LECTURE No. 3. Judaism

1. Judaism as a world religion

Judaism, along with Christianity and Islam, belongs to the Abrahamic religions, tracing their origins to the biblical patriarch Abraham. However, unlike Christianity and Islam, Judaism in the literature of religious studies, as a rule, is classified not as a world religion, but as the religion of the Jewish people. This is not entirely accurate. If we proceed not from the quantitative, but from the qualitative characteristics of religion, from its metaphysical essence, then, as some well-known experts in the field of Judaism rightly emphasize, “... it is a world religion. Judaism is focused on faith - the faith of the people of Israel in God. And this God, the Jews believe, is not an absent or indifferent God, but a God who communicates his will to humanity. This will is to be revealed in the Torah - the manual that God gave people to live by. The faith of the Jews is in love and the power of God to convey his goals to all mankind. For these purposes, Jews believe, the people of Israel play a special role. The Torah was given to them for the benefit of the whole world. They, the Jewish people, are an instrument for communicating God's will to people. Judaism, therefore, is it is a world religion not only in geographical distribution, but also in its horizons. It is a religion for the whole world, not because everyone should become Jews, for the goal of Judaism is absolutely not that, but based on their conviction that the world belongs to God, and people should behave in accordance with His will." (Pilkington S.M. “Judaism”. Series “Religions of the World”. M.: “Grand”, 1999. P. 25.).

2. "Torah" - the main document of Judaism

"Torah" includes the Decalogue (Ten Commandments) and the "Pentateuch of Moses": the first five books of the Old Testament - the Tanakh (a compound abbreviated word made up of the first sounds of the names of the main parts of the Old Testament). "Torah" in Judaism - the most authoritative part of the Tanakh (Old Testament). This is the main document of Judaism and the basis of all later Jewish law.

"Torah" ("Pentateuch of Moses") in the Jewish tradition has another name - written law - because, according to legend, God, through Moses, gave the people the "Torah" (613 commandments of the Law) in scrolls, and the Ten Most Important Commandments ("The Decalogue") were inscribed by God's finger on stone slabs - tablets. However, the Jews believed that God gave Moses not only written law, but also told him Oral Law - a legal commentary explaining how laws should be implemented in various, including unforeseen, circumstances.

Oral Law interpreted many of the instructions of the "Torah" not literally, but in one or another figurative sense (for example, the requirement to take "an eye for an eye"). However, apparently, the law never had such physical retribution (blinding) in mind. It was more about monetary compensation and forced labor.

Several centuries oral law was transmitted orally, however, in the first centuries of the new era, which were catastrophic for the Jews, they began to write it down, and to III a.

oral law has been codified. His oldest and most authoritative records were the Mishnah (literally "the second law, or memorization"), which became the basis of the Talmud (other Hebrew - "study", "explanation" - a set of all kinds of prescriptions, interpretations and additions to the Tanakh ). The Mishnah contains 63 treatises, in which the instructions of the Torah are presented systematically (by branches of law and subjects). After the codification, generations of Jewish sages carefully studied and discussed the precepts of the Mishnah. The records of these disputes and additions are called "Gemara".

3. "Talmud" - the Holy Tradition of Judaism

The Mishnah and the Gemara make up the Talmud, the most comprehensive compilation of Jewish law. The Talmud took shape over 9 centuries - from the XNUMXth c. BC e. according to the XNUMXth century n. e. It is an encyclopedic complete set of all kinds of prescriptions based on the Tanakh, as well as additions and interpretations to the Tanakh - legal, theological-dogmatic, ethical, family-domestic, economic, folklore, historical, philological-exegetical. This thematic breadth distinguished the Talmud from the Tradition of Christians (patristics) and Muslim tradition (Sunnahs and hadiths). As V. S. Solovyov wrote, "What the Talmud is for the Jews, is the Scriptures of the Church Fathers, the Lives of the Saints, the Pilot" for the Orthodox.

The Talmud has two main parts:

1) more important and responsible - the legislative code "Halacha", mandatory for study in Jewish schools;

2) "Aggada" (in another transcription of Gaggadah) - a collection of folk wisdom of semi-folklore origin. "Aggadah" was studied to a lesser extent, but was popular as a moral and religious edifying reading and a source of information about the world and nature.

The intricacy and cumbersomeness of the Talmud has almost become proverbial. Indeed, only "Halakha", its legal part, resembles a giant crystal of a bizarre shape. Its germinal basis is the "Mishnah" (in Hebrew it means "the second law" or "memorization") - a legal commentary on the "Torah", ascending, according to orthodox ideas, to the rules that God orally communicated to Moses simultaneously with the written Law - "Torah ". Around and on the basis of this "germ" crystal, the most detailed comments on each legal establishment of the "Torah" gradually increased, including stories about especially difficult cases of applying a particular law. A new generation of commentators created their own commentary on the Mishnah, discussing the disputes and decisions of their predecessors along the way, so that over time several competing sets of interpretations became in circulation, of which the most important are the Jerusalem Talmud (GU century AD) and the Babylonian Talmud" (XNUMXth century). At the same time, the earliest commentary - "Tosefta" - was necessary for understanding subsequent sets of interpretations and served as a kind of introduction to them.

The edition of the Talmud in Russian, translated by N. A. Pereferkovich, contains six large volumes, which were planned to be supplemented by the 7th book of indexes. As for the Jerusalem and Babylonian sets of commentaries, each of them is several times larger in volume than the Tosefta, and all together is only the legislative part of the Talmud. V. S. Solovyov compared the Talmud with a labyrinth consisting of “a whole series of exegetically casuistic and legendary buildings - seemingly bizarre, incoherent, like life itself. These buildings, growing over the course of six or seven centuries, were finally through the labors of later collectors, they were brought together into one huge labyrinth of the Talmud.

The "builders" of the Talmud were fully aware of its immensity and the difficulties associated with it in its practical use. The Talmud was codified more than once, systematized extracts were made from it, and abridged expositions were created. The legal sections of the Talmud became the foundation of Jewish law. Most sections of the Talmud have a similar structure: first, a law from the Mishnah is quoted, followed by a discussion of interpreters about its content from the Gemara. The passages from the Mishnah, because of their greater antiquity, are more authoritative than the interpretations from the Gemara.

The most diverse areas of life were subject to legal regulation of the "Talmud": in the first volume of the "Tosefta" - the oldest set of the "Talmud" - ("Crops") - it was said about property relations associated with agriculture; in II ("Holidays") - about rituals; in III ("Wives") - contained provisions relating to women; in IV ("Salvation") - the laws of criminal and civil law were examined (to speak in today's language); in the fifth volume the rules on sacrifice were summarized; in VI - about ritual impurity.

There are two striking features in the law-making of the Talmud authors: firstly, the desire for the most accurate reading of the "letter of the law" (given in the "Torah") - by identifying all the implicit and secondary, peripheral components of the semantics of the word, i.e. such components that serve as a background for the meanings of explicit and primary ; secondly, the desire for maximum detail of the general legal norm established by the "Torah" - on the basis of foresight and analysis of all conceivable controversial and difficult particular cases that should be regulated by this norm.

Here is an example of legal detail, dictated by the desire to understand the "Torah" as accurately and completely as possible and to indicate all cases to which the law applies. In the "Third Book of Moses. Leviticus", among other provisions, the law of Yahweh is formulated on the abandonment field edges for the poor: “When you reap the harvest of your land, do not reap to the edge of your field, and do not gather what is left of your harvest <...>, leave it to the poor and the stranger.” The Talmud devotes a special treatise “Pea” to commenting on this law (ancient Hebrew pea means edge of the field or duty in favor of the poor). The treatise sequentially examines each word or phrase of the law, while the interpreters strive to foresee, on the one hand, all possible misunderstandings or ambiguous interpretations of the text of the law, and on the other, to anticipate all the difficulties of applying the law in life. The commentary is constructed partly in question-and-answer form: “How can it be seen that not only cereals, but also legumes are subject to duties in favor of the poor? From the words: your fields. AT In this case, one might think that all the works your fields, like all greens, cucumbers, pumpkins, watermelons and melons? All these plants are excluded by the word harvest, as not having the characteristics of those plants that require reaping: just as reaping presupposes a plant that is used for food, is protected as property, grows from the ground, is harvested immediately and stored for preservation, so all plants that meet these requirements are subject to tariffs for the benefit of the poor. The following are not subject to (duties): vegetables, because they are not stored for storage, although they are harvested immediately; figs, for they are not removed immediately, although they are folded for preservation; This rule applies to cereals and legumes, as well as to the following tree species: sumac, carob, nut, almond, grape, pomegranate, oilseed and date." The following is a lengthy interpretation of the words edge of the field. There are four reasons why the rule of leaving the pea at the end of the field has been strengthened:

1) to prevent the robbery of the poor;

2) the loss of time by the poor;

3) for external propriety;

4) because the Torah used the word peah, meaning "edge", "end".

The size and location of the edge of the field are also analyzed in detail: it is determined in which cases the farmer is not obliged to leave the edge of the field and two co-owners leave the edge; who exactly is considered poor and whether the edge of the field is left for the poor non-Jews, etc.

The Mishnah was a systematic code of laws. In the Talmud, the thematic structure of the Mishnah was generally preserved, but volumes of new commentaries and additions made the legal content of the Talmud vast and made it difficult to quickly find the required norm. A new codification of Jewish law was required. In the 12th century. carried it out Maimonides, the most famous Jewish philosopher of the Middle Ages, physician and rationalist. Based on the Talmud, he compiled a complete systematized code of Jewish law in 14 volumes - the Mishneh Torah. The Code of Maimonides became the basic guide for Jewish legal practice. IN XVI in. on its basis a new code was drawn up, still authoritative in Orthodox Judaism.

Tanakh (Old Testament) is considered in Judaism as a symbolic, deepest Revelation of God about the Universe, the key to which is Kabbalah.

About the "Mishnah", the oldest part of the "Talmud", the Jews said: if the "Torah" is the Law of Israel, then the "Mishnah" is the "soul of the Law." In Kabbalah, the secret mystical teaching of Judaism, the "rank" is even higher: it is "the soul of the soul of the Law."

Since mystical studies were considered dangerous for people who were immature and not firm enough in faith, in the Jewish tradition, works on Kabbalah were allowed to be read only by married men over forty years old, who were well acquainted with the Torah and the Talmud.

In near-Talmudic folklore, partly jokingly, partly seriously, the question was asked about the possibility of expressing the essence of Judaism in one phrase. A certain pagan came to the wisest of the rabbis and asked: “Teach me the whole Torah, but only for the time while I stand on one leg.” . In response, he heard: “Do not do to others what you do not want them to do to you - this is the sum of the entire Law, the rest is just details. Now go and study.”

This "highest rule of Judeo-Christian morality" (V. S. Solovyov) goes back to God's moral commandment: "Love your neighbor as yourself."

After the canonization of the Talmud (fifth century AD), the circle of Judaic authorities was closed, with the works of which tradition linked Jewish Tradition. In subsequent authors, the creators of the Talmud are consistently called men of the great congregation (although historians doubt the reality of a meeting or other form of organization of work on the Talmud), as opposed to simply scribes - connoisseurs and interpreters of the Talmud. Christian parallel to the men of the great congregation are the creators of patristics - church fathers, in Islam - compilers of the early hadiths of the prophet. In later Talmudic texts, the following commandment to the scribes is attributed to the “men of the great assembly”: “Be slow in judgment, make more disciples and build a fence for the Torah.”

4. Apophatic tendencies in the Talmud

In Judaism, theology (or theology) as a theoretical doctrine of God began to develop after the addition of the religious canon. This is the natural logic of the deployment of religious content: faith is strengthened by knowledge. The theological component introduces into religion ideas about the internal hierarchy of religious teaching, intellectual depth and that element of reflection, which indicates, if not maturity, then the beginning of the "growing up" of the intellectual system. By creating a kind of logical "strings" of the doctrine, theology responds to certain internal - communicative and psychological - needs of the group of believers in the systematization and strengthening of religious knowledge.

After the tragic defeat of the Jews in two anti-Roman uprisings (66-73 years. и 132-135 n. BC) the task of the book “strengthening the faith” was recognized in Judaism as a kind of spiritual overcoming of the catastrophe, giving hope for the revival of the Jewish people. The rabbis of the “great assembly” (the Jewish analogue of the church fathers in Christianity) bequeathed to subsequent generations of scribes to “erect a fence around the law,” and this defense of the doctrine was seen precisely in its theological development.

In the Talmud, the theological component proper was relatively small and not entirely separated from the endlessly detailed legal and explanatory commentary on the Torah. Nevertheless, in the Talmud, eschatological ideas become much more distinct: the end of the world, the Last Judgment, the resurrection from the dead, the afterlife retribution for man for his deeds. Theologically, the strengthening of monotheism is also significant. This line, a forerunner of the future apophatic theology in Christianity, manifested itself, among other things, in the elimination of various names and many characterizing definitions of God.

Apophatic theology (Greek apophatikos - negative) comes from the complete transcendence of God (that is, his transcendence in relation to the world and inaccessibility to human knowledge). Therefore, in apophatic theology, only negative judgments about God are recognized as true ("God is not a man", "God is not nature", "God is not reason", etc.). As for positive judgments about God, they are impossible: for example, even such an extremely general statement as "God exists" is meaningless, God is outside of being and above being.

Cataphatic theology (kataphatikos - positive) allows the possibility of characterizing God with the help of positive (positive) definitions and designations, which, however, should not be understood literally and directly. In Christian theology, both principles of knowledge of God exist, but negative theology is considered higher and more perfect. N. A. Berdyaev, for example, saw in apophatic theology a counterbalance to sociomorphism (the interpretation of God in terms of social interactions between people).

The name of the God of the Jews, Yahweh, is not strictly speaking in the Bible. The name Yahweh (Jehovah) arose in the 7th-2th centuries. among Christian theologians who studied the Old Testament in the original (i.e., in the Hebrew language), as a result of voicing (voicing) of that conditional four-letter combination that previously existed only in writing, which is used in the Bible to designate God. These four consonants convey the first sounds of the Hebrew expression, which is interpreted as "I am who I am (God)." According to legend, God revealed his true name only to Moses, however, in the Torah entry, Moses uses not the real name of God, but an abbreviation of the paraphrase "I am who I am (God)". This four-letter sign is used in the Bible about XNUMX thousand times. As for the true sounding of the name of God, it was pronounced only once a year (on the Day of Atonement) by the high priest, and the secret of its sounding was transmitted orally through the senior line of the high priestly family. After the Babylonian captivity, around the XNUMXth century. BC e., the Jews, "reverent for the Name of God" (S. N. Bulgakov), stopped pronouncing this name in Divine services and when reading Scripture, replacing it with the word Elohim (Elohim). This designation for God, used about XNUMX times in the Bible, is the plural form of the Hebrew word for "God." However, adjectives and verbs referring to this word are always singular in the Bible, i.e., Elohim acts as a designation of some one and one God. In the Septuagint and the Talmud, Elohim was interpreted as a common noun meaning "lord, lord" (in the Septuagint it is translated by the word kirios).

In the Talmud, there are no longer those numerous characterizing names - the epithets of God that the Tanakh abounds: Eternal, Omniscient, Great in advice, Knower of the secrets of the heart, Testing hearts and wombs, Benevolent, Patient, Zealot, Avenger, Father, Meek, etc. The absolute beginning, therefore, in the Talmud is conceived as so all-encompassing, over-human and over-natural, that any of its characteristics become negligibly small and unnecessary.

After the Talmud, Jewish theology develops in the works of many generations of scholars, including the outstanding thinker of the XNUMXth century.

Martin Buber (1878-1965), humanistic mystic and existentialist.

The most famous Jewish thinker of the Middle Ages Moses Maimonides (1135-1204), rabbi, physician, mathematician, astronomer and codifier of law, on the contrary, was a brilliant rationalist in theology.

His Arabic "Teacher of the Lost" (a variant of the translation "Guide of the Wavering") contains the logical (according to Aristotle) ​​and philosophical justification for monotheism. "Teacher of the lost" caused rejection of both Jewish orthodoxies and the Inquisition. Conservatives more than once forbade this innovative work to be read to Jews, however, sometimes only to minors.

Defending and developing the rationalistic principles of Scripture, Maimonides systematized and supplemented the methods of interpretation of the Torah developed in the Talmud. For example, such turns of Scripture as the finger of God, etc., Maimonides taught to understand not literally, but figuratively, since God, of course, does not have physical flesh.

5. Commentary culture of Judaism

In the religions of Scripture, preaching early began to fulfill another communicative task - to interpret the "difficult places" of the sacred text. Along with "instruction and exhortation" to "follow the Law" and "imitate beautiful things," the sermon became a genre in which techniques were developed to explain the incomprehensible that sounded in the liturgy. During the ritual reading of Scripture passages, incidental commentary on the incomprehensible was not allowed - such is the fundamental principle in relation to the sacred word in the religions of Scripture. Another thing is preaching - as a text of the "second order", the words of the mentor about the word of God.

A sermon in the temple always contains, to one degree or another, an interpretation of the Scriptures, since this is the general goal of a sermon - to bring the meaning of the word of God to the minds of people. However, very soon the interpretations go beyond the boundaries of what the oral word of the priest can accommodate. Interpretations, all kinds of commentaries on the Holy Scriptures become the predominant type of knowledge in general, and a culture, in the center or in the foundation of which is the religion of Scripture, develops as commentary culture as a reflection on the main text of culture - the Scriptures. At the same time, the genetic connection with preaching, with instruction in the temple, is reflected in the flavor of didactics and edification that is characteristic of such knowledge. This is the knowledge that should be known, which is taught by the confessional school.

In Judaism, various commentaries on the "Torah" begin to be compiled even before the canonization of the "Tanakh" ("Old Testament") - texts that will later become sections and books of the Talmud. By their content or nature, the bulk of interpretations belongs to three areas of knowledge (if we talk about it in modern terms): theology, law and philology.

The Talmud comprehensively develops the very technique of philological and logical-philological commenting on the text, methodically defining and demonstrating 32 methods of interpreting the text with examples. Some of the techniques were associated with the need to eliminate contradictions in the interpretation of the various provisions of the Torah, including by allowing an indirect, figurative, expansive, narrowing, allegorical and various other understanding of a word or phrase. Thus, the Talmud and the Jewish school brought up readiness for a non-literal understanding of the word and taught to understand different layers of meaning in one word. It is clear that the introduction of such principles and methods of understanding into the school, into the culture intensifies thinking, expands the information horizons of society.

In the Talmud there are passages reminiscent of a philological analysis of writing skills, with a kind of thought experiment that allows you to "weigh" the semantic significance of individual elements of the text.

Here is an example of such observations. The rabbis believed that every word of the "Torah" is from God, not a single word is in vain. So when they found a word or expression that seemed unimportant, they sought to find out what new idea or nuance the Bible was trying to convey with it. The discussion about the phrase from "Genesis" concerning Noah is characteristic: "Here is the life of Noah. Noah was a righteous man, blameless in his generation." What words do not seem essential? - In my generation. - Why, ask the wise men, "Torah" includes them?

Several opinions are expressed. One rabbi says: "In his especially vicious generation, Noah was a righteous and blameless man, but not in other generations." Another rabbi objects: "Even if in his own generation, then even more so in other generations." It is remarkable that the Talmud not only shows how differently people understand the same text, but also explains these differences: the matter is in different individual experiences of people. It turns out that the second rabbi became religious only in adulthood, and before that he was a thief, a gladiator and a circus attendant. He knew well how difficult it is to be good when one comes from a poor and immoral background. In his eyes, Noah, who came from such an immoral background, but became a righteous man, was much greater than if he had grown up among the righteous.

The most famous and still highly respected commentator on the Jewish holy books is Rabbi Shlomo ben Yitzhach or abbreviated Rashi (1040-1105), is recognized in Judaism as the greatest Jewish teacher of the Middle Ages. He opened a free Jewish school in Troyes (France) and became the founder of a powerful commentary tradition. His concise and clear style still influences Hebrew-speaking writers today.

Rashi's commentary on the Torah was the first book printed in Hebrew in 1475 BC - even before the Torah itself. Knowledge of the "Torah" with Rashi's commentary became the norm of traditional Jewish education and became part of the mandatory weekly reading.

The Talmud itself needs much more commentary than the Torah - primarily because of the complex language, which includes Aramaic, Jewish, Greek terms, and spontaneously intricate architectonics.

Rashi did more than anyone else to make the Talmud accessible to the reader. For 900 years, everyone who studies and publishes the Torah and Talmud has used his commentaries. “And if Rashi had not written his commentary, explaining difficult Aramaic words and leading the reader along whimsical and sometimes confusing logical paths, the Talmud might have been long forgotten” (Telushkin).

The descendants of Rashi (two sons-in-law and three grandsons) offered their own commentary, called "Tosafot" (XII century). The commentary received recognition, and since then the Mishnah has been published with two commentaries, which are printed in italics in the margins, with Rashi's commentary having inner margins, and the outer margins for Tosafot. However, Rashi's earlier commentary is considered more authoritative.

The third of the classic sets of commentaries on the Torah and the Talmud is the Midrash (Hebrew, "interpretation, study"). It was compiled by rabbis in the 1th-XNUMXth centuries. and was codified in the thirteenth century. Depending on the topic of the commentary, there are "Midrash Halakha" - an interpretation of the legal provisions of the "Torah" and "Mishnah", and "Midrash Haggadah" - an interpretation of ethical and theological passages, including parables, aphorisms, folklore wisdom of the "Torah" and "Talmud" ". In the codified version of the Midrash, the individual commentaries are arranged to match the order of the verses in the Torah. Thus, a continuous, verse by verse, interpretation of the entire "Pentateuch of Moses" was created.

6. Jewish Philosophy in the Middle Ages

Jewish philosophy also develops in parallel with Christian and Islamic, and here, too, the starting points are Neoplatonism and Aristotelianism.

Its development was influenced by the mystical elements of the Jewish teachings, which were contained in very obscure, incomprehensible, full of allusions texts.

The greatest thinker of this trend was Ibn Gebirol (mid-XNUMXth century), whom the scholastics considered an Arab and called Avicebronn. His teaching - the theory of emanation - was one of the most consistent in the Middle Ages.

Among the Jewish Aristotelians, the most prominent was Moses Maimonides (Heb. Moses ben Maimun), who was born in 1135 near Spanish Cordoba and died in 1204 in Egypt. His teaching, like that of other Jewish philosophers, was partly influenced by Kabbalism, which he tried to combine with the rationalistic philosophy of Aristotle. Maimonides' main work, The Guide of the Lost, was originally written in Arabic, then translated into Hebrew and Latin. Maimonides, like his Islamic contemporary Averroes, was an enthusiastic admirer of Aristotle. He said that, apart from the prophets, no one came as close to the truth as Aristotle. In his adoration of Aristotle, however, he does not go as far as Averroes (he considered Aristotle an unlimited authority only in the field of the sublunar world), but, despite this, he still comes into conflict with orthodox teachings.

As regards the relation of faith and science, in his opinion the results of both must agree. However, where there is a contradiction between reason and the word of Scripture, reason has the advantage, which seeks to unite Scripture and reason by allegorical interpretation. In the spirit of the ancient Eleatics and Neoplatonists, he argues that truth is not multiple, but one, creates itself, moves and preserves itself.

Author: Pankin S.F.

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