LECTURE No. 1. Religion as a phenomenon of culture

1. Classification of religions

Religion is a phenomenon, element or function in human culture. In such an understanding, culture itself is presented as a cumulative view of people on the world in which they are born, brought up, live. Culture, in other words, is the result of people's knowledge of the reality that surrounds them in the physical world. In contrast, religion can be perceived as a set of experiences, impressions, conclusions and activities of one person or group of people regarding what they see as matter of a higher order. In most cases, a person is aware of this reality, sacralized by him, as something that appears to him from outside.

Certain forms in which religion reveals itself are subject to certain times and places, but, as a rule, a person perceives revelation as an encounter with creatures that have a bodily embodiment. In many religions, the diversity of reality is accepted as a manifestation of a number of deities, however, along with polytheistic religions, as you know, there are strictly monotheistic religions that worship only one single god. The main characteristic of monotheism is that the deity is wholly transcendent, that is, it resides outside the boundaries of perceived reality, while the gods of polytheism are immanent, that is, they are thought to express themselves within its boundaries. Different religions described their gods in different ways: anthropomorphic, zoomorphic, combining the features of both; in the form of picturesque or sculptural images; as XNUMXD or XNUMXD reproductions. Sometimes the gods were honored in a particular body, as if they had passed into it: the pharaoh in ancient Egypt, the Japanese emperor today, Jesus of Nazareth before his death - on the one hand, and the ancient Egyptian bull Apis and the Indian cobra - on the other. However, not all religions and not throughout their existence created bodily images of their deities. Hinduism and Buddhism, for example, did not know this at all. Often they do not exist in the religions of the Bedouins, which can be explained by the peculiarity of their nomadic life, which inevitably limits the range of material things. However, this cannot be compared with the prohibitions on images that we see in some monotheistic religions. Consider the classification of religions.

1. Tribal primitive ancient beliefs. They originated in the distant past, but did not leave human consciousness, but were imprinted and exist among people to this day. From these follow numerous superstitions (in the Old Russian language "future" - "in vain, useless, in vain") - primitive beliefs that are very similar to religion in the nature of their origin, but are not actually religions, since they do not imply the existence of a god or gods, they do not constitute a holistic man's worldview.

2. National-state religions, which are the foundations of the religious life of some peoples and nations (for example, Hinduism in India or Judaism among the Jewish people).

3. world religions - spread beyond the borders of nations and states and numbering a large number of adherents around the world. It is generally accepted that there are three world religions: Christianity, Buddhism and Islam. Also, all religions are still divided into two groups: monotheisticwho believe that there is one God, and polytheistic, honoring many gods. The term "polytheism" has a Russian analogue - polytheism.

2. The problem of the emergence of religion

The deep philosophical question of how and when religion appeared can be resolved by two mutually exclusive answers.

1. Religion arose with man. Then man, as described in the Bible, had to be created by God as a result of the act of creation. Religion was born because there is a God and a person who can perceive God. Adherents of this point of view believe that if God did not exist, then there would be no such concept in the human mind. In this case, we conclude that religion exists primordially.

2. Religion is a product of the formation of human consciousness, that is, a person himself created (invented) God or gods, thereby trying to understand and explain the world around him. At first, ancient people did not have gods, that is, they were atheists, but along with the birth of art, the rudiments of science, and language, religious views began to form in them. Over time, they became more complex and systematized. The starting point for such a judgment is the theory of the origin of man and his consciousness in the process of biological evolution.

Due to the presence of different points of view about the origin of religion, this question is still open and causes a lot of controversy.

There are many religions on earth, including very few in terms of the number of supporters. Accurately counting all the religions of the world, as well as the number of their followers, is very difficult. Then the question arises: why are there so many religions? The answer is quite clear: people are not the same, they exist in different conditions in different parts of the Earth, they perceive the surrounding reality in their own way. Just as different are their opinions about God or gods, about what a cult should be like, how to erect temples (and whether to build them at all). But, mastering the course "Religions of the World", you will also understand that many dogmas of different faiths, the content of myths and scriptures, moral standards and rules of worship among different peoples living in remote parts of the world can be very similar in some ways.

3. The structure of religion

Precisely and specifically to formulate the concept of "religion" is impossible. There are many such definitions in science. They are largely determined by the worldview of those scientists who build them. If you ask any person what faith is, in many cases he will answer: "Faith in God." The literal meaning of the term "religion" is binding, harnessing, secondary appeal (to something). It is possible that at first this expression meant a person's attachment to something sacred, permanent, unchanging. Let's try to highlight the main elements of religion.

1. The original basis of any religion is Vera. A believer can be either an enlightened person who knows a lot, or one who does not have any education. In relation to faith, both will be equal. Faith that comes from the heart is much more valuable for religion than that that comes from common sense and logic! Relying primarily on religious feelings, moods, emotions, faith is saturated with meaning, nourished by sacred texts, images (for example, icons), and divine services. Communication between people plays a big role in this sense, because knowledge about God and “higher powers” ​​can arise, but cannot result in clear images and a system if a person exists at a distance from the community of his own kind. But true faith is always simple, pure and necessarily naive. It can arise unconsciously, intuitively, from the perception of the world. Faith always abides with a person, but as a result of communication between believers, it is often (but not necessarily) concretized. An image of God or gods is created, which have specific names, titles and attributes (properties), and the possibility of communication with Him or them appears, the truth of Divine texts is established and dogmas (eternal absolute truths taken on faith), the authority of the prophets, the founders of the church and the priesthood. Faith has always been and remains the most important quality of human consciousness, the most important method and criterion of the spiritual life of people.

2. Along with a simple sensual faith, there can also be a more ordered collection of principles, ideas, concepts, deliberately developed for a given religion, i.e. its teaching. The teaching can be about gods or God, about the relationship between God and the world, God and man, about the norms of life and behavior in society (ethics and morality), about church art, etc. The founders of religious teaching are specially educated and trained people, many of which they have unique (from the point of view of this religion) abilities to communicate with God, to receive some higher information that is inaccessible to other people. Religious doctrine is built by philosophers (religious philosophy) and theologians. AT Russian can use a full synonym for the word "theology" - theology. If religious philosophers are interested in the most general questions of the formation and functioning of God's world, then theologians describe and justify specific opinions of a given creed, study and explain sacred texts. Theology, like any science, has sections (for example, moral theology).

3. Religion cannot be realized without some religious activities. Missionaries preach and pass on their faith, theologians write scientific works, teachers teach the basics of their religion, etc. But the root of religious activity is cult (from Latin cultus - "cultivation, care, reverence"). Under the cult is meant the whole set of actions that believers implement with the aim of worshiping God, gods or any supernatural forces. These are rituals, divine services, prayers, sermons, religious holidays. Rites and other cult activities can be magical (from Latin mageia - "witchcraft, sorcery, magic"), i.e. those that help special people or clergy in a mysterious, unknowable way to influence the world around them, other people, change the nature and characteristics of certain objects. In some cases, they mention "white" and "black" magic, that is, witchcraft with the attraction of light, divine forces and the dark forces of the devil. Nevertheless, magical acts of witchcraft have always been criticized and condemned by most religions and churches, being considered "intrigues of evil spirits." A slightly different kind of cult action - symbolic rituals (from the Greek. simbolon - "conditional, material identification mark"), which only copies or imitates the actions of a deity in order to remind him of him. One can also name certain types of rites and other religious activities, which are undoubtedly not related to witchcraft or magic, but, from the point of view of pious people, contain a supernatural, mysterious and incomprehensible element. They are carried out in order to "reveal God in oneself", to unite with him through "dissolution in God" of one's own consciousness. Such actions are usually referred to as mystical (from the gr. mustika - “mysterious”). Mystical rituals cannot influence everyone, but only those initiated into the inner meaning of a given religious teaching. Elements of mysticism find a place in many religions, including the great world ones. There are religions (both ancient and modern) in whose theories the mystical element dominates. Religious scholars call them mystical. In order to carry out worship, you need a church building, a temple (or house of worship), church art, objects of worship (utensils, priestly vestments, etc.) and much more. Many religions require specially trained clergy to perform religious activities. Each religion develops its own rules of worship. In general, the role of cult in religion is incredibly great: while performing cult, people communicate with each other, exchange impressions and information, admire brilliant works of architecture and painting, listen to prayer music and sacred texts. All this increases the religious feelings of people by an order of magnitude, unites them and leads to the achievement of higher spirituality.

4. In the procedure of worship and all their religious activities, people unite in communities called communities, churches (it is necessary to distinguish the concept of "church" as an organization from the same concept, but in the meaning of "church building"). In some cases, instead of the words "church" or "religion" (not a religion in general, but a specific religion), the term is used denomination (from lat. confessio - "church, religious"). In Russian, this term is closest in meaning to the word "religion" (they say, for example, "a person of the Orthodox faith"). The meaning and essence of the grouping of believers is understood and explained differently in different religions. For example, in Orthodox theology, the church is the union of all Orthodox: those who are living today, as well as those who have already died, that is, those who are in "eternal life" (the doctrine of the visible and invisible church). In this case, the church is understood as some kind of timeless and extraspatial beginning. In other religions, the church is simply understood as a rallying of fellow believers who recognize certain dogmas, rules and norms of behavior. Some of the churches emphasize a special "dedication" and isolation of their members from everyone around them, while others, on the contrary, are open and accessible to everyone. As a rule, religious societies have an organizational structure: governing bodies, a unifying center (for example, the pope, patriarchy, etc.), monasticism with its own individual organization; hierarchy (subordination) of the clergy. There are religious educational institutions that train priests, academies, scientific centers, economic organizations, etc. True, all of the above is absolutely not necessary for all religions. The term "church" usually means an extensive religious association with deep spiritual foundations, time-tested. Relations in churches have been built up for centuries, often they have a division into clergy and ordinary laity. It is customary to distinguish from churches sects. This word carries a negative connotation, although literally translated from Greek it only means teaching, direction, school. A sect can be an opposing movement within a church, which can become dominant over time, or can disappear without a trace. In reality, sects are viewed more specifically: as associations formed around a leader. They are distinguished by their isolation, isolation, and strict control over their members, extending not only to their religious life, but also to their entire private life. It happens that sects take away the property rights of their adherents, making the latter permanent professional missionaries and recruiters of new sect members.

4. The role of religion in the life of man and society

Perhaps no one will object that religion is one of the main factors in human history. It is allowed, depending on your views, to say that a person without religion would not become a person, but it is possible (and this is also an existing point of view) to adamantly prove that without it a person would be better and more perfect. Religion is a reality of human life, in fact, this is how it should be perceived.

The meaning of religion in the life of certain people, societies and states is different. One has only to compare two people: one who adheres to the canons of some strict and closed sect, and the other who leads a secular lifestyle and is completely indifferent to religion. The same can be applied to various societies and states: some live according to the strict laws of religion (say, Islam), others provide their citizens with complete freedom in matters of faith and do not interfere in the religious sphere at all, and still others keep religion under a ban. In the course of history, the issue of religion in the same country may change. A striking example of this is Russia. Yes, and confessions are not at all similar in the requirements that they put forward in relation to a person in their laws of conduct and codes of morality. Religions can unite people or divide them, inspire them to creative work, to feats, call for inaction, real estate and observation, help the spread of books and the development of art, and at the same time limit any spheres of culture, impose bans on certain types of activities, sciences. etc. The meaning of religion must always be considered specifically in a particular society and in a given period. Its role for the whole public, for a separate group of people or for a specific person may be different.

In addition, it can be said that it is usually typical for religions to perform certain functions in relation to society and individuals.

1. Religion, being a worldview, i.e. the concept of principles, views, ideals and beliefs, shows a person the structure of the world, specifies his place in this world, indicates to him what the meaning of life is.

2. Religion is a consolation, hope, spiritual satisfaction, support for people. It is no coincidence that people tend to turn to religion at difficult times in their lives.

3. A person, possessing some kind of religious ideal, is internally reborn and becomes able to carry the ideas of his religion, establish goodness and justice (as dictated by this teaching), resigning himself to hardships, not paying attention to those who ridicule or insult him . (Of course, a good beginning can be affirmed only if the religious authorities leading a person along this path are themselves pure in soul, moral and striving for the ideal.)

4. Religion controls human actions through its system of values, spiritual attitudes and prohibitions. It can have a very strong effect on large communities and entire states that live by the rules of a given religion. Naturally, there is no need to idealize the situation: belonging to the strictest religious and moral system does not always stop a person from committing reprehensible acts, and society from immorality and lawlessness. This sad circumstance is a consequence of the impotence and imperfection of the human soul (or, as the followers of many religions would say, these are "intrigues of Satan" in the human world).

5. Religions contribute to the unification of people, assist in the formation of nations, the formation and strengthening of states (for example, when Russia was going through a period of feudal fragmentation, burdened by a foreign yoke, our distant ancestors were united not so much by a national as by a religious idea: "we are all Christians") . However, the same religious reason can lead to division, splitting of states and societies, when a large number of people begin to oppose each other on a religious basis. Tension and confrontation also appear when a new direction separates from some church (this was the case, for example, in the era of the struggle between Catholics and Protestants, outbursts of this struggle are felt in Europe to this day).

Among the followers of various religions, extreme currents sometimes appear, the participants of which recognize only their own divine laws and the correctness of the confession of faith. Often, these people prove the case with cruel methods, not stopping at terrorist acts.

Religious extremism (from Latin extremus - "extreme"), unfortunately, remains a fairly common and dangerous phenomenon in the XNUMXth century. - a source of social tension.

6. Religion is the inspiring and preserving cause of the spiritual life of society. It takes the public cultural heritage under protection, sometimes literally blocking the way for all sorts of vandals. True, the church is extremely wrong to perceive as a museum, exhibition or concert hall; When you find yourself in any city or in a foreign country, you will most likely first visit the temple, proudly shown to you by the locals. Note that the very word "culture" originates from the concept of "cult". We will not engage in a long-standing dispute about whether culture is part of religion or, conversely, religion is part of culture (among philosophers, both points of view exist), but it is quite clear that religious positions since ancient times have been at the heart of many aspects creative activities of people, inspired artists. Naturally, the world has secular (non-church, secular) art. From time to time, art historians try to contrast secular and ecclesiastical principles in artistic creation and declare that ecclesiastical canons (rules) did not give room for self-expression. Officially, this is so, but, having penetrated deeper into such a difficult issue, we will understand that the canon, sweeping aside everything unnecessary and secondary, on the contrary, "liberated" the artist and gave scope to his creativity.

Philosophers clearly distinguish between two concepts: culture и civilization. To the latter they include all the achievements of science and technology that increase the capabilities of a person, provide him with life comfort and determine the modern way of life. Civilization is like a powerful weapon that can be used for good or turned into a means of murder: it depends on whose hands it is in. Culture, like a slow but mighty river that springs from an ancient source, is quite conservative and often conflicts with civilization. Religion, being the basis and core of culture, is one of the decisive factors that protects man and mankind from splitting, degradation, and even, possibly, from moral and physical death, that is, all the troubles that civilization can bring with it.

Consequently, religion performs a creative cultural function in history. This can be shown by the example of Russia after the adoption of Christianity at the end of the XNUMXth century. Christian culture with ancient traditions strengthened and flourished then in our Fatherland, literally transforming it.

And yet, there is no need to idealize the picture: after all, all people are different, and completely opposite examples can be drawn from human history. You may remember that after the formation of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire, in Byzantium and its environs, Christians demolished many of the greatest cultural monuments of the ancient era.

7. Religion helps to strengthen and consolidate specific social orders, traditions and laws of life. Since religion is more conservative than any other social institution, it basically always strives to preserve the foundations, to stability and peace. (Although, it is likely that this rule is not without exceptions.) Recall from modern history, when the political current of conservatism began in Europe, representatives of the church stood at its beginning. Religious parties are, for the most part, on the conservative right of the political spectrum. Their position as a counterbalance to various kinds of radical and sometimes unreasonable transformations, upheavals and revolutions is very important. Peace and stability are needed now for our Fatherland.

Author: Pankin S.F.

>> Forward: Early forms of religious consciousness (Forms of behavior and orientation of archaic consciousness - animism, fetishism, totemism, magic. The emergence of myth and mythological consciousness. The formation of religion)

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