the hierarchical ladder in production in the direction of increasing status characteristics. In many ways, the possibility of achieving a certain labor post depends on the responsibility of the individual, his personal characteristics, and the level of education.

3. Position

Job Title - this is a certain status characteristic of an employee, which corresponds to the load, degree of responsibility, work requirements and job responsibilities.

Positions may be elected or appointed. Elective positions depend on the number of votes and are granted for a certain period of time, appointed positions can also be temporary, but most often have no time limits and depend on the education, experience and professional qualities of the employee. A position is a certain type of activity within the specialty of an employee, which is paid based on the status characteristics of the employee and the specifics of the job.

4. Position components

The position includes several important components:

1) official duties - certain duties of an employee corresponding to the position held and some requirements for his labor activity. This includes compliance with certain norms, criteria and performance, compliance with the rules of conduct and work schedule, representative functions and intellectual and behavioral compliance of the employee with the position held;

2) job privileges - a set of benefits and benefits provided to an employee. Depending on the status characteristics of the position, the set of privileges may vary. The higher the position an employee occupies, the more privileges he can receive - according to the regime of work, rest and material subsidies;

3) remuneration - directly depends on the position held and job duties of the employee. The remuneration of employees may include certain bonuses, subsidies, material incentives for increased workload or the introduction of certain innovations in the work of the organization;

4) responsibility also depends on job duties and position held and usually correlates with wages. Depending on the position, responsibility involves compliance with safety regulations or maintaining the secrecy of the labor process, or other options for organizational responsibility.

5. Management psychology

Psychological management, as a rule, is aimed at integrating knowledge in the field of psychology aimed at managerial decisions. It is recognized to integrate knowledge about the psychological content of managerial decisions. Therefore, in social conditions, not just qualified specialists are needed, but psychologically thinking, wise professionals in management.

Management psychologists study the knowledge of the psychological characteristics of people, keep a comprehensive record of the psychological content, help stimulate employees in the process of joint activities, and create a healthy socio-psychological climate in the atmosphere of the organization.

Management psychology can be divided into two subtypes of the process of emergence and development:

1) the needs of practice. That is why it requires studying, taking into account the psychological data about a person from these points of view;

2) the needs of the development of psychological science. The object in this case will be the system "man - technology", as well as "man - man".

The subject of management psychology is the study of the psychological aspects of the process of managing various types of joint activities and interpersonal communication in an organization, that is, the psychological aspects of managerial relations.

6. Leadership Ethics

The issues of personnel management in production for the most part depend on the leader, leadership style. The appearance of the leader determines the idea of ​​production as a whole. In the regulation of human resources, the psychological preparation of the leader, the ability to resolve conflict situations, find a way out of difficult situations, and the ability to manage people are of particular importance. Leadership Ethics is based on the morality of an official, his responsibility, maintaining professional honor, self-identification with a professional group.

The ethics of a leader is manifested in several aspects: understanding the goals, objectives, means of a person's activity as a leader, observing a culture of relations and a culture of behavior, and matching the personal characteristics of the position of a leader.

7. Moral and psychological qualities of the leader

Moral and psychological qualities of a leader:

1) high professionalism, namely managerial competence, culture, worldview;

2) responsibility and reliability, the revival of personal traditions;

3) self-confidence, the ability to influence their subordinates;

4) independence;

5) ability to solve problems;

6) emotional balance and stress resistance;

7) sociability, commitment, closeness with subordinates, external attractiveness, organizational qualities;

8) ability to psychoanalysis and self-control;

9) tolerance for the weaknesses of workers;

10) the priority of a personal example in working with subordinates;

11) mutual respect;

12) reasonable attitude to criticism;

13) support for employee initiatives;

14) clear requirements and time limits for the work assignment;

15) an adequate assessment of the contribution of employees to the labor process.

The main tasks of the manager: to organize the optimal distribution of responsibilities, to organize the training and retraining of employees, to form the priorities for the development of the organization.

LECTURE #12

Professional conflict

1. The concept of conflict

There is currently an independent branch of labor psychology, which studies the labor conflict as a constituent element of group dynamics. Under conflict the emergence of intractable contradictions, the clash of opposing interests associated with rivalry, the lack of common interests and motives, as well as mutual understanding, is understood. At the level of "individual - individual" conflict is usually based on the discrepancy between individual psychological "maps" of perception of reality, competition for a specific goal; at the "individual - group" level, the conflict is often based on the individual qualities of the individual, the individual's low professional adaptability, weak communication ties, or inconsistency with professional training; at the level of "individual - society", for the most part, the individual introduces an illegal element into labor activity (including violation of the norms and values ​​of this professional community).

At the same time, the conflict is an integral part of the labor process and shows the level of group development and patterns of joint activities.

At the moment, conflictology (the science of conflicts) offers ways out of conflict situations, conflict resolution models, trainings to increase the level of tolerance and communication skills, which significantly improves the quality of working conditions and the possibility of realizing the potential of each subject of the labor process.

2. Psychological tension

Under psychological tension refers to a mental state that reflects an increased level of anxiety, lack of psychological comfort in certain working conditions and, on the other hand, a willingness to act. The factors may be the transition to a new team, labor conflicts, personal problems of the individual. It has a strong influence on the efficiency of activities, the quality of work and performance in general.

3. Types of conflicts

To date, there are three types of conflicts: industrial and business, interpersonal, intrapersonal.

industrial and business conflict is considered to be a problem situation that arises in the workplace in the process of performing work duties. The reasons for the emergence of a production and business conflict may be competition, authoritarian management, production contradictions, etc.

Interpersonal conflict - this is a conflict situation that arises between employees of the same team, organization due to the incompatibility of goals, values ​​and norms. For example, such a conflict can arise in a situation where members of a team strive to achieve the same goal, the result of which should be credited to only one of the team members. Also, the reasons for the emergence of interpersonal conflict can be competition, a clash of opposing interests, motives and needs, as well as incompatibility of characters.

Interpersonal conflict also has a subspecies - intergroup conflict. This is a conflict in which several social groups participate, defending their personal interests and motives.

In turn, intergroup conflicts can be divided into several varieties:

1) role conflict, in which a person is required to "play" two or more incompatible roles or types of behavior;

2) mono- and polycausal conflict, characterized by one or more causes of a conflict situation.

Intrapersonal conflict arises only in the collision of opposing interests and motives in one and the same person.

At the heart of this kind of conflict are negative psychological states of the individual, such as internal feelings and resentment.

K. Levin singled out several varieties of intrapersonal conflict:

1) "approximation - approximation", in such a situation a person is invited to make a choice in favor of one of the attractive solutions;

2) "approach - removal", when in a situation the choice is associated with the decision of one object from several, in which there are both positive and negative points;

3) "deletion - deletion" - a situation in which there are negative subjective attitudes.

4. Stages of conflict

There are several stages of conflict:

1) latent - the stage of formation of discontent on any issue, the accumulation of negative moments in relation to a certain person or group of people;

2) acute - an "explosion" of negative emotions, an active showdown, a negative perception of a person or group, as well as the results of their work. Usually, at this stage, they resort to the intervention of higher authorities as arbitrators in this situation;

3) fading - the stage of conflict resolution, reducing the "heat" of the situation, searching for options for resolving the conflict, or artificially resolving the conflict, possibly forming a chronic conflict.

Dynamics of the conflict: characteristics of the stages

In the conflict, several periods can be distinguished, including stages.

First period, latent, includes the following steps:

1) awareness of the objective problem situation. The more complex the conflict situation and the faster it develops, the more likely it is that the opponent distorts it;

2) the emergence of an objective problem situation.

The conflict is born by defining an objective problem situation. The essence of such a situation lies in the fact that contradictions arise between the subjects, since there are still no conflict actions and contradictions, and that is why such a situation is commonly called a problematic one. Attempts to solve the problem in a non-conflict way;

3) understanding that a conflict situation may not always arise due to the opposition of the parties. It also happens that the participants in the interaction give in, not wanting the situation to degenerate into a conflict;

4) pre-conflict situation. A conflict situation, as a rule, is perceived as peace and security on one side of the conflict and insecurity on the other.

Second period, open:

1) an incident when the clash of the parties is just beginning to gain momentum and at the same time there is an attempt to prove one's case by force. At this stage, the conflict may escalate and complicate the original essence of the conflict;

2) escalation, in this situation there is an increase in the intensity of the confrontation of the parties. Escalation can be characterized by some signs: an increase in emotional tension, a transition from arguments to claims and personal attacks, an increase in the hierarchical rank of violated and protected interests, an increase in the number of participants, an expansion of the boundaries of the conflict, etc.;

3) balanced contradiction. When the parties to the contradiction continue to conflict, however, the intensity of the struggle decreases and the parties realize the meaninglessness of the conflict;

4) end of the conflict. It consists in the fact that the conflicting parties are looking for a solution to the conflict and stop conflicting for any reason.

Third period, post-conflict:

1) in this period, relations are partially normalized, but negative emotions have not yet disappeared;

2) there is a complete normalization of relations, the parties realize the importance of mutual cooperation.

5. Professional conflicts

Today, the topic of professional conflicts is very relevant. Many modern psychologists and authors of books, such as A. L. Sventsitsky, A. I. Kitov and many others are working on this problem and trying to find ways to resolve conflict situations. Professional conflicts are also commonly called conflicts between a leader and a subordinate, i.e., conflicts "vertically". This type of conflict is faced by almost all those who have ever worked or are working. Some feel the growth of the conflict situation, but prefer to remain silent in order to avoid "punishment" from the leadership, while others do not want to be silent and defend their rightness, no matter what it costs them. If we consider the causes of conflicts in the organization, then most often there are objective causes of their occurrence. The objective causes of a conflict in the workplace can be divided into two groups: industrial conflicts, the causes of which are unfavorable working conditions, lack of work organization, overload, imperfection of the payment system, discrepancy between rights and obligations, poor equipment with office equipment, misunderstanding and distrust among colleagues, and on the reasons caused by erroneous actions on the part of the manager, namely, violation of labor laws and unfair evaluation of the manager.

There is a subordination between the leader and the subordinate, which must be considered as a personal and functional side. The personal side of the relationship between a leader and a subordinate depends only on the individual psychological characteristics, disposition, moral principles and business qualities of both the subordinate and the leader himself.

In turn, the functional side is more rigid and is aimed at following instructions "from above", since there is a connection between the leader and the subordinate, in which the leader gives orders, and the subordinate unconditionally fulfills them.

Most often, it is precisely because of misunderstanding, non-observance of subordination that almost 80% of all interpersonal conflicts arise in the team.

If we consider four types of human interaction: "man - machine", "man - technology", "man - man", "man - nature", then the combination of interaction "man - man" in itself is conflictogenic in nature.

About 95% of vertical conflicts are connected with the fact that the leader and the subordinate are engaged in the same business in the same area, direction. It is very difficult to work with people who, for example, "pull the blanket over themselves" or do not allow them to fully realize their potential and show their ideas, but simply demand that they follow exactly given instructions without introducing creative ideas and thoughts into the instructions. If you give a task to a group of responsible, equal workers and appoint one of them responsible for the execution of a particular task, then a conflict will immediately arise between the members of this group. Everyone will ask the question: "Why didn't he become a leader, a responsible leader, a so-called leader?" Working in an initially conflicting team will be very difficult, and it is not known whether they will come to a common opinion in work or will be constantly on “combat readiness” and there will simply be no time left to complete tasks.

It is also impossible not to consider subjective professional conflicts. They can be divided, starting from two causes of occurrence:

1) managerial reasons most often arise due to groundlessness, erroneous decisions, excessive guardianship on the part of the manager, insufficient professional training, uneven workload, lack of motivation, etc.;

2) personal reasons arise due to the low level of communication culture, rudeness, the desire of the leader to put the subordinate in his place, show his superiority over him and increase his authority, the negative attitude of the leader to the subordinate or, conversely, tense relations between the leader and the subordinate, psychological features such as anxiety, distrust, emotional instability, high self-esteem, etc.

6. Ways to resolve a professional conflict

It is impossible to completely protect the team and the person in it from professional conflicts, but there are many ways to somehow reduce their number.

For example, it is necessary to balance the workplace of each employee. This means that the workplace must be provided with all the necessary equipment and means to perform the functions for each employee, depending on his job duties. It is also necessary to mutually balance the rights and obligations of each employee, or at least employees involved in one thing.

The head or his deputy needs to conduct a mismatch between employees and their jobs. This will allow the employee to more clearly fulfill his labor duties and not be distracted by the performance of other than his labor functions, which will drastically reduce conflicts in the team, and will lead to the absence of the phrases “why me” or “this is not my duty”.

If the leader adheres to the following rules, then conflict situations between him and his subordinate will occur less frequently and, possibly, will disappear altogether.

Rule 1. It is necessary to give your subordinates specific tasks that can be completed. The order must be stated in an accessible language with precisely set tasks and goals, if necessary, repeat the order again or ask the employee to whom it was given to state it.

Rule 2. All instructions and orders given by the head must be legal and not exceed official authority. The leader must never go against the law and must give only legally justified orders.

Rule 3. Criticize a subordinate not in the presence of other subordinates, but one on one with him. As they say, "praise in public, scold in private."

Also, when criticizing, it is impossible to point out the personality of the subordinate, it is necessary to focus on the actions or inactions that he committed. At the same time, if possible, it is necessary to indicate ways to resolve the situation.

Rule 4. Criticize only after you have praised your employee. That is, start a conversation with an employee from the positive moments and achievements of this employee, thereby you will positively set him up in relation to you. And after a portion of praise, point out the shortcomings in his work.

Rule 5. It is necessary to give a critical, negative assessment to a subordinate employee only in private, without attributing the entire social collective (group) to the statement. Never indicate the nationality of an employee, his religion, do not give a negative description of the social group to which he belongs, that is, behave with a subordinate on an equal footing so that the subordinate does not have a feeling of discomfort.

Rule 6. Always be fair to subordinates, do not single out favorites, but honestly celebrate and encourage the merits of all subordinates.

Rule 7. Always monitor the execution of orders in the course of their execution. This will improve the quality of performance and, if necessary, correct the actions of the subordinate in time.

Rule 8. Never try to re-educate a subordinate who is objectionable to you in a short period of time. If you try to re-educate a subordinate in a short time, this will lead to conflict situations.

Rule 9. Punish your subordinates as little as possible and help them as often as possible in carrying out orders, without indicating your superiority over them, giving the subordinate the opportunity to open up.

Rule 10. Never blame subordinates for your failures and mistakes.

LECTURE #13

Labor motivation

1. The concept of motivation

Many of us come to mind the question: why do people work? For some, easy work is unacceptable and uninteresting, for others, hard work brings moral satisfaction. Many employers ask themselves the question: how to make people work with more efficiency? These questions can be answered only after a thorough analysis of the behavioral characteristics of the individual, analyzing how you can make a person's work exciting and attractive.

These and many other questions arise when there is a process related to personnel management.

In Russia, very little attention has been paid to this problem. Domestic scientists involved in analysis and research in the field of economics argue that for many years much attention has been paid to an approach in which technology, production plans, budget and even administrative plans are at the head, and not a person. That is why, until recently, many enterprises could meet dissatisfaction with work, low motivation to work. However, even today such a problem exists, and in order to solve it, it is necessary to devote more time to the motivation of personnel.

Leaders of competitive companies like to repeat that their main potential lies in personnel. This is what prompts us to study the personnel of the organization and learn how to formulate the motivational policy correctly. Only knowing what motivates a person, what motivates him to activity, what motives underlie his actions, one can try to develop an effective system of labor stimulation.

If we consider motivation in the narrow sense of the word, then we can say that motivation is actions that encourage a person to work, which are aimed at achieving the goals and results set, realizing their interests. In this case, labor motivation will act as a so-called impetus that contributes to the work of a person and the realization of the needs of each person. To date, there are two types of motivation: positive and negative.

Positive motivation is understood as the desire of a person to achieve success in a particular work activity. As a rule, at the moment of positive motivation, a person consciously performs some kind of labor activity, while the person has only positive emotions.

Negative motivation differs from positive motivation in that for a person it sounds like a punishment, both materially and non-materially, for the slightest mistake in work. In a psychological sense, for each person, the awareness of negative motivation always causes a negative impression. And as a consequence of this, there is an unwillingness to work in general and to be completely absorbed in work.

There are cases when punishment was applied more than once and this led to the fact that employees simply refused to do work, tried not to take responsibility for the performance of a particular task, etc. The motive for labor activity is formed when labor activity is the only source that can affect the acquisition of goods.

Of considerable importance in the formation of a motive for work is the probability at which it is possible to achieve what was planned. If in order to get the desired benefit, you do not need to spend more time and effort, then the formation of a motive occurs very quickly. If little depends on a person to achieve a certain benefit, or the benefit simply cannot be obtained due to a number of reasons, then the motive for labor is formed for a very long time and may even not be fully formed. With the frequent repetition of such situations, the so-called "phenomenon of forced helplessness" appears, which excludes labor activity.

Motives for work are varied.

It should be noted that the motive for work expresses, as a rule, several needs.

For example, the motive of a person to receive material benefits, which immediately indicates the status and position of a person in society (people who have achieved a position in society, certain material benefits, always stand at a level above the rest).

Also, a feature of motivation can be called the fact that there is an orientation of the motive of labor and there is a focus on oneself and a focus on others.

Today, developments in the field of motivation are gaining more and more speed in the field of development every year. Domestic scientists and specialists, unfortunately, almost do not pay any attention to this problem, while abroad theorists and practitioners are actively studying this issue, developing new models and methods to increase the motivation of employees.

For almost forty years, American management has been training employees of the organization so that they take a more responsible approach to work, understand and know where their “place” is in the business process, which later led to the fact that people were ready to make decisions and take responsibility for local and private solutions.

The American manager is most often confident that his employee will not disrupt the task. In domestic management, everything is different. We still do not have such that people should perceive labor as hard labor, it should be interesting and creative.

Many firms have work plans - for a quarter, for six months, a year. Most often, they are lowered by leaders down the hierarchical ladder.

In modern Russian companies, the problem is the pathological, monstrous greed of the Russian top management and leader, who do not understand the essence of all the importance and necessity of a system of positive employee motivation. And this means that people are forced to work for a penny and at the same time require a lot from them and often something that is not included in the employee's job duties.

2. Theories of motivation

There are several theories of personal motivation. All theories are designed not only to systematically describe possible ways to improve a person's performance, to study the features of his behavior in working conditions, but also to increase the efficiency of the enterprise as a whole. Since labor is an integral part of human life, these theories can be considered in relation to the sphere of work. The best known theory of motivation A. Maslow, achievement need theory D. Mack-Clelland, two-factor theory of motivation F. Herzberg, D. Schultz and S. Schultz in the book "Psychology and Work" some theories are considered in relation to the labor activity of a person.

3. McClelland's theory of the need for achievement

D. Mack-Clelland in his theory of needs, he focuses on the needs of higher levels, which he considers as acquired under the influence of experience, life circumstances and training. If we schematically depict McClelland's theory of needs, then approximately it looks like this:

According to the theory of acquired needs of David McClelland, certain types of human needs are formed during the life path of each individual. According to McClelland, there are such types of needs as:

1) the need for achievement;

2) the need for connection;

3) the need for power.

People who have a high level of motivation for power can be divided into two groups:

1) those who seek power only for the sake of ruling;

2) those who want to have power only in order to be able to make decisions on important issues and set certain tasks for subordinates.

If we compare the theory of needs by A. Maslow and McClelland, we can see that McClelland's needs are not hierarchically arranged, but they have a noticeable influence on each other. According to McClelland, people who have a strong need for achievement are more likely to become entrepreneurs. It is these people who like to do something better than competitors, they almost always take on a huge responsibility.

4. Theory of A. Maslow's hierarchy of needs

Abraham Harald Maslow (1908-1970) He is the author of works devoted to human motivation. His first book is the most popular and famous and is called The Theory of Human Motivation (1934), later it was called The Pyramid of Needs.

Maslow's theory allowed managers to more fully understand the aspirations and motives of the employee's behavior.

Maslow proved a theory that states that a need is very important for a person, which motivates him to act - to work or to other ways of satisfying the need that has arisen.

Previously, managers stimulated the work of their employees only with the help of economic factors, since the behavior of an individual was determined only by economic motivations, thanks to Maslow's theory, the existence of non-material incentives was revealed that make employees do their work better, better and more efficiently. Maslow took the doctrine of Elton Mayo - "Human Relations" as the basis of scientific work on motivation and needs. In his work, he singled out 5 basic human needs, which he considered innate. With the help of a pyramid, he compiled a hierarchy of needs: from the most important (lower) to the lowest (highest).

Maslow's pyramid is based on the rule that the dominant needs located at the bottom must be more or less satisfied before a person can become aware of the presence and be motivated by the needs located at the top, i.e. the satisfaction of the needs located at the bottom of the hierarchy makes it possible awareness of needs located higher in the hierarchy, and their participation in motivation. In order to stimulate a certain individual to achieve the goals of the entire organization, the manager must be given the opportunity to satisfy the needs of the employee in the following ways:

1) physiological needs, aimed at satisfying, first of all, the need for survival, in other words, it is the satisfaction of the need for food, water, clothing, air, etc.;

2) in second place, a person has a need for security and confidence in the future. For each of us, being safe is of great importance;

3) the need for belonging, belonging to a group, team, society. It is very important for each of us to understand that society needs us, we strive to be members of a team, to be involved in its affairs, etc.;

4) the need for recognition and self-affirmation, they are also called the need for prestige.

People feel the need for self-respect, which comes only when a person feels that he has asserted himself, has a significant weight in society, respect from colleagues and family;

5) the needs of self-expression, or spiritual needs, in which a person simply needs to transfer all his knowledge and skills to some industry. Usually, spiritual needs are brought to life through self-expression in creativity, self-realization of the individual. In other words, a person who is "dying" of thirst will first strive to find water, and only after satisfying this need will he be able, for example, to build a house;

6) a person simply needs to live in pleasure, only under this condition does a person feel safe and comfortable, it is then that a person is ready for contacts with the social environment. Only after realizing inner satisfaction and respect from others, a person's needs will begin to grow in accordance with his potential. But if the situation takes a different path of development, then the most important needs may change. For example, at some point a worker may sacrifice a physiological need for a safety need. In order for a high level of needs of the hierarchy to begin to influence a person and induce him to action, it is not always necessary to first satisfy the needs of a lower level. And this means that hierarchical levels are not discrete steps. According to Maslow's theory of needs, needs located in a hierarchy cannot always be fully satisfied. Many needs of people coincide, but we must not forget about exceptions. According to Maslow's theory of needs, the average person satisfies his needs in the following way:

1) physiological needs - 85%;

2) security and protection - 70%;

3) love and belonging - 50%;

4) self-respect - 40%;

5) self-actualization - 10%.

If the needs of a lower level cease to satisfy a person, then he will return to this level and remain there until these needs are sufficiently satisfied.

However, Maslow has repeatedly noted that there are no rigid specifics and frameworks that can be set when determining a person's needs and how to satisfy them.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs and the levels present in it can change among themselves, depending on the personal qualities of each person. And this is actually true, for many people their basic needs are approximately according to Maslow's scheme, but there are also people who have an individual scheme of needs.

Maslow's theory has made a huge contribution to the understanding and awareness of what can affect an employee in his working life for more effective working capacity.

According to Maslow's theory, the leader must carefully observe his subordinates and analyze their activities, but this does not mean that it is necessary to establish total control over all subordinates. Following this, the manager will be able to identify motivators and will be able, at least partially, to satisfy the needs of each employee. But we must not forget that needs change over time and it is impossible to expect that motivation that worked once will work effectively all the time.

5. ERG theory (according to D. Schultz, S. Schultz, "Psychology and work")

ERG theory (existence - "existence", relatedness - "relationships", growth - "growth"), author K. Alderfer.

The theory is based on Maslow's hierarchy of needs. The author considered basic needs related to existence, relationships with other people and growth.

To the needs associated with existence, he attributed those that are directly related to the survival of the individual: food, drink, shelter and security. Needs for relationships with other people can be met through work relationships, self-identification with a particular group, interactions in a particular environment, and outside of work through family and friends.

The need for growth implies the fullest realization of one's professional potential. Needs can be met simultaneously.

6. Two-factor theory of F. Herzberg

In 1959, Herzberg formulated a two-factor model of motivation. He revealed that satisfaction and dissatisfaction with a person's actions are two poles, and the fact that a person's mood directly depends on his motivation and to one degree or another approaches one of the poles.

Herzberg found that in order for a person to get satisfaction from work, it is necessary to pay attention to two groups of factors:

1) “health” factors, this group of factors includes the salary that the employee receives, safety at the workplace, favorable working conditions, a “positive” socio-psychological climate in the team, etc. These factors cannot be attributed to direct work incentives , however, their presence prevents the emergence of a feeling of dissatisfaction with the work;

2) Herzberg called the following factor "satisfactory". As a rule, this group includes the needs to achieve the set goal, responsibility, as well as the recognition of a person in society, the possibility of growth (both in their own eyes and in the eyes of others), etc. Basically, these needs are characterized by the essence of work. You can make a table of these factors.

Work Motivation Factors

Herzberg's theory of motivation is in many ways similar to Maslow's theory of needs. Herzberg's hygiene factors can be correlated with physiological needs, the needs for security and confidence, which Maslow described in such detail in his theory. But it cannot be said that the theories of both scientists are very similar.

In Maslow's theory, hygiene factors are considered as a force that prompts a person to act, while satisfying his needs.

However, according to Herzberg, the hygienic factor as such does not have a special effect on human behavior, and even more so on the satisfaction of needs.

7. The Theory of Job Characteristics by J. R. Hackman and G. R. Oldham (by D. Schultz, S. Schultz, "Psychology and Work")

Performance Theory. The authors - J. R. Hackman and R. Oldham. The theory is based on the correlation of some factors of work and the attitude of performers towards it.

The authors identified the main important parameters of the work:

1) a variety of skills - the more skills and abilities are required for work, the more attractive it is for the performer;

2) completion of the work assignment - it is important to see the end result of the efforts;

3) the importance of work;

4) autonomy - independence increases the employee's self-esteem;

5) feedback - the need for feedback on the quality and efficiency of the employee's work.

For greater efficiency, the authors offer recommendations that are essentially identical to those of Herzberg:

1) the final stage of the worker's assignment should not be a detail, but the entire object;

2) the sequence of work operations should be logical, and the result should be understandable and visual;

3) providing greater autonomy to employees (for example, access to clients);

4) providing employees with control and responsibility for the performance of tasks;

5) the principle of feedback.

8. Cognitive theories of labor motivation (according to D. Schultz, S. Schultz, "Psychology and work")

General Expectations Theory. Author - W. Vroom. The essence of the theory is that people make choices, expecting a certain reward.

With regard to labor activity - the performance of official duties in such a way as to deserve the maximum wage. The level of expectation determines the readiness of the employee for certain efforts.

Justice theory. Author - J. S. Adams. Motivation, according to Adams, directly depends on how the employee is treated in the organization, how much his assessment of his own contribution coincides with the assessment of his contribution by other people, and how fairly the employee's labor activity is paid.

Goal setting theory. Author - E. Lock. Motivation directly depends on the achievement of a specific goal.

An employee who has a specific goal has a higher performance.

Lock was based on the importance for each employee to achieve the goal. He singled out the factors influencing the commitment to the goal:

1) external: the influence of people in power, comrades and remuneration received from outside;

2) interactive: willingness to achieve the goal, rivalry and the opportunity to participate in goal setting;

3) internal: rewards received from themselves, the expectation of success;

4) personal and situational: the need for achievement, endurance, aggressiveness and competitiveness, high self-esteem, success in achieving difficult goals.

The theory of the highly productive labor cycle is based on the relationship between motivation and job satisfaction. This theory is based on the theory of goal setting, but includes the concept of moderators - factors that increase labor efficiency. The more difficult the goal, the higher the motivation and performance of the workers, if their abilities correspond to the complexity of the task and their commitment to the goal and high level of expectations orient them to the good performance of work duties. Remuneration can be of two types: external (increase in wages, career growth) and internal (increase in self-esteem, job satisfaction). High job satisfaction leads to a greater commitment to the organization, a willingness to set and fulfill new goals, and thus a cyclical model of work is obtained.

LECTURE #14

job satisfaction

1. The concept of job satisfaction

job satisfaction - a set of psychological attitudes in relation to the labor activity carried out by the employee in the organization. In the process of professional adaptation and self-identification, the motivation for labor activity and job satisfaction play an important role. Labor motivation is the process of choosing a profession, a model of professional activity and justifying a person's participation in labor activity.

Satisfaction with work primarily depends on the correspondence of the result of labor to the internal needs of the individual.

F. Herzberg identified two groups of factors affecting job satisfaction. The first is hygienic factors, including working and living conditions, organization of work, working hours, provision of benefits and housing. This group of factors affects industrial relations. The second group - motives - includes the satisfaction of internal needs, including recognition of achievements in work, deep integration into the content of work, responsibility, initiative (Schultz D., Schulz S. Psychology and work, St. Petersburg, Peter, 2003).

2. Personal qualities that affect job satisfaction

D. Schultz, S. Schultz in the book "Psychology and Work" highlight personal qualities that affect job satisfaction:

1) age - Job satisfaction increases with age

2) floor - women's wages are often lower than men's;

3) status - satisfaction with work is the higher, the higher the position of the employee;

4) race - discrimination based on race primarily affects the status of candidates and financial situation;

5) cognitive abilities - inconsistency of work activity with the level of intelligence leads to dissatisfaction with work, either due to unrealized opportunities, or due to the excessive complexity of the task;

6) work congruency - satisfaction depends on the correspondence of tasks to the abilities of the performer;

7) attitude towards the employee in the company - fair or unfair, according to the employee, the attitude affects job satisfaction in general;

8) health status;

9) work experience - job satisfaction increases with experience;

10) emotional stability and adaptability - the higher the adaptability and emotional stability, the higher the job satisfaction;

11) leisure organization - satisfaction with work increases if there are corporate holidays, sections, etc.;

12) family and other extra-work interactions - Respectful attitude of the family to the work duties of the individual increases satisfaction.

3. Job satisfaction criteria

The main criteria for employee job satisfaction are:

1) wage level - if the salary corresponds to individual financial needs and expectations;

2) promotion opportunity - a real and objective opportunity for employee growth;

3) leadership qualitythat satisfies the employee;

4) nature of work - compliance of the individual interests and inclinations of the employee with the profile of work;

5) assessment of the work team - the attitude of colleagues to the quality of work of the employee.

4. Behavior of the employee in connection with job satisfaction

D. Schultz, S. Schultz in the book "Psychology and Work" consider the behavior of an employee in connection with job satisfaction and note the following points:

1) labor productivity is higher;

2) the employee is inclined to help other employees;

3) the level of absenteeism is lower;

4) staff turnover is lower.

The totality of all indicators can show how satisfied the employee is with work, management, team, etc. Based on the results of research on job satisfaction, the employer can adjust the work of the organization, develop new systems of interaction with the team, business partners and other stakeholders.

5. Motivation, job satisfaction and wages

Motivation, job satisfaction and wages correlate with each other. In many ways, motivation and satisfaction depend on the degree of involvement of the employee in the labor process. Work engagement is a measure of an employee's identification with their job.

Engagement is understood as the perception of work as the first important thing, acceptance and interest in the best results, the desire to improve and optimize the work process.

Motivation increases if a person is satisfied with work and wages correspond to his contribution to the labor process.

6. Factors of involvement in the labor process

It is impossible not to take into account the personal factor of involvement in the work: personal interest in the performance of the work task, the degree of responsibility of the employee, his creative abilities and production skills, the labor contribution of the employee, material interest.

Personal factors of involvement in work:

1) age - older workers are usually more absorbed in work, as they have more opportunities and incentives for self-realization;

2) the need for professional growth and development;

3) belief in professional ethics.

7. Factors affecting work engagement

The main factors influencing engagement in work are:

1) the presence of incentives;

2) autonomy;

3) variety of work;

4) the ability to evaluate the final result of labor activity;

5) feedback;

6) acceptance of corporatism and corporate ethics;

7) desire for identification with the organization;

8) command methods of work;

9) participation in decision-making;

10) job satisfaction.

LECTURE #15

Labor mobility

1. The concept of labor mobility

Under labor mobility is understood as a change in professional status and role, which reflects the dynamics of professional growth. The elements of labor mobility are career, professional and qualification mobility. Career mobility involves job growth or loss of certain job characteristics by an employee. Professional mobility involves the formation of certain knowledge, skills and abilities by a professional, a change of specialization or its expansion.

2. Types of mobility

Mobility can be horizontal and vertical. In turn, vertical mobility can be upward and downward. In the case of vertical downward mobility, one speaks of a loss of professional status, while in case of upward mobility, one speaks of an increase in status, which is characterized by a high adaptability of the individual and a more complete realization of his professional capabilities. Horizontal mobility reflects the movement of an individual without raising or lowering his status, as in the case of changing jobs, but maintaining the position.

Mobility and dynamism are the most striking characteristics of the individual's adaptive abilities.

LECTURE #16

Physiology of labor

1. The concept of labor physiology

Physiology of labor - a branch of physiology that studies the mechanisms and patterns of human physiological processes in the production environment, the features of the perception and regulation of the labor process by a person. The physiology of labor is closer to medicine and the protection of human health in the workplace than to psychology directly, but still inseparable from it. Knowledge of human physiology is necessary in the design of machines, devices, which provide for human participation, taking into account individual characteristics in the location of control levers, scoreboards, etc. In addition, labor physiology gives an idea of ​​​​the perception of color, music, noise, temperature and other environmental indicators by a person which allows you to organize labor safety in a more efficient way.

2. The history of the formation of labor physiology as an independent discipline

The origin of labor physiology is associated with the growth of production and the emergence of new activities and is attributed to the second half of the XNUMXth century. Such scientists as I. P. Pavlov, I. M. Sechenov, V. M. Bekhterev made a huge contribution to the study of human physiology, including in the conditions of labor activity.

The main tasks of labor physiology are writing recommendations on the organization of the workplace, the effective functioning of the employee and the development of measures that protect the person from the adverse effects of environmental factors.

Based on these tasks, the physiology of labor studies and makes recommendations on the design of the workplace, modes of work and rest, the intensity of labor activity, finds out the optimal and limiting capabilities of a person to perceive, process and issue information.

The physiology of labor also predicts the state of the human body during labor activity, assumes certain time limits for maintaining working capacity, offers ways to reduce fatigue in production and methods for maintaining working capacity. In addition, it is the physiology of labor that makes it possible to predict the course and effectiveness of employee training.

At the moment, the main content of the labor process is the complex of mental activity and physical activity.

3. Physiological principles of labor rationalization

As you know, any labor process can be divided into operations, techniques, actions, movements.

Labor processes are classified according to the following criteria:

1) by type:

a) grasping;

b) supporting;

c) moving;

d) liberation;

2) according to the method of performing the movement;

3) by accuracy:

a) free;

b) adaptive;

4) by functional purpose:

a) basic;

b) correction;

c) additional;

d) emergency;

d) wrong.

labor action - this is a set of labor movements performed without interruption by one or more human organs, for example, take a pen or a part.

When optimizing the structure of labor actions, it is necessary to take into account the possibility of eliminating corrective and additional actions. Labor actions are classified according to two principles:

1) according to the principle of universality:

a) through (take, put, raise);

b) specific;

2) in accordance with their name:

a) moving;

b) connecting;

c) equipment management.

The design and rationalization of labor operations consist in organic merging into a single system according to the laws of production expediency and reflex self-regulation.

The rationalization of labor movements is an important reserve for the growth of labor productivity.

Any labor movement can be characterized from three sides:

1) mechanical, in which the movement is characterized by force, pace, speed, trajectory;

2) psychological, in which movements can be characterized based on their division into basic, additional, emergency, superfluous, adaptive, etc.;

3) physiological, labor movement is considered as a conditioned motor reflex, in which the labor operation is considered from the point of view of reflexes.

motor action can be characterized as a set of interrelated components of motor reactions, which requires dynamic and static efforts.

Evaluation of the rationality of working movements takes into account their speed, ease of implementation and optimal energy consumption.

The rationalization of working movements is based on the following principles: the correct use of active and passive forces, smoothness, continuity and rhythm of movements, roundness or ovality of the trajectory of moving links, a moderate range of movements, a combination of both hands, elimination of unnecessary movements, limitation of static stresses, etc.

The study of labor movements is primarily aimed at the rational and effective design of labor operations, the study and analysis of the pace and rhythm of work, the development of science-based time standards based on microelement rationing.

4. Work environment factors

Work environment factors:

1) electromagnetic;

2) the state of the air environment;

3) mechanical;

4) psychophysical (intensity, monotony of labor, rest regimens);

5) aesthetic.

Factors of the working environment affect the labor process as a whole and can both increase the efficiency of labor and lower it. In addition, the factors of the working environment affect the safety of work in general, develop a creative approach to work, form occupational diseases, etc. Factors of the working environment affect the amount of wages, working hours and the number of benefits provided to the employee.

5. Health

Working capacity - the ability of an individual to perform a certain amount of work for a certain period of time at a certain level of efficiency and active involvement in the labor process. In many ways, working capacity depends on external working conditions, professional interest and preparedness, individual characteristics of a person, temperament and health status of an employee.

There are several stages of working capacity: working out, optimal working capacity, fatigue stage, "second wind", or final impulse. In the development stage, a person focuses his attention on working actions, carefully performs a sequence of working movements.

At this stage, the monotony of labor and the fatigue of the worker are still absent. In the stage of optimal performance, a person shows the highest performance (quantitative and qualitative). In the stage of fatigue, a sharp decrease in labor efficiency occurs. If a person continues to work, then the stage of "second wind" begins - a person gathers strength with a single effort and continues to work at fairly high rates, but then hyperfatigue sets in. Efficiency is reflected in the performance curve, which shows the correlation between execution time and activity efficiency.

Working capacity - the most important indicator of the influence of the organization of working conditions, professional qualities and adaptive qualities of an employee on the labor process. A temporary decrease in working capacity occurs due to a long period of a certain type of labor activity.

6. Fatigue

Fatigue - this is the functional state of the body, manifested in a temporary decrease in performance, in non-specific changes in the physiological functions of a person, justified by a feeling of fatigue as a result of intensive or long-term work.

Fatigue is mainly due to the influence of two groups of factors: the development of inhibitory processes in the central nervous system and metabolic disorders. Regardless of labor activity, the nervous system is under a huge load associated with the processing of excitation flows. In addition, fatigue can occur after excessive and intense work. This can lead to malfunctions in the body, deterioration of the physico-chemical properties of blood, and a decrease in the amount of sugar. All this will certainly affect the working capacity of the central nervous system.

The state of the nervous system can be determined by three factors: the expenditure of energy resources, their restoration after the end of the working day, and the processes of inhibition.

7. Aesthetics of production

Aesthetic characteristics of work allow each employee to make adjustments to the organization of working conditions, develop new cultural norms and values ​​of the professional community, contribute to high efficiency and raising the tone of employees.

In terms of production, aesthetics should carry an element not only of the "beautiful", but also of the "useful".

In relation to the labor process, aesthetics is the science of the beauty of labor, the beauty of the usefulness of the perception and assessment by a person of the elements of the working environment, and the aestheticization of the working environment is an integral part of the labor process. Industrial aesthetics includes architectural design, music, light and color.

8. The role of color and music in the aestheticization of production

According to their effect on the central nervous system, colors are divided into three groups:

1) exciting - red, yellow;

2) inhibitory - shades of blue;

3) neutral - white, green.

Dark tones in the color of industrial premises depress the psyche of workers and reduce efficiency, since the psychophysiological reactions of the body are of a reflex nature. But at the same time, colors in specific cases can change their functions - for example, cold colors in cold conditions do not refresh, but depress. The psychological task of the color scheme in production is to stimulate and support the emotional tone of the worker. But at the same time, the perception of color largely depends on the mood of the worker. Knowing the nature of the impact of color, you can thus choose the color scheme of the room in order to neutralize the negative factors of production.

In addition, the color factor is used in labor protection and industrial information media.

Music is not only a means of aestheticizing production, but also a factor in reducing the monotony of work, more functional recreation.

But it is necessary to take into account the taste preferences of employees and select unobtrusive music, otherwise it will become an annoying and tiring factor. Industrial music should contribute to the development of good musical taste, tone up and promote a creative approach to work.

9. Extreme and unusual working conditions

Under extreme and unusual working conditions imply a set of physical, chemical, biological, socio-psychological and aesthetic factors of the external environment that differ from the standard ones and are associated with greater labor intensity. Tension manifests itself in physical overload, lack of time to complete a work task, exposure to environmental factors, limited contacts with people, etc. For such industries, a preferential wage system, a special system of professional selection, medical commissions and training processes have been developed, which is caused, first of all, turn, for safety reasons.

10. Categories of extremity of work

There are several categories of work in such conditions:

1) 1 category - optimal working environment with a favorable work load;

2) 2 category - maximum permissible working conditions;

3) 3 category - not quite favorable working conditions, provoking the deterioration of some psychophysiological indicators of the employee;

4) 4 category - unfavorable working conditions that form pre-pathological conditions in the worker;

5) 5 category - very unfavorable working conditions, leading to pathological changes in the state of the employee;

6) 6 category - pathological changes already at the beginning of labor activity.

LECTURE #17

Working conditions

1. Location of the organization

Not only the employee's attitude to work depends on the location of the organization, but also his mood, desire to work, interest in work and much more. The location can be evaluated according to the following criteria:

1) proximity to the place of residence of the employee - the time required to get to the place of work;

2) proximity to the city center;

3) how convenient it is to get to work, including the convenience of parking, transport stops;

4) proximity to the place of work of urban infrastructure - the opportunity to purchase the necessary goods and services after work.

2. Care for children and dependents of employees

The care of children and dependents of employees is important, because if a person cannot fully concentrate on work responsibilities, work efficiency and safety suffer. Caring for employees and their families increases the prestige of the organization, forms corporatism and attachment to work. An extensive network of kindergartens, sanatoriums, rest houses, tourist camps for employees and their families forms a positive attitude of the organization and increases labor efficiency.

3. Office and workplace design

The design of the office and workplace is very important and is considered in terms of several criteria.

Air ventilation - not only the physical health of the employee, but also the morale depends on the purity of the air.

Polluted air, a stuffy atmosphere at work provoke rapid fatigue, a decrease in activity, ability to work and attention, which is fraught with safety violations.

Of particular importance is the location of the office on the shady or sunny side. Constant exposure to sunlight not only tires the eyes, heats up the air in the room, but also negatively affects office equipment, which leads to stress and a negative attitude towards work in general. If you can not open the windows, the situation is aggravated. Open windows - the possibility of ventilation, fresh air, which is especially important in spring and summer, since the smells of awakening nature increase the mood of workers and reduce fatigue.

Slow elevators or their absence in the organization - the lack of the possibility of rapid vertical movement forms a negative attitude towards work in the employee, the speed of completing tasks decreases, and fatigue increases. Slow elevators create a nervous atmosphere, a state of "lateness", which negatively affects the quality of work.

Small office space - lack of space for creativity, rigid framework, inability to change the interior "for oneself" form a person's attitude to work as temporary, lack of interest and deep understanding of the details of the labor process. In addition, in the case of a large number of people in the room, the employee increases fatigue, reduces attention and interest in work, since there is no way to concentrate on the work task.

4. Nature of work

Illumination is considered in several aspects:

1) light intensity - too bright or too dim light provokes rapid fatigue, drowsiness or irritability in the worker;

2) distribution of light - unequal distribution of light, when one part of the office is lit better than the other, also increases the level of neuroticism of workers, forms rapid fatigue;

3) natural light - by the end of the working day or on a rainy day, the light intensity drops, and workers have to strain their eyesight, which provokes headaches, fatigue, irritability;

4) noise - there is the concept of "level of permissible noise", at each enterprise it is different.

Noise includes the sound of a running computer, the voices of colleagues, the noise of traffic outside the window, the noise of machines in production, and so on. The totality of all these sounds is measured by the level of permissible noise. If the noise level exceeds the norm, it negatively affects the state of the employee, both moral and physical, increases fatigue, irritability, and forms some occupational diseases;

5) color - the impact of color on a person is very high. Not only the efficiency of the employee’s work, but also his moral and mental state depends on what colors prevail in the workplace;

6) music - taste characteristics and intensity, volume of music are important. We can talk about the positive properties of music in the context of increasing labor efficiency, reducing fatigue;

7) air temperature and humidity are important and largely depend on the presence of fans and heaters. Both cold and heat negatively affect a person and significantly reduce his performance, desire to work and increase fatigue, which is fraught with violations of safety rules at work;

8) the mode of work is considered as one of the factors of the labor process. The moral and mental state of the worker depends on the mode of work. In the case of night work, it is especially important to observe safety precautions, since the human biological clock at night significantly reduces efficiency and attention. Sleep restrictions for a long period affect the physical condition of the employee, form insomnia, neurotic disorders, fatigue;

9) work schedule - a specific work schedule develops an employee's regime, traditions and allows you to discipline employees. In the case of a free work schedule, great opportunities open up for the creative process, for a more efficient distribution of time by the employee, the opportunity to build their time in such a way as to be engaged in both family and work without prejudice to any of these areas;

10) breaks for rest are of great importance, especially in conveyor production, since in one working mode (monotonous) fatigue increases sharply, attention decreases and work injuries are possible. Distraction, switching make it possible to restore working capacity, take a break and increase labor productivity.

The nature of the work can be assessed according to several criteria:

1) simplification of work, its fragmentation affects the physical and moral condition. When a person does not see the final stage of his work, the products of labor, his interest in work falls, and attention also decreases, which leads to production defects and safety violations;

2) boredom and monotony affect the employee's involvement in the labor process;

3) fatigue - the main cause of injuries and defects in the workplace, in addition, a constant feeling of fatigue forms a negative attitude towards work in a person, morale becomes worse, aggressiveness and unwillingness to work increase; With labor, morale becomes worse, aggressiveness and unwillingness to work increase;

4) discrimination forms a production conflict, worsens the moral state of a person, reduces his self-esteem and self-respect, and affects the quality of his work.

LECTURE #18

Safe Operation

1. The concept of safety

Safe Operation - a set of measures and rules to ensure a decent level of labor safety, protection against industrial injuries increases labor productivity in general. Safety measures are based on certain requirements for the specifics of the enterprise, working conditions and the number of employees of the enterprise. Compliance with certain safety rules not only reduces injuries at the enterprise, but also stimulates a person to non-standard approaches to work. Taking into account the psychological and cultural aspects in the work of the organization can improve production efficiency, labor motivation and attachment of employees to the enterprise.

We must not forget about the observance of safety regulations and labor protection. Under labor protection is understood as a system of preserving health and, most importantly, human life in the process of fulfilling his labor duties, including legal, socio-economic, organizational, technical, sanitary and hygienic, treatment-and-prophylactic, rehabilitation and other types of measures.

Production facilities and means of production are accepted for operation only if they have a safety certificate. In organizations with more than 100 employees, a committee (commission) on labor protection is created on a mandatory basis on a parity basis; norms regulating the activities of bodies of supervision and control over labor protection are established; rules on liability for violation of labor protection rules.

Each head of the organization is obliged to perform a number of tasks on labor safety within the existing technology of workplaces.

Primarily, these tasks are designed to protect the worker from injury or death.

As technological progress develops, technology developers try to reduce the degree of risk in labor processes, but you cannot completely protect yourself from the risk of becoming a participant in, for example, an emergency.

At the enterprise, two types of labor safety violations can be distinguished: an emergency situation and an employee's error.

An emergency situation is commonly understood as a complication of working conditions that make it impossible to perform work duties due to the threat of an accident.

The main causes of an emergency situation and injuries can be considered labor intensity, technical support features, socio-psychological conditions, the negative impact of sanitary and hygienic conditions, etc.

Every employee has the right to work at workplaces that are safe for his health. Also, within the framework of labor safety, the employee has the right to:

1) compulsory social insurance against accidents at work and occupational diseases in accordance with federal law; obtaining reliable information from the employer, relevant state bodies and public organizations about the conditions and labor protection at the workplace, about the existing risk and harm to health;

2) refusal to perform work in the event of a danger to his life and health due to violation of labor protection requirements, with the exception of cases provided for by federal laws, until such danger is eliminated;

3) provision of means of individual and collective protection in accordance with the requirements of labor protection at the expense of the employer, training in safe working methods and techniques at the expense of the employer;

4) professional retraining at the expense of the employer in case of liquidation of the workplace due to violation of labor protection requirements, a request for an inspection of the conditions and labor protection at his workplace by federal executive authorities in the field of state supervision and control over compliance with labor legislation and labor protection by employees those carrying out state examination of working conditions, as well as bodies of trade union control over compliance with labor legislation and labor protection;

5) appeal to state authorities of the Russian Federation, state authorities of constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local governments, to the employer, to associations of employers, as well as to trade unions, their associations and other representative bodies authorized by employees on labor protection issues;

6) personal participation or participation through their representatives in the consideration of issues related to ensuring safe working conditions at his workplace, and in the investigation of an accident at work or an occupational disease that happened to him;

7) an extraordinary medical examination (examination) in accordance with medical recommendations while retaining his place of work (position) and average earnings during the passage of the specified medical examination (examination); compensations established by law, collective agreement, agreement, employment contract, if he is engaged in hard work and work with harmful and / or dangerous working conditions.

2. Factors affecting labor safety

The main factors affecting labor safety are:

1) field of activity;

2) duration of the working day;

3) the time of day during which labor activity falls;

4) illumination;

5) air temperature;

6) design of the premises;

7) design of labor tools;

8) personal protective equipment;

9) protective devices at the enterprise;

10) social pressure on the employee;

11) human factor - state of health, emotional stability, alcohol or drug intoxication, fatigue, work experience, age, personal characteristics.

There is also a theory about the predisposition to emergencies, which consists in the fact that some people are more "tuned" to accidents than others.

3. Accident prevention

The condition of unplannedness in the definition of an accident turns out to be quite obvious. The act of intentionally inflicting bodily harm on oneself by an employee would not be treated as an industrial accident, but would be a criminal offence.

According to GOST 12.0.002-80, an accident is considered only as a result of exposure of an employee to a production factor that is dangerous for him. But one may not agree with this, since a dangerous situation in the workplace can arise even in the absence of danger. To avoid accidents at work, the following points must be observed:

1) accounting for errors. To do this, each accident at work is carefully analyzed according to several criteria:

a) the exact time and place of the accident;

b) the nature of the work and the number of performers;

c) the identity of the victim;

d) the nature of the accident and its causes;

e) the consequences of the accident, damage to the enterprise and the person;

2) changing the design of the workplace. These include:

a) equipping machines that are potentially dangerous to humans with special protective devices;

b) maintaining cleanliness in the premises;

c) adequate lighting of hazardous areas;

d) comfortable temperature;

e) convenient location and coloring of personal protective equipment;

3) an arrangement of levers and devices adequate to the strength of the worker;

4) training of personnel in safe working methods, information on the location of personal protective equipment, methods of using these means;

5) promotion of safety rules through booklets, posters, warning signs, competitions and training at the enterprise on safety rules.

4. Occupational diseases

Occupational disease statistics reflect the prevalence of certain diseases in each type of occupation. The impact of factors directly related to professional duties has a pathological effect on both the mental state and the health of the employee. In addition to constantly acting harmful factors, it is necessary to take into account industrial injuries. The legislation of each country, to one degree or another, provides certain guarantees to employees who have received injuries or occupational diseases in the form of benefits, allowances, pensions, etc.

Most accidents are caused by human error, machine failure or environmental conditions.

LECTURE #19

Ergonomics

1. The concept of ergonomics

Ergonomics (from the Greek ergon - "work", nomos - "law", or "law of work") is a field of knowledge that comprehensively studies the labor activity of a person in the system "man - technology - environment" in order to ensure the efficiency, safety and comfort of labor activities. Therefore, studies of ergonomics are based on determining the patterns of mental and physiological processes that underlie certain types of labor activity, studying the features of human interaction with tools and objects of labor.

The emergence of ergonomics was facilitated by the problems associated with the introduction and operation of new equipment and technologies in the twentieth century, namely the growth of injuries at work, staff turnover, etc., as scientific and technological progress began to gain momentum, and this required a new unification of sciences with the active involvement of psychology, hygiene and much more.

Modern ergonomics acts as an integral science of labor activity, which allows you to increase labor efficiency by optimizing working conditions and all processes associated with it. Under the efficiency of labor in this case is not only high labor productivity, but also a positive impact on the personality of the worker, satisfaction with his work. The data obtained with the help of ergonomics are used in the development of recommendations in the system of scientific organization of labor. Ergonomics solves the problems of optimizing labor activity, promotes labor protection, ensuring its hygiene and labor safety. And if labor hygiene in ergonomics is organized on the basis of the requirements of physiology and medicine, then the ergonomic aspect of labor safety is solved mainly with the direct intervention of psychology.

It should be noted that ergonomics deals not only with the improvement of working conditions with existing equipment, but also with the development of recommendations for the design of new equipment and a new organization of labor from the standpoint of the requirements of this science. Based on the psychological, hygienic and other working conditions, it develops appropriate requirements for technology, including technical means of labor safety.

Modern ergonomics explores not only the improvement of working conditions with the existing technical equipment, but also the development of recommendations for a new organization of labor from the standpoint of the requirements of this science.

2. The history of the formation of ergonomics as an independent discipline

The first prerequisites for the development of a new science of labor were laid in 1857 and based on the study of the regularities of the science of nature, proposed Vojtech Jastrzembowski.

In the future, the same meaning in the concept of "ergonomics" was invested by many other scientists (V. M. Bekhterev, V. N. Myasishchev and etc.). Domestic scientists back in the 1920s. it was noted that labor activity is not given due attention and there is no science that fully devotes its research and development to human labor. 1949 is considered the year of the birth of a new science.

The active development and formation of ergonomics as an independent scientific discipline took place in the 50s. 20th century and contacts the organization of the Ergonomic Research Society of C. Marella. It is from this moment that the active development of ergonomics in many countries begins. In the USSR, the development of ergonomics is associated with the emergence and formation in the 30-XNUMXs. XNUMXth century scientific organization of labor. Many prominent scientists were engaged in the study of human labor activity - A. K. Gastev, P. M. Kerzhentsev and others.

Soviet ergonomics focused not only on improving production efficiency, but also on maintaining the health and development of the employee's personality, developing corporatism, the ideological component of production and the corresponding system of norms and values.

3. The subject of ergonomics

The subject of ergonomics is the study of the system man - machine - environment and its action. Ergonomics considers the distribution of labor between a person and a machine, monitors compliance with labor safety when interacting with mechanisms, analyzes and distributes the duties of operators, develops the design of workplaces taking into account anthropometric data, including for people with disabilities. Ergonomics is based on psychology, sociology, physiology and medicine, occupational health, general systems theory, theories of management and organization of work, labor protection, some technical sciences and technical aesthetics.

4. Methodological basis of ergonomics

Methodological base of ergonomics is a systems theory that allows you to get a comprehensive picture of the production process and suggests ways to improve it, which includes taking into account the inclinations, the nature of each employee, job satisfaction, which undoubtedly affects the efficiency and quality of work.

5. Purpose and tasks of ergonomics

The purpose ergonomics is the study of the laws of labor processes, the role of human factors in labor activity and increasing production efficiency while observing labor safety conditions.

In addition, ergonomics includes the study of conflict situations, stress in the workplace, fatigue and stress, taking into account the individual characteristics of the employee.

Ergonomics pays special attention to the process of selection, training and retraining of specialists.

The creation of an information base, communications, workplace design directly affects the production process and relationships.

The development of uniform standards and criteria for labor activity for each profession in such conditions is important for safety, minimizing emergencies and optimizing working conditions.

Based on the above goals, several main theoretical tasks can be formulated:

1) development of specific categories of ergonomics, which reflect the specifics of the subject, content and methods;

2) search and description of the relationship between human labor and the ergonomic parameters of technical systems and the external environment;

3) development of theoretical foundations for designing the activities of a human operator, taking into account the characteristics of technical systems;

4) study of the patterns of interaction between a person and technical systems, etc.

6. Reliability of a person as a part of the ergatic system

Under human reliability is understood as the preservation of product quality and an adequate attitude to the work process of the employee. An error in a person's production activity can be caused by employee fatigue, making the wrong decision, not taking into account external factors in the labor process, or a defect in the mechanism with which the employee interacts.

The reliability of a person depends on the state of health, working conditions, age, work experience, work motivation, involvement in the labor process, etc.

7. Workplace

There are several definitions for the concept of "workplace". Let's consider a few of them.

The workplace is understood as an area that is equipped with all the technical items and tools necessary for work that are necessary for an employee to perform their job duties.

Workplace - part of the workspace, functionally organized for the performance of an employee or a team of production activities.

Job Requirements:

1) the availability of sufficient working space for the implementation of labor activities;

2) availability of main and auxiliary production equipment;

3) ensuring sufficient physical, visual and auditory connections between production employees;

4) availability of convenient approaches to the equipment;

5) compliance with safety regulations (availability of means of protection against hazardous production factors);

6) carrying out activities aimed at maintaining the tone of the employee;

7) compliance with the standards of the working environment (permissible noise level, air pollution, temperature conditions, etc.).

Distinguish between the workplace of managerial personnel, middle managers and key workers. The organization of the workplace depends on the working conditions, the organization of labor and production at the enterprise, the status characteristics of the employee. The workplace should correspond to the psychological type of the employee, contribute to its most efficient functioning, preserve its health and improve the personality of the employee, in connection with which the recommendations of the psychological service of the enterprise, the personal characteristics of the employee, factors for maintaining health and recommendations on occupational health, ethics and aesthetics should be taken into account organizations.

8. Working posture

When assessing the intensity of work, an important role is played by the working posture. A normal working posture is one in which the worker does not have to bend over more than 10-15 degrees. and it is maintained by minimal muscle tension. It is believed that the sitting posture is more comfortable and more functional than the standing posture, but in some industries it is the standing posture that is necessary, since it gives more room for movement and allows you to more dynamically respond to the conditions of the labor process.

Also, in the workplace, when performing work duties, tension can be considered in three aspects, namely, as the tension of analyzer functions, emotional tension and intellectual tension.

Let's take a closer look at all three types of tension:

1) intensity of analyzer functions. It usually occurs when the voltage of signals of various modalities, such as vision, hearing, smell, tactile sensitivity. These signals can be divided into several types of physical force of occurrence:

a) weak - below the operational threshold;

b) optimal - within the intervals of the boundaries of the operational threshold;

c) annoying - above the operational threshold.

Another approach to assessing the degree of load on the analyzers is that the degree of load is compared with the category of normative indicators.

The degree of visual strain can be characterized depending on the category of work. There are six categories of visual work depending on the size of the object in the field of view. The degree of hearing strain is more difficult to assess, since it can be determined by the audibility of speech and by the norms of permissible sound levels directly for a particular workplace;

2) emotional stress. Emotional tension in modern enterprises is the main factor in determining the success of labor activity. Emotional tension can be assessed by production criteria that arise in unfavorable emotional states. These criteria include temporary (work on an individual schedule or work in conditions of acute lack of time) and motivational factors (emergencies, responsibility for safety);

3) intellectual stress. The magnitude of intellectual tension cannot be divided into categories. It is possible to determine the degree of intellectual intensity only by such factors as work associated with the need to develop algorithms for activities of varying complexity; work related to decision-making at various levels; work related to the need for the participation of non-standard, creative components of the activity.

9. Monotony of work

Monotone - monotonous repetition of work operations. The danger of monotony lies in the reduction of attention to the production process, rapid fatigue and a decrease in interest in the labor process, which affects labor safety in general. One of the forms predisposing to the formation of monotony is automatism - activities carried out without the direct participation of consciousness. It is formed as a result of several factors: many years of experience, routine work, lack of involvement in the labor process, imagination and creativity, physical overload. This is of particular importance in complex industries or industries with harmful working conditions, where accuracy and attention are of decisive importance. Monotony is accompanied by boredom, apathy to work. But it cannot be precisely determined that the performance of these particular actions is a monotonous and boring task. Each person determines for himself the type of his activity and gives it his own objective assessment. For example, one employee working on an assembly line considers his work monotonous and boring, while another, on the contrary, considers it very interesting. Many people engaged in dynamic, active work, which cannot be called monotonous, consider it boring, uninteresting.

In such cases, much depends on motivation.

Therefore, strict observance of labor safety regulations, control over the labor process and the alternation of periods of work and rest (physical minutes and others) are of decisive importance.

Measures to combat monotony

The best way to combat boredom is to expand the range of responsibilities, complicate the work or enrich it with such functions and responsibilities that can act as incentives for one or another employee.

The manager needs to pay attention to the mode and schedule of work of employees, to social and physical working conditions:

1) pay attention to the noise level in the room where the main work takes place, since if the noise level in the room exceeds the norm, it is difficult for the employee to concentrate on the performance of his work duties, the noise in the room also leads to certain psychological consequences, such as lowering or hearing loss. It should be noted that sometimes a noisy environment is the cost of certain professions and there is no getting away from it. However, hearing loss in such cases is equated to an industrial injury, and the employer is obliged to pay compensation;

2) the color scheme of the room is also very important for working employees. Of course, the color of the walls does not affect the psychological microclimate in the team, the productivity of labor, the reduction in the level of marriage, the accident rate. But a certain color can add coziness to the interior of the room, give it a more pleasant working environment. The color of the walls also affects the perception of a person, an employee, and the size of the room. For example, painting walls in light colors visually makes the room more spacious, while dark-colored walls visually reduce the space.

Interior decorators say that reds and oranges are warm, while blues and greens are cool. For example, if the walls are painted in bright, saturated red-orange tones, then in the summer it will psychologically seem to employees that the room is very hot, even if the air conditioner is on. And if the walls of the room are painted in lighter, calmer shades, then during the cold period of time, the employees of such a room will think that it is very cold in it. And this means that if you just choose the wrong color tone for the walls, the efficiency of the team may decrease, and the manager will have to listen to complaints from employees instead of work;

3) Recently, many scientists have conducted research on the effect of lighting on human performance, and found that long-term engagement in small work or reading a book in dim lighting affects vision and significantly reduces it. Very bright, dazzling light or, conversely, dim lighting adversely affect productivity. And you can also pay attention to the rational organization of the labor process; increasing the employee's interest in the work task; ensuring visual productivity of work for the employee; attracting machines to facilitate the work of workers; alternation of work activity; establishing the optimal duration of work; development of a system of material and moral incentives.

10. Working conditions

The study of the influence of working conditions began at the end of the XNUMXth century. and has been an integral part of the work process ever since. K. Marx и F. Engels studied the situation of the working class in England and drew conclusions about the dependence of labor efficiency on working conditions, the living conditions of the worker, the length of the working day, and others. At the moment, the main points of organizing the workspace of an employee are legislatively fixed, for example, the length of the working day, vacation regimes, additional payment for hazardous production, and the amount of the minimum wage. In addition, there are certain norms of production activity, which include certain dimensions of the workplace, compliance with hygiene requirements and comfort of the workplace.

Working conditions largely depend on the status of the worker, but should not be discriminatory. The efficiency of production, the motivation of the employee to achieve the goal, the stimulation of a creative approach to work duties and comfortable psychological relations in the team directly depend on working conditions.

11. Psychophysiological foundations of ergonomics

This branch of ergonomics studies, first of all, the individual characteristics of a person's labor behavior, both mental and physiological properties.

Mental activity is represented by three factors - cognitive, emotional and volitional. Physiological characteristics are manifested in the activity of the brain, physical readiness for work, the ability to carry out long-term loads and the period of recovery of motor activity, parameters of respiration and speech function.

12. Pros and cons of machines in production

Advantages. Today, there are almost no enterprises left that use manual labor. Technological progress has led to the emergence of a huge number of enterprises that have fully or partially switched to production automation. The advantages of machines over humans are as follows:

1) machines can perceive the colors of the spectrum, inaccessible to humans;

2) reliable monitoring over time;

3) fast execution of accurate calculations;

4) storage of a large amount of information;

5) great power;

6) long-term use with a certain level of efficiency;

7) reduction of defective products;

8) no holidays and illnesses, the exception may be a failure or breakdown of the machine, etc.

It is also impossible not to say about disadvantages of machine production:

1) lack of flexibility;

2) the impossibility of independent corrections of the program;

3) lack of improvisation;

4) even the latest equipment cannot work without human intervention;

5) lack of creativity and new ideas;

6) failures in the program, technical problems, etc.

LECTURE #20

Work as a source of stress

1. The concept of stress

Stress - this is a violation of the psychological state as a result of traumatic circumstances, negative working conditions or other aspects of human activity. Psychological stress in the workplace is a person's reaction to a difficult, insoluble, in his opinion, situation. Stress - this is a violation of the psychological state as a result of traumatic circumstances, negative working conditions. Many of us have experienced stress and experienced emotional discomfort during it. Stress refers to the mental, physical and chemical reactions of a person to stressors. Small stressful situations cannot be avoided. As a rule, stress is a consequence of fatigue and fatigue. The number of "patients" seeking medical help due to stress is growing every year. The main stress factors manifest themselves during work, work (when a person does not feel his importance, he is not trusted with a certain occupation, etc.): lack of feedback from colleagues, management, working conditions, noise, lighting, equipment of the room where he works person, excessive pressure from colleagues, etc.

You can distinguish between deep stress, moderate stress and everyday or habitual stress. Everyday stress is understood as the cumulative features of the human psyche, especially working in difficult working conditions, in unsatisfactory production or in a team that does not suit the employee.

Industrial stress has a negative impact on labor productivity and a person's ability to work, motivation to work decreases, defects in production increase, and the level of injuries at an enterprise or organization increases.

Often, work stress leads to alcoholism, absenteeism, theft, and staff turnover increases dramatically.

The problem of work stress has led to the fact that in psychology a new branch of study has appeared, which is called "Psychology of Occupational Health" - a branch of psychology that deals with the problems of protecting the health of employees and preventive work with members of the organization.

The branch of knowledge began to emerge even when psychology began to take shape as an independent science. A huge contribution to the development and foundation of this industry was made by the famous German scientist who taught at Harvard University, Hugo Münsterberg. During the First World War (1914-1918), the British government created the Council for the Study of Fatigue in Production, in which G. Munsterberg took a great part. In this Council, he studied inefficient work, fatigue, fatigue of workers engaged mainly in manual labor.

For the first time the term "psychology of occupational health" was proposed in 1990 by a psychologist Jonathan Raymond. The main goal of studying the psychology of occupational health was to study the negative impact of stress on the body and people's health and to develop methods and ways to deal with stress.

It should be noted that each person's response to stress is individual. Some people easily endure all the hardships of stress, while others, on the contrary, withdraw into themselves and cannot cope with stress for a long time. This is due to the capabilities of this or that person, his personal characteristics, the degree of information load, the degree of job satisfaction, because when you do what you love, you do not notice overwork and fatigue, but gladly exceed the plan for a month and even a quarter in a week.

Stress negatively affects human physiology, forms many psychosomatic diseases, which are difficult to cure, and therefore it is necessary to eliminate the primary cause - stress.

2. Causes of work stress

The main causes of work stress are:

1) overload or unloaded work;

2) organizational changes;

3) role uncertainty and role conflict;

4) an epidemic of psychogenic illness;

5) exhaustion of physical and spiritual forces;

6) workaholism.

3. Forms of manifestation of industrial stresses

The main forms of manifestation of industrial stresses can be:

1) depression;

2) aggressiveness towards colleagues;

3) unwillingness to go to work, absenteeism;

4) a large number of product defects;

5) excessive workload;

6) hyperresponsibility, and as a result - conflict with subordinates and others.

4. Prevention of work stress

Consider the main points of stress prevention and ways to deal with their consequences:

1) creation of a favorable organizational climate;

2) providing employees with the opportunity to organize their work themselves;

3) a clear definition of the duties of employees;

4) elimination of the causes leading to overload or underload of work;

5) social support;

6) psychological assistance at the enterprise;

7) general health programs.

It must also be remembered that you can not take on all the work at once and try to redo everything for the week ahead.

Do not set "Napoleonic" plans for yourself, because only people with "Napoleonic" capabilities and forces can fulfill such plans. After all, it is overstrain, a large amount of work and affairs that are the source of stress and conflicts in the team.

Individual approaches to stress prevention

As mentioned earlier, each person experiences stress and stressful situations in their own way. Some go into themselves and abstract from the whole world for a long time, while others, on the contrary, need constant communication so that stress does not become a chronic disease for them. Anyone who is in a stressful situation should, if possible, contact an organizational psychologist or a psychologist on the side in order to quickly get out of a stressful situation without any special complications. After all, if stress is not “treated”, then it can develop into various kinds of diseases, and then it will take much more time to recover. The psychologist will help and teach relaxation techniques, in which a person can temporarily escape from all problems. Also, with the help of a psychologist or, if desired, the person himself can master the modification of behavior and biological connection.

LECTURE #21

Psychological aspects of social and labor rehabilitation of sick and disabled people

1. The concept of rehabilitation

The process of psychological rehabilitation is especially important in cases where the end of inpatient treatment does not mean that the patient has fully recovered and is healthy and can begin full-fledged professional and social activity.

Rehabilitation is a process, the purpose of which is to prevent the development of disability during the period of treatment of diseases and to help disabled people achieve social, psychological, physical, professional and economic usefulness and stability within the framework of an existing disease, bodily ailment.

There are three main types of rehabilitation of the disabled:

1) medical rehabilitation is associated with the restoration of a person's ability to work by exposing him to medical preparations;

2) vocational rehabilitation involves the return of the employee to the professional environment, taking into account the consequences of the disease and the remaining ability to work;

3) social rehabilitation consists in the adaptation of the individual to the conditions of his social and family life that have changed as a result of the disease, while it is necessary to prevent his isolation from society.

The task of any type of rehabilitation is to create a balance between the human psyche and the environment, to increase its adaptive abilities.

2. Legislated attitude towards people with disabilities

In the legislation of many countries, certain benefits are fixed for enterprises that provide jobs for people with disabilities.

This includes special regimes of work and rest, payment and quota provision of jobs for this contingent. It also provides for the responsibility of the enterprise for employees who have received injuries, disabilities or occupational diseases as a result of work.

On the other hand, people with disabilities have largely retained their skills and abilities and can be actively involved in the labor process. For this category of the population, it is important to be included in the labor process, to have opportunities for implementation, a certain circle of contacts, which affects the formation of their self-esteem.

3. Social rehabilitation

Social rehabilitation is a set of measures aimed at restoring the status of a disabled person, ensuring the socialization of the individual.

The creation of employment centers largely does not take into account the special needs of disabled and sick people, the task of the state is to change such practices and involve disabled people in society. On the other hand, the involvement of people with disabilities in the production process can significantly reduce the problem of poverty and exclusion of this category, develop an active position of people with disabilities and increase the level of society's tolerance for people with special needs.

Social and labor rehabilitation is based on certain principles: the psychologist affects the sensory and motor functions, while using the mechanisms and capabilities of the disabled person.

In a psychological crisis associated with disability, social rehabilitation is designed to help an individual find or build new life meanings and help discover the possibilities and prospects for their implementation.

The holistic reaction of the individual to the disease, disability and individual ways of dealing with the disease are taken into account.

4. Activities aimed at the rehabilitation of disabled people

The implementation of programs to maintain and increase the level of employment of persons with disabilities includes the following activities:

1) psychological counseling of disabled people and their families;

2) assistance in professional self-determination, career guidance with subsequent training and retraining;

3) training in the skills of psychological self-regulation;

4) socio-psychological training in order to form professionally necessary qualities and increase chances for employment;

5) providing information about possible vacancies;

6) material subsidies for the period of training and retraining.

5.Design controls for the disabled

The controls for the disabled have the following features:

1) mechanisms should not require much effort in management;

2) the ability to perform a selected number of operations simultaneously;

3) the advantage of buttons over levers;

4) convenience of an arrangement of buttons and switches;

5) taking into account the characteristics of people with disabilities.

LECTURE #22

Professionalization

1. The concept of professionalization

Under professionalization the process of becoming a professional, that is, a person who is fluent in the skills, knowledge, skills necessary for a certain type of activity. Professionalism is reflected in the authority of a person, the quality and efficiency of his work, the ability to transfer his experience to other people, the ability to cope with non-standard work situations. The process of becoming an employee as a professional depends on the personal abilities of the employee, working conditions, labor motivation and the interests of the employee himself. Professionalization depends on the experience of activity in this industry, on the education of a person and on the qualitative return of the employee.

2. Stages of professionalization

There are several stages of professionalization:

1) primary formation - at this stage, the employee has sufficiently mastered the skills, knowledge, and abilities necessary for his professional activity. The quality of labor and the efficiency of labor activity are at a sufficiently high level, and the employee has sufficient experience;

2) the stage of experience - at this stage, the employee not only works effectively, but can already share experience with others and train younger specialists. At this stage, a person forms a certain opinion about some aspects of work, he makes adjustments to work activity, can bring innovations to the work process;

3) stage of expertise - at this stage, a specialist is an authority in a certain area, he himself produces certain norms, values ​​of the profession, can build tactics and strategies for the development of the industry.

As an element, the training of other specialists in the form of master classes, seminars, the expert creates new methods and programs of labor activity in this area.

All stages of the formation of a person as a professional imply his continuous training and self-improvement as a professional and personality, since the formation of a professional is associated with the observance of certain moral positions, knowledge of production and professional ethics.

LECTURE #23

Deviant behavior in the enterprise

1. The concept of deviation

Deviation - this is a violation of the norms, values, cultural traditions of the community in which the individual exists (works). Forms of deviations can be alcoholism, drug addiction, and theft, as long as these phenomena do not cross the line with delinquency - a direct legally fixed illegal act, usually subject to the Administrative Code of the Russian Federation.

2. Alcoholism

Alcoholism - This is a serious disease that can form as a result of drinking alcohol over a period of six months to several years. The most severe course of the disease is formed in women, and female alcoholism is difficult to cure. There are several stages and types of alcoholism.

Stages of alcoholism: initial (domestic drunkenness), medium and severe (pathological alcoholism). At the initial stage, a favorable outcome of treatment is possible, but in the severe stage it is difficult to talk about prognosis, and usually the prognosis is unfavorable.

Types of alcoholism: beer, vodka, polyalcoholic. Beer alcoholism is most typical for Western countries, where this drink is more popular, although recently there has been a tendency for the formation of Russian beer alcoholism. The slowest and most inconspicuous addiction to alcohol and the formation of alcohol dependence are among consumers of beer products. Vodka - a typical Russian type of alcoholism, is formed faster than beer, and has a devastating effect on the body.

Polyalcoholic alcoholism involves the use of different strength and taste and price characteristics of alcoholic beverages.

The main damage from alcoholism:

1) absenteeism;

2) being late;

3) mistakes and accidents;

4) low labor productivity;

5) labor inefficiency;

6) lost money for education.

An alcoholic manager does much more harm than an alcoholic worker or foreman. The damage from his actions is often covered up by subordinates, but his actions no longer have that clarity and clarity, labor management is violated, there is a possibility of large production losses. The main problem is a long period of time before the detection of the disease and, in connection with this, the difficulty of curing. In addition, the manager is more difficult to fire, but the damage from his actions is greater.

3. Drug addiction

Addiction - a huge problem of all mankind, formed in the twentieth century. The main harm of drug use is a violation of the health and degradation of the personality of a drug addict. Work under the influence of narcotic substances is hardly possible due to a violation of the addict's volitional sphere, lack of desire and motivation to work, a violation of his mental state and loss of professional skills.

Drug addiction develops faster than alcohol addiction and is less curable. The stages of drug addiction development depend on the use of certain drugs. Allocate an initial stage, average and heavy. At the initial stage, there is the possibility of a cure, but recently the point of view of those researchers who argue that one should not talk about a cure, but about a stable remission, since re-formation of addiction is still possible.

The duration of the formation of the stages of the disease depends on the drugs that a person uses - light or heavy. The light ones include hemp, "grass", some synthetic drugs, the heavy ones - heroin, its derivatives. Polynarcotic dependence is usually formed in the middle and severe stages, when an addicted person can use everything he finds to relieve the withdrawal syndrome. The greatest mortality is not from the drugs themselves, but from low-quality fakes, surrogates and diseases transmitted through intravenous drug use.

Special hazard at work drug addict a person can represent in terms of non-compliance with safety precautions, hallucinatory phenomena and, as a result, an inadequate attitude towards colleagues is formed and bodily harm to employees is possible. In addition, in the case drug addiction a person may practice stealing as one of the ways to get money for drugs.

The impact on the effectiveness and quality of work of a drug addict is negative. One person can disrupt the production process and lead to irreversible changes in products, destroy the labor process.

Different drugs affect the behavior of an employee in different ways, but in general we can talk about the degradation of the individual.

Signs that define a drug addict:

1) a drug addict stops taking care of himself, clothes and does not observe personal hygiene, i.e. becomes sloppy;

2) emotional incontinence;

3) violation of logic;

4) lethargy in movements;

5) skin itching;

6) traces of injections;

7) theft as an opportunity to provide drugs.

4. Theft

Theft in the enterprise can be caused by several reasons:

1) high position and dishonesty of the individual - a feeling of permissiveness of the manager and the desire to enrich himself at the expense of the enterprise;

2) low wages of workers - as additional income from the sale of stolen products;

3) traditions that have developed in production;

4) drug and alcohol addiction of the employee.

5. Dereliction of duty

Dereliction of duty is explained either by unwillingness to work, or self-confident and permissive attitude to work. Usually practiced by senior managers and unskilled workers with addictions.

6. Rudeness

Coarseness in the production process can be both a form of discrimination and a habitual way of communication. Rudeness is often practiced in heavy industrial production, especially among workers. Rudeness on the part of managers is often based on the difference in status characteristics and the limited intelligence of the manager.

7. Equipment damage

Equipment damage - a phenomenon inherent in enterprises with a large number of equipment. The factors of this phenomenon can be alcohol and drug addiction, the personal characteristics of the employee, the phenomenon of sabotage by competitors.

LECTURE #24

Consumer Psychology

1. The concept of consumer psychology

Consumer Psychology- a branch of psychology that studies the characteristics of the consumer market, a person as a consumer, subject and object of advertising. Consumer psychology studies not only the taste preferences of the buyer, the dynamics of supply and demand for various goods and services, but also the personality, characterological characteristics of the buyer. Based on the results of customer research, it is possible to develop effective advertising, predict a group of buyers of new goods and services, and fashion trends for a particular product.

Orientation to the consumer has led to the fact that the physical properties of the product began to be considered in terms of psychological satisfaction. Consumer orientation has contributed to the increase in marketing research spending.

2. Research methods of consumer psychology

Consumer psychology research methods:

1) observation;

2) public opinion polls;

3) focus groups.

Projective techniques allow you to find out the real attitude of the client to goods or services:

1) role-playing games - this technique involves getting used to the role of a service provider or consumer, depending on the objectives of the study, and assessing the quality of the product, its advantages and disadvantages over other products;

2) analogies - drawing a parallel between a real product and its possible analogue, presenting oneself in the form of this product;

3) psychological portraits - drawing up a psychological portrait of the product, "humanizing" it, identifying any human qualities that endow the product with consumers;

4) personifications - presentation of the product as a person, personality and, based on this, consideration of possible optimizations of its design, product characteristics;

5) obituaries - write an obituary about the impact of the product. A striking example is advertising of mosquito repellents, cockroach repellents and others.

3. The nature and purpose of advertising

For more than 150 years, advertising has been developing rapidly. In order to win over the buyer, to form his needs, at first there were no other rules than those dictated by ingenuity, sophistication and taste.

Modern advertising has a stronger base and is well versed in research techniques. In the process of evolution of advertising, there was a search for ways to attract and win a potential buyer.

Since the advent of advertising, it has been working out ways to influence the message on consumer behavior as a process that ensures the material and technical reproduction of civilization as a whole.

The role of advertising is information. Advertising should encourage a purchase, this is the whole point of advertising.

Advertising is always addressed to a specific consumer, without knowledge of whose psychology no advertising campaign can be created.

Advertising is characterized by special features that are unique to it:

1) consumer notice - advertising is intended to notify a certain group of new products, price changes, changes in the location of the organization, and others;

2) product image - promotion of goods of a certain brand on the market, the formation of recognition of this particular brand and fashion for it;

3) institutional advertising - aimed at forming a good attitude towards the manufacturing company, raising its rating, building respect for it. The main goal is to show the company as an element useful for society, which allows improving many processes or phenomena of human life;

4) informational advertising - usually informs the consumer about the quality of the product, the components of the product, the methods of its use and the date of manufacture and shelf life.

4. Advertising Promises

D. Schultz, S. Schultz in the book Psychology and Labor, they say that advertising makes some promises:

1) promises certain benefits;

2) trouble if the buyer does not purchase the advertised product;

3) the acquisition of love, friends, self-respect and self-realization;

4) superiority in something.

5. Trademark identification

Brand identification and preference research are essential to ad development or continuation. The continuation and correction of the advertising campaign depends on how recognizable a certain brand is and whether advertising forms the preference of buyers for this particular brand. Special attention of advertisers is aimed at ensuring that the buyer distinguishes this particular brand from the brand of other companies that produce similar products.

A trademark includes such elements as a logo, name, sound and color accompaniment. There is another concept in advertising, and many people confuse it with a trademark - "brand". Unlike a trademark, a brand is a broader concept, and it includes not only the above, but also the product itself with all its properties, product image, brand image.

6. Studying the effectiveness of advertising campaigns

The effectiveness of advertising campaigns can be determined by the following points:

1) facilitating memories;

2) recognition;

3) physiological measurements;

4) study of the number of sales;

5) return coupons.

Studying television programming is important for placing promotional items at the most optimal time. D. Schultz, S. Schultz highlight such aspects as:

1) forecasting the audience reaction to new programs;

2) determination of the qualitative and quantitative composition of the audience (Shultz D., Shultz S. Psychology and work, St. Petersburg, St. Petersburg, 2003).

Aspects of products that affect the consumer:

1) brand - recognition;

2) the image of the product - a reflection of ideas, thoughts and feelings associated with this particular product;

3) product packaging.

The effectiveness of advertising campaigns depends on several factors and can be considered in several aspects:

1) efficiency in the context of the volume of production produced by the enterprise;

2) efficiency in the context of recognition in the market and efficiency in the context of the formation of a certain policy of the organization, production support and compliance with the advertising image. The effectiveness of advertising depends on many factors, for example, on the time it is shown on a TV channel, placement of advertising in print media, creative design of an advertisement, and others.

A special attitude in modern conditions is formed to advertising on the Internet. The ever-increasing number of Internet users allows us to talk about the prospects of advertising in the global network.

The contingent of users is able-bodied youth and people under 45, that is, the most promising consumer group.

The effectiveness of advertising is influenced by customer behavior and purchase motivation.

The psychology of advertising deals with the study of purchase motivation and, based on this research, provides some guidance on product design, window dressing, store employee behavior, placement and context of advertisements. Much depends on the personal factors of the consumer products.

7. Motives of consumer behavior

Human needs are inherent in the ability to develop and diversify. The consumer is constantly striving to satisfy his needs. The main ways to satisfy needs are motives. Мотивы It is what motivates a person to act. Motives are strong, weak, permanent, temporary, positive and negative. Also, motives can be divided into four types:

1) aesthetic motives, in which special attention is paid to the appearance of the product, the attractiveness of its forms, a bright label, a harmonious combination with other objects, etc. This type of motive is the most powerful and long-term;

2) motives of prestige, which are manifested only in a certain social group. A person can spend a huge amount of money on some goods only because this product can emphasize his status, social position, and raise his position in society. As a rule, such motives come with the growth of material well-being;

3) utilitarian motives are manifested by the consumer in the first place when evaluating performance, durability, the possibility of quick and high-quality repairs, etc.;

4) motives of traditions. For the manifestation of this type of motivation, as a rule, colors are used that are close to the national one, or they use the colors of the flag, exciting and thereby awakening positive emotions for this type of product;

5) the motives of achievement are very close in meaning to the motives of prestige. These motives differ from others in that when advertising a certain product, the manufacturer tries to use a famous person, for example, a three-time Russian champion to advertise a sporting product or a pop star to promote a new line of perfumery, etc.

8. Personal factors affecting the consumer

Consider the personal factors that affect the consumer:

1) gender - according to statistics, in the majority of cases, women deal with acquisition issues in the family;

2) age - children can be active purchase intermediaries: attracted by bright packaging, children ask parents, relatives to buy a toy or some kind of sweetness, not focusing on the purchase price, which many manufacturers of children's products are counting on, and at the moment the issue of ethics of children's advertising. Young people are the main buyers of fashionable clothes and youth accessories (for example, cell phones). Middle-aged people are mainly interested in purchasing foodstuffs and household appliances, while older people are mainly interested in purchasing foodstuffs and medicines;

3) status - price characteristics mainly depend on which group the consumer belongs to. Wealthy people are more likely to purchase a fairly high-quality expensive thing, and people with limited funds will purchase, focusing not on the quality of the product, but on the price;

4) ethnicity affects the distribution of the purchase of a certain set of products, taste preferences in buying clothes, etc.;

5) time allotted for purchases - limited time unnerves the buyer, purchases are made for reasons of quick acquisition, and attention is paid to products known to the buyer.

In case of excess time, the buyer carefully studies the inscriptions on the products, analyzes the price characteristics in several outlets, makes the purchase more consciously;

6) the purpose of shopping - it can be not only the acquisition of necessary goods, but also an entertainment purpose - to look at the goods available for sale, try on prices, etc .;

7) mood;

8) individual characteristics of the buyer;

9) habits and commitment to a particular manufacturer;

10) how acceptable is the price for the consumer.

Authors: Boronova G.Kh., Prusova N.V.

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