LECTURE No. 6. Medicine in the Russian Empire in the XNUMXth century

1. General characteristics of the historical period

1700th century begins the war, which was called the Northern War. It lasted from 1721 to 1682. At that time, Peter I ruled in Russia. It must be recalled that Peter ascended the throne at the age of ten, in 1689. In fact, the state was ruled by Peter's elder sister, Sophia. However, in an attempt to stage a coup in 16 to seize the Russian throne, Sophia failed. She was removed from power and imprisoned in the Novodevichy Convent. Peter I began to fully manage the state. On May 1703, XNUMX, by order of Peter the Great, at the mouth of the Neva, on one of the islands, construction began on a wooden fortress (later it was replaced with a stone one), which was called Peter and Paul. In fact, this was the beginning of the construction of a new city - St. Petersburg.

The Northern War ended with the conclusion of the Nystadt peace, after which Peter I was proclaimed emperor. Russia has become an empire. Peter carried out a large number of reforms - ranging from reforms of public administration and ending with relations between church and state. In 1722 the "Table of Ranks" was published. It was one of the most important documents, since it determined the system of ranks, as well as the procedure for promotion in the public service, both military and civilian.

The era of Peter I was full of various transformations and innovations. During this period, Russia has significantly strengthened, strengthened, Russia's place in international affairs has increased significantly. Thanks to the creation of a regular army and navy, as well as an active foreign policy, one of the most important historical tasks of Russia was resolved - it established itself on the shores of the Baltic Sea. Practically not a single foreign policy problem in Europe was solved without the participation of Russia. After the death of Peter I in 1725 and until 1762, palace coups took place in the Russian Empire, and emperors changed very quickly. Following Peter, Ekaterina Alekseevna ascended the throne (years of reign: 1725-1727), with the help of Peter's closest associate, A. D. Menshikov. After Catherine Alekseevna, Peter II became emperor, who ruled the Russian Empire from 1727 to 1730. It should be noted that the dissolute and self-willed Peter II was practically not interested in state affairs. After Peter II, Anna Ioannovna ascended the throne, who ruled for 10 years (from 1730 to 1740). Anna Ivanovna was the wife of the Duke of Courland, but he died some time later, and the duchess was left a widow. During the reign of Anna Ioannovna, Courland Germans flooded Russia, they were given preference in all levels of the state apparatus. After Anna Ioannovna, the throne passed to Elizabeth Petrovna (end of 1741). She reigned for 20 years, until 1761. It must be said that the supreme power in this period gained some stability. During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna in 1756, the war with Prussia began, which was called the "Seven Years' War". Consider the causes of this war:

1) rivalry between Austria and Prussia for hegemony in Germany;

2) the struggle of France and England for dominance over the colonies.

Russia had its own goals for which it participated in this war:

1) seizure of the Baltic lands;

2) countering the growing aggression of Prussia.

In 1763 the Seven Years' War ended. In 1761, Peter III, the grandson of Peter I, ascended the throne. However, he reigned for only half a year, after which he was replaced by his wife Ekaterina Alekseevna. So, from 1762 to 1796. The Russian Empire was ruled by Catherine II. During the reign of Catherine II, a peasant war took place - from 1771 to 1775.

Reasons for the uprising:

1) difficult working and living conditions for working people;

2) strengthening the personal dependence of the peasants;

3) dissatisfaction of the Yaik Cossacks;

4) the overdue socio-psychological atmosphere.

The territories of the uprising were the Volga region, the Urals, the Orenburg Territory. The composition of the peasant uprising: Cossacks, peasants, merchants, Bashkirs. Now it is necessary to note the reasons for the defeat:

1) the strength of the state mechanism (organization of the state mechanism);

2) weak organization of the rebels;

3) poor armament of the rebels;

4) the robber character and cruelty of the rebels;

5) the lack of a clear idea of ​​their goals and a constructive program of the uprising.

The historical significance of the peasant war:

1) Yaik renamed to Ural;

2) reforming the state administration system;

3) the destruction of the Cossack autonomy.

During the reign of Ekaterina Alekseevna, two more Russian-Turkish wars took place. The first - from 1768-1777, the second - 1787-1791. After the death of Catherine II, in November 1796, her son Pavel Petrovich came to the throne.

Education, Science and Social Thought in Russia in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth Centuries.

In the XVIII century. Russia experienced a spiritual upsurge, the essence of which was as follows: the transition from a predominantly traditional, relatively closed and ecclesiastical culture to a secular and European culture with an increasingly distinct personal beginning. Enlighteners of that time: N. I. Novikov, D. I. Fonvizin, S. E. Desnitsky, D. S. Anichkov, A. N. Radishchev, etc. Let us pay attention to the education system in Russia in the XNUMXth century. The state system of general education secondary school was created, higher education was born anew, vocational training and estate educational institutions were developed.

However, a fairly large part of the population, especially serfs, did not receive access to education. In 1725, the Academy of Sciences and All Arts was organized. 1755 - the opening of the Moscow University, 1783 - the Russian Academy was founded, studying the Russian language and literature. Members of the Academy: G. D. Derzhavin, D. I. Fonvizin, M. M. Shcherbatov, E. R. Dashkova, M. V. Lomonosov, etc.

2. The main features of the economy and culture of Russia in the XVIII century

It must be said that in the XVIII century. the development of feudal society in Russia entered a new stage. This stage implied the strengthening of the Russian centralized state, the growth of commodity production, and at the same time the dominance of serfdom.

The reforms of Peter I, which were carried out directly in the interests of merchants and landowners, had a significant impact on the development of national culture and production forces. As the Russian state developed, some quantitative changes constantly accumulated, which were supposed to turn into qualitative ones. This happened precisely during the reign of Peter.

The transformation of quantitative changes into qualitative changes takes place through jumps. In fact, under Peter I, the process of the formation of a new culture, which began in the previous era, had its continuation.

Economic development of Russia in the XVIII century. was accompanied by the rise of Russian science, art, culture. There was a formation of socio-political and philosophical thought, and this formation was closely connected with the development of trade and industry in the country, as well as with the growth of Russian national culture (and this is very important!), the emergence and further development of art, literature, and natural science.

The goal of the leading thinkers of Russia in the XVIII century. It was:

1) drawing attention to the study of natural science in order to competently use the natural resources of Russia for its progressive economic development;

2) separation of science from the church.

So progressive Russian thinkers of the XVIII century. made a big step from "religious ideology to secular knowledge."

Let us turn to the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, which was opened in 1725. Foreign scientists were invited here. Thus, the first academicians published works on various medical issues. For example:

1) G. Duvernoy and I. Veitbrecht published a number of works on anatomy;

2) Daniel Bernoulli - "Works on the movement of muscles", on the optic nerve;

3) Leonhard Euler published several papers on hemodynamics.

3. The development of medicine at the beginning of the XVIII century. Faculty of Medicine, Moscow University

To begin with, it should be noted that by the XVIII century. Russia stepped over the so-called period of backwardness, which was caused by the Mongol-Tatar yoke. Serfdom, which fettered a significant part of the country's population, was an obstacle to the development of the country, the Russian economy, science, and industry. However, if we consider certain areas, Russia was on the same level with civilized countries and even began to overtake them. Only in the 1755th century, namely in XNUMX, the first university was opened in Russia. This was done largely thanks to the Russian scientist M.V. Lomonosov, as well as the person supporting him, I.I. Shuvalov (by the way, Shuvalov was a favorite of Queen Elizabeth).

M.V. Lomonosov in 1748 wrote in the draft regulations of the university at the St. Petersburg Academy: “I think that the university should definitely have three faculties: law, medicine and philosophy (the theological one is left to the synodal schools).” In the 1764th century and in the first third of the 13th century. Researchers such as S. N. Zatravkin and A. M. Stochik published two monographs concerning the medical faculty of Moscow University. It was generally accepted that the medical faculty was opened in 1758. But Stochik and Zatravkin presented documents that stated that the faculty began to function on August XNUMX, XNUMX. Then Professor I. X. Kerstens from the University of Leipzig was invited to the university. Kerstens began teaching classes, giving lectures, and was even appointed “doyen” (i.e., dean) of the medical faculty. Here is an excerpt from the documents of the Russian State Archive: “The Imperial Moscow University informed: ... the Faculty of Medicine is equipped with Dr. Johann Christian Kerstens, who was called from the glorious University of Leipzig with great medicine and great philosophy as professor of chemistry, pharmacology and mineralogy, who, as a result, in the strength of university institutions in medical science has been entrusted and he will assume that entrusted position, at the end of the present vacation days of this August thirteenth day at ten o'clock after midnight, and will give a speech in Latin, in which he will prove that chemistry is the first and best a means to improve medical science."

From the very beginning, the faculty provided general education not only for future doctors, but later among its students began to appear those who devoted their whole lives to medicine. Over time, in addition to Kerstens, Professor Erasmus, prosector (vice-rector) Keresturi, as well as domestic professors who returned from abroad - P. D. Veniaminov, S. Ya. Zybelin began to work at the Faculty of Medicine. From 1768, lectures began to be given in Russian. Thus, a base for the training of medical specialists began to form in Russia. The medical university provided quality general education to future doctors, however, did not provide them with practical training (this will happen much later). Future doctors received practical skills in hospital schools. Here, training took place directly at the bedside of the sick, in hospitals.

4. Hospital schools

Hospitals and hospital schools appeared in Russia in the late XNUMXth and early XNUMXth centuries. in the era of Peter I. He was a great reformer of the Russian state, he also did not disregard medicine. So, in his foreign trips, in addition to shipbuilding, he was interested in medicine. For example, Peter bought a collection of "freaks" from the famous anatomist Ruish for a lot of money, which later became the basis of the famous Kunstkamera (it must be said that the exhibits of that collection have survived to this day).

Peter understood that healthcare in Russia was at a very low stage of development (high infant mortality, epidemics, shortage of doctors). Therefore, he began the construction of sea and land hospitals, and with them - hospital schools where doctors were trained. The organization of the construction was entrusted to Nikolai Bidloo.

So, the first hospital was opened in Moscow on November 21, 1707. It was a land hospital, and a hospital school was also opened with it, which was designed for 50 students. Further, hospitals and hospital schools were opened under them in St. Petersburg, Revel, Kronstadt, Kyiv, Yekaterinburg, etc. It must be said that hospital schools were opened even in such little-known cities as Koluvanovo, Elizavetgrad. There they were calculated 150-160 people.

The hospital schools had a fairly high level of teaching, high quality curricula. There was no such system in medical education in any country in Europe. In hospitals, rooms were specially equipped for clinical classes, teaching anatomy, and the basics of obstetrics. The teaching of anatomy necessarily included dissections.

The activities of hospital schools were subject to general rules and guidelines. In 1735, a special "General regulation on hospitals" was issued. It included terms of training programs in medical disciplines (5-7 years), as well as in Latin language and philosophy, teaching rules, etc. The advanced character of hospitals is clearly visible in this regulation. Autopsies were allowed.

At the end of their studies at the hospital school, students took an exam that included theoretical knowledge, clinical knowledge, as well as what is today called practical skills. I must say that the number of practical skills included the performance of 3-4 operations on the corpse.

After N. Bidloo, who supervised education in hospital schools, his work was continued by M. I. Shein, P. Z. Kondoidi (3-1710).

By order of Pavel Zakharovich Kondoidi, prototypes of the history of the disease began to be kept - "mournful sheets" that were wound up for each patient. Medical libraries were organized in hospitals.

It should be noted that the head of the hospital (in accordance with the instructions of the medical office - the country's health management body) was a doctor. In hospitals, a pathological and anatomical examination was mandatory - an autopsy of corpses.

In 1786 hospital schools were reorganized into medical and surgical schools. These schools opened the way to the formation of the corresponding medical and surgical academies.

5. Doctors of Medicine in Russia. Management of medical institutions. Opening of the Academy of Sciences and All Arts

I must say that Peter I invited many foreign doctors to Russia, including those to work in hospitals and hospital schools. Foreigners were in the majority among doctors and teachers, and they fought against Russian doctors.

But it should be noted that the requirements for doctors in the era of Peter were high. For example, to become a professor at a hospital school, you need to get a "degree" of a doctor of medicine, defend a dissertation. Throughout the 89th century 309 Russian and 1764 foreign doctors received the doctorate degree. Despite this, the number of Russian doctors of medicine grew. The first doctor of medicine who defended his dissertation in Russia was a graduate of Moscow University - F. I. Barsuk-Maiseev (the topic of his dissertation was "On breathing"). In 878, the College of Medicine received the right to award doctors the degree of doctor of medicine. By the end of the XVIII century. XNUMX doctors worked in Russia.

Now let's turn our attention to administrative innovations. In 1710, the Apothecary Order was replaced by the Medical Office. The medical office became the central health authority. At the head of the Medical Office was a doctor-archiater. Subsequently, in 1763, the Medical Office was replaced by the Medical College.

And in 1803, the Medical College was closed, and its functions were transferred to the corresponding department of the Ministry of the Interior. In 1775, orders of public charity were formed to manage medical institutions, and the positions of county doctors were also introduced. In 1797, civil medical councils were created in the provinces, except for St. Petersburg and Moscow, in which all medical affairs were managed by the chief doctors of the city.

In 1723, by decree of Peter I, the Academy of Sciences and All Arts was established. The opening of this academy took place in 1725. The pillar of the academy was M.V. Lomonosov (despite the large number of foreign doctors) and his students, famous doctors of that period (A.P. Protasov, S. Zybelin, N.M. , D. S. Samoilovich, etc.).

MV Lomonosov

M. V. Lomonosov is a brilliant scientist, philosopher, poet, geographer, and natural scientist. He had truly enormous talent. He was very close and interested in medical problems. He believed that medicine is one of the most useful sciences for humans; it “through knowledge of the properties of the body... reaches the cause.”

It must be said that Lomonosov attributed medicine to the field of physics: “The often great science of physics and the most useful to the human race is medicine...” The fact is that physics in those days had a broad meaning - natural science in general. Thus, M.V. Lomonosov, in fact, introduced medicine into the circle of natural sciences.

In 1751, in his famous speech "On the Benefits of Chemistry," he made many striking statements about medicine. Lomonosov carefully studied anatomy, physics, physiology, as well as other sciences that could be useful for medicine. Lomonosov was sure that it was simply impossible "to talk about the human body without knowing either the addition of bones and joints to strengthen it, or the union, or the position of the muscles for movement, or the distribution of nerves for feeling, or the location of the viscera for the preparation of nourishing juices, or the length of the veins for the circulation of blood, or other organs of his wonderful structure.

Lomonosov considered it necessary to study chemistry for the knowledge of medical science, he writes that “a physician cannot be perfect without a satisfied knowledge of chemistry. She knows the natural mixture of blood and nutritious juices, she discovers the addition of healthy and harmful food. She is not only from different herbs , but useful medicines are prepared from the core of the earthly taken materials. In 1761, M. V. Lomonosov wrote a letter to Count I. I. Shuvalov "On the reproduction and preservation of the Russian people." This letter is of great importance, in which he convincingly and vividly described the difficult situation of medicine in the country, the incidence, high mortality, especially high infant mortality. Lomonosov called for combating bad habits, improving the quality of training for doctors, and improving the level of medical care. It must be said that the letter to I. I. Shuvalov can be assessed as a kind of program for the revival of the health of Russians, but it was not published.

It should be noted, however, that the progressive doctors of that period followed the precepts of Lomonosov.

S. G. Zybelin

Semyon Gerasimovich Zybelin (1735-1802) - the first Russian professor at Moscow University. It occupies an important place in Russian medicine in the XNUMXth century. After he graduated from the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy in Moscow, he was sent for an internship and continued education at the University of Leiden. At the University of Leiden, he received the title of Doctor of Medicine.

After which he returned to Moscow. From 1765 to 1802 Zybelin was a university professor. He lectured on chemistry and medicine. Incidentally, he was one of the first to start lecturing in Russian. Lectures by S. G. Zybelin included a wide range of theoretical and practical medicine, as well as many other aspects of a doctor's activity:

1) obstetrics ("woman's business");

2) raising children;

3) diagnosis and treatment of various internal diseases;

4) hygiene;

5) study of the laws of nature;

6) laws of physiology and pathology;

7) prevention of the development of diseases.

The teaching of pharmacy was also part of the duties of Semyon Gerasimovich Zybelin.

The teaching of pharmacy by Zybelin included a fairly large course in formulation, courses in the art of pharmacy, a course in pharmaceutical chemistry, etc. Here are the titles of some of Zybelin's lectures:

1) "On the causes of the internal union of parts among themselves";

2) "A word about the cause of the internal union of the parts of the body and among themselves, and about the strength that comes from that in the human body";

3) "About the action of air on a person and the ways in which he enters it";

4) "On the correct education from infancy in the reasoning of the body, serving for reproduction in the society of peoples";

5) "On the benefits of inoculating smallpox";

6) "On the composition of the human body and how to protect them from diseases";

7) "On the harm resulting from keeping oneself too warm";

8) "About ways how to warn can be an important reason, by the way, of the slow multiplication of the people, the reason consisting in the indecent food of babies given in the first months of their life."

According to these lectures, one can judge that the approach to medicine was broad and deep, and the problems of protecting the health of the population were touched upon. In his lectures and teaching method, Zybelin followed the path of Lomonosov, followed the clinical principles of Hippocrates, Harvey's physiology, etc. Since the university did not have specialized clinics where students could gain clinical knowledge and experience, Semyon Gerasimovich Zybelin organized the so-called courses medical consultations, where he demonstrated patients.

A. M. Shumlyansky

Alexander Mikhailovich Shumlyansky (1748-1795) made a great discovery in the morphology and physiology of the kidneys. This discovery formed the basis of his doctoral dissertation "On the structure of the kidneys" in 1783. After numerous experiments, experiments, physiological and morphological studies, Alexander Mikhailovich Shumlyansky discovered (one might say anew) the structure (including microscopic) of the kidneys, their activity. In his writings, Shumlyansky refuted the theories of Malpighi (Malpighi bodies are not glands at all, but a vascular glomerulus), Ruish's opinion that there is a direct connection between the arterial capillaries of the kidney and the renal tubules.

K. N. Shchepin

Konstantin Ivanovich Shchepin (1728-1770) - a major Russian scientist XVIII in. He graduated from the Kiev-Mohyla Academy. After that he worked at the Academy of Sciences. In 1758 Shchepin defended his doctoral dissertation at Leiden University. His dissertation was on vegetable acid. Since 1762, Konstantin Ivanovich Shchepin taught physiology, botany, anatomy, surgery, and pharmacology at the Moscow Hospital School, being the first Russian professor there. He taught classes in Russian. Various strong-willed qualities, atheistic worldviews in the spirit of M.V. Lomonosov - all this became one of the reasons for Shchepin's dismissal from school. In 1770, Shchepin died in Kyiv, participating in the eradication of the plague.

N. M. Ambodik-Maksimovich

Nestor Maksimovich Ambodik-Maksimovich was born in 1744. After graduating from the hospital school in St. Petersburg, he was sent to Strasbourg, where he received a doctorate in medicine. Then he returned to his homeland and worked as a teacher in hospital schools. Since 1781, Nestor Maksimovich Ambodik-Maximovich taught as a professor a course in surgery, physiology, and pharmacology. Nestor Maksimovich is especially known for teaching obstetrics in Russian at the St. Petersburg Orphanage.

This course also included information about gynecology, children's health, etc. In 1784-1786. Ambodik-Maksimovich published the fundamental manual "The Art of Weaving or the Science of Womanhood", which for many years was considered one of the best manuals on obstetrics, gynecology and child health. Nestor Maksimovich introduced obstetric forceps into the practice of obstetrics, and phantoms for teaching the practice of obstetrics.

In the lectures of Ambodik-Maksimovich, practical advice was given on the nutrition of children, their upbringing, and the prevention of diseases. It should be noted that Ambodik-Maksimovich was one of those who laid the foundation for the creation of domestic medical terminology. He created in 1783 "Anatomical and physiological dictionary". It must also be said that Nestor Maksimovich paid great attention to herbal medicine (this can be seen in his manual of 1784-1788 "Medicinal Substance Or Description of Healing Plants for Food or Medicine Used"). Nestor Maksimovich Ambodik-Maximovich died in 1812.

D. S. Samoilovich

Danila Samoilovich Samoilovich was born in 1744. After he graduated from the hospital school in St. Petersburg, he served for about 8 years as a military doctor. From the beginning of the 1770s. Samoilovich was engaged in the study and eradication of the plague in Moscow, Moldova. Was sent to Strasbourg, Leiden. After he received his doctorate there, Samoilovich returned to his homeland and studied the plague using microscopes. He tried to find out the true cause of the disease. Incidentally, Samoilovich was elected to a number of foreign academies for his selfless work and fight against plague epidemics and received universal recognition.

Samoylovich argued that there were possibilities for curing and preventing the plague. He objected to the general burning of houses, belongings of people who were sick with the plague, believing that this causes great economic damage. Samoylovich suggested methods for disinfecting the clothes of patients, methods for disinfecting household utensils, etc. Samoylovich also suggested that doctors who are involved in the elimination of plague epidemics, preventive vaccinations from plague buboes, where he believed the presence of a weakened virus.

In 1792, Samoilovich published a book entitled "A brief description of microscopic studies on the essence of ulcerative poison."

Samoylovich for a very long time sought the opportunity to teach in hospital schools. It should be noted his lecture "Speech to the students of hospital schools of the Russian Empire", written in 1783. This lecture raised a number of scientific, ethical, and organizational issues. He believed that in order "to become a doctor, one must be an impeccable person." Danila Samoilovich Samoilovich died in 1805.

V. M. Richter

Wilhelm Mikhailovich Richter graduated from Moscow University, after which he was sent to Germany (Berlin, Göttingen) to continue his education in obstetric art. After returning from Germany and receiving a doctorate in medicine, Richter was appointed professor of midwifery at Moscow University. In 1806, under the leadership of Wilhelm Mikhailovich, a midwifery institute and a maternity hospital (at Moscow University) were opened. A midwifery institute was also organized at the Imperial Orphanage. Richter wrote several midwifery textbooks. These allowances were used by students of hospital schools and the university.

6. Hydropathic. Production of medical equipment in the XNUMXth century

Peter I also became the ancestor of mineral water treatment. By his order, hydropathic clinics were opened in Lipetsk, Staraya Russa, and the Olonets Territory, which are still operating. In these hospitals, both military personnel and civilians could receive procedures.

Medical instruments were produced in special workshops, they were also called instrumental huts.

Author: Bachilo E.V.

<< Back: Medicine in Russia XV-XVII centuries (General characteristics of the historical period. Necessary concepts. Development of medicine at the beginning of the 1550th century. Medical directions. Code of Law of XNUMX and traditional medicine. Sovereign's pharmacy. Monastic and civil hospitals. The first Russian doctors of medicine)

>> Forward: Development of medicine in Russia in the first half of the 19th century (Общая историческая характеристика рассматриваемого периода. Общественно-политическая обстановка.

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