Topic 2. FORENSIC TECHNOLOGY

2.1. The concept and system of forensic technology

Under forensic technology is understood, on the one hand, a section of the science of forensic science, and on the other hand, a set of technical means used in the process of detecting, investigating and preventing crimes.

Forensic technology as a branch of the science of forensic science is a system of scientific provisions and technical means, techniques and methods developed on their basis, designed to collect, research and use evidence in order to detect, investigate and prevent crimes.

Technical and forensic means include various devices, apparatus, equipment, tools, fixtures, materials, kits and complexes of technical means.

Techniques and methods of using technical and forensic tools are a system of rules for collecting and examining evidence. They also include ways to solve certain forensic problems without the use of technical means (for example, a description of a person's appearance using the verbal portrait method).

Currently, forensic technology as a branch of the science of forensic science is a system that includes general provisions and five subsections called branches.

The general provisions of forensic technology determine its concept and content, as well as the content of the branches that make up this section of science, the sources of forensic technology, its connection with other parts of forensic science and other sciences.

The branches of forensic technology include:

1) forensic photography, filming and video recording - a set of scientific provisions and special photo, film and video recording tools and methods developed on their basis used in collecting, examining and demonstrating evidence;

2) forensic traceology, which studies the patterns and mechanism of occurrence of various types of traces, develops means, techniques and techniques for collecting and studying these traces in order to use them for solving, investigating and preventing crimes;

3) forensic weapons science - a branch in which the patterns of design and operation of various types of weapons, the formation of their traces are studied, as well as means, techniques and methods for collecting and examining these objects and traces are developed in order to use them to detect, investigate and prevent crimes;

4) forensic documentation science (or forensic research of documents), which studies the patterns of manufacturing certain types of documents and methods for their complete or partial forgery, as well as developing tools, techniques and methods for collecting and examining these objects in order to use them for disclosure, investigation and crime prevention;

5) forensic habitoscopy - the doctrine of the signs of a person's external appearance, their material and ideal reflections, the methodology for using these signs in establishing facts that are important in the detection, investigation and prevention of crimes.

Currently, new directions are being formed in forensic technology as a section of forensic science: forensic odorology, forensic phonoscopy and vocalography, and some others.

Forensic odorology is a forensic science of odors used to identify individuals, objects, various traces, etc.

Forensic phonoscopy and vocalography is a forensic science about the methods of using recorded sounds to detect and prevent crimes. The terms "phonoscopy" and "vocalography" are most often used interchangeably in forensic literature, but phonoscopy seems to be somewhat broader than vocalography, which studies only the sounds of a person's voice.

In forensics, techniques have been developed that can be used to depict sound vibrations in the form of lines. This allows you to identify a person by voice (negotiations recorded on magnetic tape).

2.2. Trends in the development of forensic technology

The effective use in the disclosure and investigation of crimes of electronic computing, electro-optical technology, video recording prove their capabilities in detecting, fixing, transmitting and storing forensic information and the need for further improvement of both the technical means themselves and the methods of their use. Recording the course and results of investigative actions, as well as the process of expert research using digital photography, is becoming increasingly widely used.

Computer technologies are gaining further distribution, allowing to quickly and with high quality make subjective portraits, photo tables for the protocol of an investigative action, filmed on a video camera, carry out search actions in automated systems, etc.

Improving the equipment of mobile forensic laboratories in order to increase the effectiveness of inspections of incident sites involves equipping them with more modern equipment, including computers.

Further development of science and technology for the purpose of solving and investigating crimes is aimed at creating new search instruments for detecting hiding places, burial places of corpses, new metal detectors, instruments for studying human voices and sounds, etc.

The means and methods of fixing and removing traces of hands (for example, preservatives in aerosol packages), feet (using an electrostatic device), etc. are being improved.

2.3. The concept and system of forensic photography, filming and video recording

Forensic photography, filming and video recording is a branch of forensic technology, which is a set of scientific provisions and the means, methods and techniques of photography developed on their basis, as well as methods and techniques of filming and video recording used in collecting, researching and demonstrating evidence.

The system of forensic photography, filming and video recording consists of the following parts:

1) the concept, system and meaning of forensic photography, filming and video recording;

2) a capturing photograph;

3) research photography;

4) forensic filming and video recording.

The tasks of forensic photography, filming and video recording include the development and further improvement of methods and means of fixing evidence, their study, as well as the effective use of evidence in the detection and investigation of crimes.

With the help of forensic photography, you can quickly and accurately capture the picture of the scene, the traces found, objects, crime instruments, the course and results of the investigative action. At the same time, such traditional methods of fixation as logging, drawing up plans, diagrams, and sketches are significantly enriched and supplemented.

Forensic photography is also used during the ORM, for conducting forensic records. According to the images, the search and identification of criminals are carried out.

Research methods (methods) of shooting help an expert to detect invisible traces, restore destroyed texts, identify traces of erasures, additions, and conduct comparative studies.

In forensic photography, there are two sections: capturing photography and research photography.

Capturing photography is a system of scientific provisions, as well as methods (methods), techniques and means developed on their basis, used to capture the progress and results of investigative actions, various forensic objects, as well as during ORM. Capturing photography is used when fixing objects that are well perceived visually (for example, when shooting the course and results of investigative actions, shooting faces and objects for registration).

Ways (methods) of capturing photography:

▪ regular black and white or color photography;

▪ panoramic shooting;

▪ identification photography;

▪ measuring survey;

▪ stereo photography;

▪ macro photography;

▪ television filming;

▪ reproduction photography.

Recently, digital photography has been actively developing, but the procedure for its use in the practical activities of law enforcement agencies has not yet been worked out.

Shooting techniques are a set of rules that allow the most effective use of various methods used in certain types of shooting of various forensic objects.

According to the distance from the camera (photo or video camera) to the object being filmed, orienting, overview, nodal, detailed shooting are distinguished. It must be remembered that the shooting is carried out from the general to the particular, in a certain sequence, which must correspond to the sequence of fixing the progress and results of the investigative action.

Research photography is a system of scientific provisions, as well as methods (methods), techniques and tools developed on their basis, used to identify and fix invisible or poorly visible objects and their signs in the process of conducting examinations and preliminary studies.

Research photography applied:

1) to take a general view of the objects under study, if it is impossible to use a capturing photograph for this;

2) detection of invisible and weakly visible features of the objects under study;

3) obtaining images for a comparative study of objects;

4) illustrations in a visual form of the conclusions made by the expert as a result of the study.

In research photography, along with capturing methods of shooting, special photographic methods (methods) are used that are used in the production of forensic examinations:

▪ micro photography;

▪ comparative photography;

▪ color separation photography;

▪ contrasting photography;

▪ shooting in infrared rays;

▪ shooting in ultraviolet rays;

▪ X-ray shooting;

▪ high-speed shooting.

2.4. Identification photography, its purpose and rules

Identification shooting of people and corpses is carried out for the purpose of their subsequent identification, forensic registration and search. Pictures are taken in 1/7 natural size. The object is photographed from the front (full face) and in profile (on the right), without a headdress. In this case, the hair should not cover the auricle; the person should be without glasses, the head in a vertical position, the background is neutral gray, the lighting is uniform. In cases where photographs of this person are supposed to be used for identification or forensic examination, as well as for some types of records (for example, photo libraries), photography is done in s of a turn (with a turn to the right) and in full growth.

As a rule, in ¾ of a turn, the person is photographed in the form in which he was detained. A full-length face is photographed at 1/20 life size.

Before the identification shooting of the corpse, if necessary, to restore its appearance, restoration is carried out (toilet of the corpse). Restoration is done with the help of a forensic physician. For the toilet of the corpse, a special suitcase No. 4 from the set of a mobile forensic laboratory can be used. The corpse is given a life-like appearance: the eyes are opened, the face is powdered, the hair is combed, etc. The right and left profiles are photographed, but otherwise the same rules are used as in the identification shooting of living people.

2.5. Measurement photography methods

Under certain conditions, it is possible to use photography to determine the true size of objects, as well as the distances between objects. For these purposes, applied photogrammetry is used.

In forensics, in addition to photogrammetric methods, such methods of measuring photography are used as scale shooting with a linear and depth scale (the depth scale can be tape or square), as well as stereophotogrammetric shooting.

To establish the true dimensions of the objects depicted in the photographs, the photographs must be deciphered. Decryption consists in establishing mathematical dependencies between images of points on images and captured objects, as well as using appropriate methods for processing photographs.

The simplest method of measuring shooting used in forensics is shooting with a linear scale (scale shooting). The object is filmed together with the scale bar, while the ruler is placed next to and in the plane of the object being filmed. Lighting should be uniform and cover the entire surface of this object.

Shooting with a depth scale is based on the fact that if the distances from objects to the camera are known, then the proper dimensions of these objects can be calculated from their images, since the image decreases as the object moves away from the camera lens, and this reduction can be calculated using certain formulas.

Shooting with tape scale is that the object is photographed with a scale tape located in depth from the camera, while the optical axis of the lens is parallel to the scale tape.

The essence of shooting with a square scale is that instead of a tape scale, a square scale is placed in the frame, which is a contrast-colored sheet of cardboard with a side that is a multiple of the focal length of the lens.

The square scale is placed on the ground so that it is in the viewfinder's field of view at its lower edge in the center of the frame.

The decoding of images obtained by such methods is carried out according to a certain method using special formulas, drawing coordinate grids on the images, etc.

To determine the size of the photographed objects and the distances between them from single images, monophotogrammetric survey is also used with several reference measuring sticks, which are placed on the photographed area. Determining the size of a picture with the image of measuring sticks is based on the dependence of the size of their images on the shooting distance.

To determine the size of objects and the distances between them, stereo shooting (stereophotogrammetric shooting method) can also be used. To do this, the resulting stereo pair (two photographs of the same object taken from two different points in space) is placed in a stereophotogrammetric device, which allows the observer to see a spatial (stereoscopic) image and measure the distances between points, objects, determine their sizes, etc.

There are special complexes of technical means for fixing the situation of the scene of an accident, based on stereophotogrammetry. These include the stereophotogrammetric complex (Fomp-1) and the electronic stereogrammetric complex (Fomp-E).

2.6. Video recording as a means of fixing the progress and results of investigative actions

When solving and investigating crimes, video recording is used along with shorthand, photographing, filming and audio recording (part 2 of article 166 of the Code of Criminal Procedure). According to the established practice, the materials of the use of video recording (video phonograms) are either an annex to the protocol of an investigative action, or a separate document.

Video recordings that have the value of documents (part 2 of article 84 of the Code of Criminal Procedure) include materials that are of interest to the investigation only in terms of their content, regardless of how, in what form, under what conditions the video recording was made (video recording of a meeting, lectures, interviews, etc.).

In forensics, video recording is used, although very rarely, to record dynamic processes during the study.

If necessary, the video recording may be played at the court session. The video materials submitted to the court must be impeccable both in criminal procedure and in technical terms, otherwise the results of the investigative action will be recognized as having no evidentiary value.

Video recording as an additional means of fixing the progress and results of investigative actions can be used by decision of the investigator, prosecutor, court ruling, as well as at the request of the accused, suspect, witness or victim or defense counsel representing the interests of one of these persons, if its use in a particular case is not contrary to the interests of the investigation.

If the investigator decides to use the video recording, he is obliged to notify the interested person and other participants in the investigative action about this.

A specialist can be invited to make a video recording (usually a forensic specialist conducts a video recording).

The video phonogram obtained during the investigative action, as well as the protocol, should conditionally consist of three parts: introductory, main and final. In the introductory and final parts, information is recorded that explains and certifies the video phonogram, and the main part reflects the course and results of the investigative action.

Regardless of the type of investigative action, it is advisable to start the introductory part of the video film with a close-up image of the person conducting this action, who names his position and surname, reports what investigative action he is conducting and in what criminal case, time, place of the investigative action, and then names in turn each of the participants in the investigative action, who in this sequence are captured in close-up. After that, the investigator, being in the frame, explains the rights and obligations of each participant. If necessary, the procedure for conducting an investigative action is also explained. With this, the introductory part of the video film ends, and the investigator immediately or after a break for the duration of the journey to the place of the investigative action begins to conduct it.

Practice shows that it is impossible, and even inappropriate, to record with the help of video, for example, the entire process of examining the scene of an incident or a search, which can last several hours. At the same time, it is very useful to record on videotape the general view of the scene, the moments of discovery and seizure of the most important traces and other material evidence, the moment of discovery and opening of the cache during the search, the extraction of the desired from it, etc.

Breaks in the video recording of the course of an investigative action are undesirable in principle, but they are practically inevitable. Each break, its time and reasons must be specified on the video phonogram and recorded in the minutes.

The traces found and other physical evidence are described in accordance with the recommendations of forensic science. The place of discovery, general and particular features of the object, material evidence or trace carrier, the method of detecting traces, the location of traces on the trace carrier, general and particular features of traces, the method of seizure and packaging are indicated. All actions for the detection, fixation and seizure of traces and other material evidence must be voiced by the investigator or a specialist for recording on a video phonogram.

The same information is indicated in the protocol of the investigative action and graphic annexes to it.

The final part of the movie is recorded after reviewing the footage. It should be a confirmation by the participants of the investigative action of the correctness of the video recording.

After viewing the videotape, the videotape is resumed and all participants are captured at the moment when the investigator asks about the compliance of the course and results of the investigative action with the content of the reproduced videotape and the protocol. The video recording ends with a recording of the answers to the question posed and the investigator's report on the completion of the investigative action.

In a number of cases, it is advisable to attach to the protocol of an investigative action a photo table made from a video phonogram depicting the key moments of the investigative action.

It is recommended to pack a cassette with a video phonogram in a plastic bag, which is put into a paper bag, tied with twine, the ends of the twine are sealed with the seal of the investigator. An explanatory inscription is made on the package, certified by the signatures of the investigator and witnesses.

2.7. The concept and system of forensic traceology

Trasology is a branch of forensic technology that studies the patterns and mechanism of occurrence of various types of traces, develops means, techniques and methods for collecting and examining traces in order to use them to detect, investigate and prevent crimes.

The term "trasology" is formed from two words: the French "la tras" - "trace" and the Greek "logos" - "word", "teaching". So traceology is the science of traces.

Traditionally, in forensics, traces are divided into ideal and material.

Ideal traces are a reflection of an event or its elements in the human mind, a mental image of what is perceived. The nature of the ideal traces and their safety largely depend on the state of the sense organs of the person who perceived these traces, his memory, the level of intelligence, etc. Therefore, such traces are largely subjective. It should also be noted that this term itself is arbitrary: ideal traces are material in nature, as they are the result of material phenomena in the human brain - changes in electrostatic impulses, features of the flow of biochemical processes.

Material traces are formed as a result of displaying the course of a criminal act and its results on objects of the material world.

Material traces in a broad sense are any material change in the situation that arose during the preparation, commission or concealment of a crime. Their sources are not only mechanical impact, but also physical, chemical and biological processes, up to leaving odor or radioactive traces. To study many of these traces, special knowledge in chemistry, physics, biology, and various branches of technology is required.

Traces investigated in forensic traceology are traces in a narrow sense. By their nature, these are material traces, the informationally valuable external structure of which was formed as a result of the preparation, commission or concealment of a crime. Part of the traces in the narrow sense, in addition to tracing, is studied in other branches of forensic technology: traces of weapons on bullets and cartridge cases - in forensic ballistics, prints of seals and stamps - in forensic examination of documents.

The classification of material traces in a narrow sense is presented in paragraph 2.9.

2.8. Traceology system

The question of the traceology system is debatable.

According to the most widely used system, trace science as a branch of forensic technology includes:

▪ general provisions of traceology;

▪ study of human traces (anthroposcopy);

▪ study of traces of tools and tools (mechanoscopy);

• transport traceology;

▪ study of animal tracks;

▪ study of other traces and objects;

• microtraceology. In turn, anthroposcopy consists of the following parts.

1. Fingerprinting (traces of human skin, mostly fingerprints).

2. Footprints:

a) traces of shoes;

b) footprints in stockings (socks);

c) traces of bare feet.

3. Forensic examination of teeth marks.

4. Forensic examination of traces of lips, skin of the head and other parts of the human body.

5. Forensic investigation of clothing traces.

2.9. Classification of material traces

Material traces in the narrow sense are usually divided into traces-images, traces-objects and traces-substances.

Display traces are traces formed as a result of displaying the external structure of one object on another object during the preparation, commission or concealment of a crime.

Traces-objects are materially formed objects, the occurrence, movement or change of state of which is associated with the preparation, commission or concealment of a crime.

Traces-substances are small amounts of liquid, pasty or powdery substances, whose placement, shape and size reflect the mechanisms of trace formation associated with the preparation, commission and concealment of crimes.

Traces-images are of greatest importance in traceology. An object that leaves a trace is a trace-forming object, an object on which a trace remains is a trace-perceiving object.

The trace-forming and trace-perceiving objects, coming into trace contact, are in different mechanical states: they move in one direction or another and at a certain speed, they are in a certain position and relative position, being in a state of relative rest. This process, characterized by many parameters, is called the trace formation mechanism, and its result is a trace display.

Display traces can be classified in various ways:

▪ classification of traces according to the trace-forming object consists of several classification levels. First, general level: traces of humans, tools and tools, vehicles, animals. Such trace-forming objects leave traces with their specific parts. For example, a person can leave traces of hands, feet, teeth, lips, clothing. This is the second level of classification of traces according to the trace-forming object. In turn, traces of hands can be traces of fingers and palms, and traces of feet can be traces of shoes, feet in socks (stockings) and bare feet. This is the third classification level;

▪ classification of trace-images according to the nature (degree) of change in the trace-receiving object. On this basis, all traces are divided into two large groups: volumetric and superficial.

Volumetric traces are formed as a result of a change in the trace-perceiving object and have three parameters: width, length and depth. Volumetric traces, in turn, are divided into the following groups:

▪ traces of deformation resulting from a significant change in a stable and plastic surface (footprints in clay soil);

▪ traces of molding, formed during the compaction of a layer of amorphous, granular trace-receiving substance scattered on a harder surface (a shoe print in a pile of cement, on the floor of a room);

▪ traces of destruction of the trace-receiving object as a result of the separation of its parts (traces of sawing, drilling, hewing, etc.);

▪ traces of partial transfer of a trace-receiving object, characteristic of the action of runners of a sleigh, skis, bulldozer blade, etc.

Surface traces have only two parameters, they are two-dimensional. Such traces, in principle, may have a certain depth, but at present it is either practically not measurable, or is not essential for solving traceological issues. Surface traces in traceology are usually divided into three groups:

▪ traces of layering, formed when part of the surface of a trace-forming object (or a substance covering it) is separated and layered onto a trace-receiving object (sweat trace of a papillary pattern on glass);

▪ traces of peeling, formed in cases where part of the trace-receiving object (or the substance covering it) peels off and transfers to the trace-receiving object or is destroyed (the trace of a mount sliding on the surface of a safe coated with oil paint);

▪ traces of thermal or photochemical changes in a trace-receiving object, formed when the surface of the object is burned or charred (in a fire, paper, wallpaper, fabrics burn out in the sun).

The classification of traces according to the connection of the mechanical state of objects with emerging traces suggests their division into two groups - dynamic and static traces.

Dynamic traces are formed in those cases when the trace-forming object moves parallel to the trace-receiving surface (traces of sliding, cutting, sawing, drilling).

Static traces occur when a moving object is at rest, after which it remains motionless or changes the direction of movement (various dents, footprints when walking and running, traces of rolling of cylindrical objects).

Classification in relation to the zone of change of the trace-receiving surface to the trace-forming object is made up of local and peripheral traces.

Local traces are formed directly under the contact surface of the trace-forming object (handprints on glass, footprints in the ground, and most other traces-displays).

Peripheral traces arise due to a change in the trace-receiving surface outside the area of ​​​​contact with it of the trace-forming object (traces of charring of the floor around the canister, burning out the wallpaper around the photo card in the sun, wetting the asphalt around the standing car with rain, etc.).

It is possible to apply the division into macro- and microtraces to the traces studied in traceology, although the basis for such a classification is somewhat arbitrary - it is practically carried out only by the size of the traces. Footprints that do not require the use of more than four or seven times magnification (i.e. a regular magnifying glass) can be referred to as macro-footprints. Traces that require greater magnification, as well as the use of special methods for working with them, are referred to as microtraces.

2.10. Types of handprints. Ways to identify and fix them

Traces of papillary patterns can be traces of substances and traces of reflections.

Traces-substances are formed during tangential movement as a result of the layering of sweat-fat substance in the form of a smear, in which the pattern pattern is not displayed. The mechanism of formation of such traces, established with the help of traceology, has limited evidentiary value. Of great value is the establishment of their composition, group and individual affiliation, carried out with the help of biomedical research.

Traces-displays of papillary patterns are static traces. In fingerprinting, they are divided into visible, slightly visible and invisible.

Visible traces include two groups of traces:

1) volumetric traces of deformation left on plastic materials (butter, margarine, chocolate, wet putty, etc.) and having papillary lines;

2) surface traces-layers formed by fingers stained with blood, ink, soot, etc.

The group of poorly visible traces consists mainly of superficial traces-layers formed by sweat-fat substance on smooth shiny surfaces (glass, porcelain, faience, polished wood, metals, etc.). Another, smaller part of this group consists of traces of delamination, which appear as a result of entrainment on papillary lines of dust from a dusty, smooth, shiny surface.

Invisible traces are sweat-fat traces-layers on smooth matte surfaces (paper, cardboard, plywood, textile fabrics, corpse skin).

To identify and fix traces of papillary patterns, physical and chemical means and methods are used.

Physical methods include:

▪ use of differences in the refraction of light reflected from areas covered with fatty substances and free from it, when examining transparent objects in the light and opaque objects in directed obliquely incident light;

▪ pollination of the trace-carrying object with colored powders.

These powders include: copper oxide, lead oxide (red lead), zinc oxide, manganese peroxide (dioxide), lead carbonate, argentorate (aluminum powder), chalk, talc, gypsum, graphite, soot. In practice, mixtures of various powders are increasingly used to enhance the stickiness of a powder, increase its specific gravity, enhance color, and for other purposes.

These powders are applied to the trace-carrying object and removed from it with a squirrel or kolinsky brush (flute) or with the help of special sprayers. Pollination of a trace-bearing object with iron powder reduced by hydrogen is carried out using a magnetic brush.

At present, aerosolized powders, the so-called dactosols, are used to detect marks on large horizontal surfaces.

The fumigation of invisible traces with iodine vapor is based on the selective ability to penetrate into the sweat-fat substance of the trace (the traces identified by iodine must be fixed with a solution of starch or iron powder reduced by hydrogen).

Among the physical methods, one can also name the pumping of the trace with the soot of burning camphor, naphthalene, foam plastic, pine splinter, etc.

Combined physical methods include:

▪ pollination of traces with phosphor powders and photographing luminescence excited by ultraviolet rays in the dark;

▪ pollination of traces with salts of heavy metals (red lead - lead oxide) and photographing in light using “soft” X-rays.

In essence, the latest physical methods are also combined: autoradiography, laser fluorography, thermal vacuum deposition.

Chemical methods for detecting weakly visible and invisible traces are based mainly on the ability of the trace substance to change its color under the influence of various reagents. So, when the sweat-fatty substance reacts with a solution of ninhydrin, the trace becomes pinkish-violet, with an alloxan solution - orange-red, etc.

In addition, a number of chemical reagents act on the surface of the trace-bearing object, changing its relief (for example, hydrofluoric acid - on the surface of glass, glazed porcelain and faience) or color (copper sulfate - on iron, acetic lead - on zinc, etc. ) and extracting the trace in this way.

In cases where a faintly visible trace of a papillary pattern is found on a transportable object (for example, a bottle, glass, glass fragments, a knife, etc.) or there is reason to assume that there is a trace on the object, this object must be removed without any treatment with powders or reagents , properly pack it and attach it to the materials of the criminal case.

2.11. Types of traces of human teeth. Methods of their fixation and rules for sending for examination

Tooth marks associated with crimes are found on food products, the body of a living person or a corpse, cigarette holders and cigarette filters, metal caps of vodka and beer bottles, hinged seals, etc.

By type, the traces of teeth can be traces-objects and traces-displays.

Traces-objects are parts of teeth, individual teeth, parts of dentures and dentures as a whole. When such traces are found, the main task is to establish their belonging to a specific person.

Teeth marks can be volumetric, formed as a result of deformation of the trace-receiving object (on food products), and superficial, which are formed when the upper layer of the trace-receiving object is separated (the upper plane of the cap of a beer bottle).

According to the mechanism of trace formation, traces are divided into static (formed by the chewing surface of molars), dynamic (bite marks formed by incisors and canines when the dentition is completely closed and part of the trace-receiving object is separated) and combined with elements of dynamics and statics (bite marks when the dentitions are closed incompletely and a part of the trace-perceiving object is separated due to breakage or separation).

Traces-displays, if possible, are removed on the subject-tracker. If it turns out to be a fusible object (chocolate, butter, margarine, etc.), then it must be cooled or even frozen before transportation.

Transportation of some fruits (apples, pears) and vegetables (radishes, turnips, cucumbers), which have bites, is associated with their drying and decay, which leads to distortion and even destruction of traces. In this case, it is recommended to wrap the object in several layers of crumpled paper and place it in a jar of fresh, cool water. This will ensure the safety of traces for 10-12 hours.

If there is no confidence that the teeth marks can be delivered to the forensic department in complete safety, it is necessary, after mandatory photography with a scale ruler, to make casts of the three-dimensional teeth marks. Pastes “K”, “Sielast-69”, “Silicadent” can be used as impression masses. In the absence of synthetic impression materials, an impression can be made using plaster.

Traces of teeth on the body of a corpse are removed along with a piece of skin in the process of a forensic autopsy. The preservation of such a skin flap is carried out by an expert - a forensic physician.

With the identification of the suspect (or the accused), it becomes possible to appoint an identification examination based on the marks of the teeth. When preparing such an examination, it is necessary to obtain experimental samples of the teeth of the person being checked.

To carry out this investigative action, the investigator almost always involves a dentist or a prosthetist.

If there are traces on inanimate objects (food, metal bottle caps, hinged metal seals, etc.) and the full volume of comparative samples of the suspect's teeth, an identification forensic examination may be ordered.

2.12. Types of human footprints. Methods of their fixation and rules for sending for examination

Human footprints include:

▪ traces of bare feet;

▪ traces of shoes;

▪ footprints in stockings (socks).

Traces of bare feet are identified, examined and recorded in accordance with the guidelines for fingerprinting.

In the footprints of the shoe, an individual complex of general and particular signs of the bottom of the shoe is displayed. Common features include: the length of the sole, the presence or absence of a heel, the method of attaching the sole, the relief designation on the intermediate part of the sole, the general degree of wear of the sole, and some others.

Particular signs can be divided into three groups:

1) signs that arise during the manufacture of footwear - the shape and dimensions of the outsole and intermediate parts, manufacturing defects (cuts, asymmetric arrangement of parts, missing nails and stitches);

2) signs that occur when wearing shoes (size, shape and location of areas with a lost pattern; cracks, holes, scratches, their size, shape and location relative to the sections and details of the pattern; the absence of individual hairpins, nails or screws);

3) signs that occur during shoe repair (shape, size and position of patches, kosyachkov, heels, stickers) - "prevention"; shape, size and location of metal horseshoes).

It is necessary to identify and analyze, if possible, not individual footprints, but their totality, which in forensic science is called footprints. It is characterized by the following features: the direction of movement, the line of walking, the length of the steps for the right and left legs, the width of the legs, the angles of the steps for the right and left legs, and the angles of the feet. If we consider these signs of gait as a complex, then the direction of movement and the line of walking can be attributed to general signs, and all the rest to private ones.

In addition to traces-displays, footprints by their nature can also belong to two other groups (traces-objects, traces-substances, traces-displays). Traces-objects include heels or heels on them, joints, horseshoes, as well as tongues, laces, etc., separated from shoes at the scene.

Traces-substances include slip marks, during the occurrence of which a smear of rubber of the outsole or heel part is formed. These traces can be studied in forensics only from the point of view of the mechanism of their formation.

To fix surface dust marks or traces found with powders, specific means and methods of fixing are used. So, white (non-exposed) or black (exposed) developed and fixed photographic paper can be used. After removing the drops of water, this paper is applied with a wet emulsion layer to the trace and rolled with a photographic roller. Sometimes the gelatinous surface of the emulsion layer of photographic paper is additionally treated with a special compound to increase its stickiness. To fix these traces, a fingerprint film of suitable sizes can also be used.

Traces formed (or identified) by powdered substances or blood can also be fixed and removed using a 2-3% polymer solution in a volatile organic solvent. These substances are applied with a spray gun to a trace-carrying object, and after the solvent has evaporated, an elastic film is formed on the object, in which the trace substance is included.

The old method of fixing dust marks of shoes with the help of sheet rubber, which is rubbed with sandpaper, is also used. The resulting fleecy surface is pressed against the trace and rubbed by hand or rolled with a roller. As a result of the action of electrostatic fields, the powdery (pulverized) substance of the trace is introduced into the fleecy layer of rubber.

The electrostatic effect is also used to fix the marks left by dusty and dirty shoe soles on carpets and woven floor coverings. Such traces are covered with a special metallized film, the dimensions of which are slightly larger than the trace. A direct current charge of up to 10 volts is applied through the film. As a result, the particles forming the trace are transferred to the lower surface of the film.

Fixation and removal of voluminous footprints of shoes are often associated with the risk of damage if they are left in loose fine materials (sand, flour, a layer of dust, cement, etc.). In such cases, the surface of the traces is pre-strengthened with the use of special substances. With the help of a spray gun, a cloud is formed from the smallest droplets of the solution, which should settle inside the track and strengthen it. Good results are obtained by the use of cosmetic hair sprays in aerosol packaging for this purpose.

The traditional substance for making casts of footprints is a gypsum solution, or rather, an aqueous suspension of medical gypsum powder. Paraffin, a solution of perchlorovinyl in acetone, silicone paste "K", low molecular weight rubber SKTN are also used as impression masses. For strength, reinforcement is necessarily placed in the impression (for example, a part of a wooden stick a little smaller than the trace), to which the string for the tag is attached.

A specific method for fixing footprints is to impregnate the soil around the perimeter of the footprint with adhesives (perchlorovinyl solution, clerical silicate glue, etc.). After hardening, a lump of soil with a trace is removed and packed in a box.

In general, if possible, traces are recommended to be removed together with trace-bearing objects (for example, pieces of furniture with traces of dusty shoes).

For footwear:

▪ its size;

▪ design of the bottom of the shoe (presence or absence of a heel);

▪ are these shoes men's or women's;

▪ degree of wear of its bottom;

▪ features that individualize a specific specimen (damage, traces of repair, etc.).

If a suspect is found, all shoes, the group characteristics of which correspond to the information obtained as a result of examining the tracks, are seized from him and attached to the materials of the criminal case.

All materials in which traces are recorded at the scene of the incident are sent for identification examination: an inspection report, photographs, trace path diagrams, prints or casts, trace-bearing objects and, as a rule, the shoes of the suspect.

Footprints in socks (stockings) have a certain specificity. The complex of traces of a stocking (sock) displays such general features as the structure of the fabric of the product, the number of threads per unit area, the thickness of the threads, and the degree of wear of knitwear. Particular signs: defects of industrial origin (significant thickening and thinning of the threads, thickening and thinning of the loop rows, uneven length of the loops, dropped loops, skewed loops), wear defects and repair marks (cuts, tears, through abrasions, patches, darning, thread seams ).

In the complex of signs of the structure of the foot, the following general signs can be distinguished that are displayed through the tissue of the toe (stocking): the size of the sole of the foot, the presence of its parts (toes, metatarsus, intermediate part, heel), general developmental anomalies (non-display of parts of the foot in the footprint). Particular signs of the bottom of the foot: their presence and size, shape (display) and relative positions of individual fingers; features of the shape and location of the predigital line of the anterior part of the metatarsus; the width of the intermediate part; the shape and size of the heel; the presence, shape, size and location of calluses, growths, folds, scars.

Fixation of footprints in socks (stockings) is carried out according to the usual scheme: description in the protocol, drawing up a diagram or plan, photographing, making casts and sometimes impressions, removing traces on the trace-bearing object.

2.13. Traces of hacking tools and tools (mechanoscopy)

According to one of the classifications, burglary tools and tools for mechanical impact on a barrier are divided into: impact (hammers and sledgehammers), squeezing (crowbars and nail pullers), clamping (vises, pliers, round nose pliers, oval pliers and pliers), stabbing (awls, “gypsy” needles ), cutting (knives, axes, chisels, chisels, chisels, etc.), cutting (scissors and nippers), drilling (drills and drills), sawing and some others. [5]

Complexes of features depend not only on the design of objects, but also on the methods of their application. Tools and tools are not always used for their constructive purpose: for example, chisels, chisels, screwdrivers wring out doors or windows, and the door can be knocked out, for example, by hitting a crowbar, a large wrench or an ax butt.

As a result of the action, which is static in nature, traces (volumetric deformations) are formed, in which an individual set of features is displayed that characterizes the working part of the tool. Traditionally, this complex is divided into general (shape and size of the contact surface) and particular (shape and size of its individual elements, shape, size and location of irregularities of the edges and surface) features.

Dynamic marks are surface skid marks and cut marks, most commonly left by cutting or prying (screwdriver) tools.

Surface slip marks often make it possible to establish the shape and dimensions of the working part of the trace-forming object, as well as the features of its trace-forming edge (blade).

It should be noted that gas and electric cutting devices can be used to overcome obstacles, causing not mechanical, but thermal damage. These damages are slit-like cuts with uneven edges and elements of melting, metal spreading, splashing, soot deposits, metal color changes, etc.

The classification of traces of tools and tools as material traces of a crime includes not only traces-displays, but also traces-objects and traces-substances.

Traces-objects of tools and tools are fragments of their working parts left at the scene.

Traces-substances are the results of the action of electric and gas cutting devices in the form of microscopic particles of metal scale, microdrops of molten and solidified metal and glass wool of the safe's thermal insulation.

The overwhelming majority of traces of tools and tools are local traces.

Fixing traces of tools and tools is carried out according to the usual scheme (description in the protocol, drawing up diagrams and plans, photographing, making impressions and casts, removing trace-bearing objects with traces). The discovery of tools or weapons similar to those used at the scene of the incident on the suspect allows, in addition to diagnostic questions, to appoint an identification examination. At the same time, in addition to the traces seized at the scene, the tested weapon is sent to the expert.

2.14. Classification of vehicle tracks

In addition to traces left by wheels on the ground or asphalt, as well as car parts on other vehicles, clothing and the body of the victim, or objects surrounding the roadway (pillars, walls, fences), as a result of an accident, traces of objects and traces are left. substances. Traces-objects include, for example, fragments of broken headlight glass, fallen-off car parts, etc., and trace-substances include traces of liquids flowing from car components (fuels, coolants, brake fluid), as well as microscopic fragments of glass and scales paints.

Traces-displays can be volumetric (deformations - traces of wheels on the ground and parts on other vehicles; molding - traces of wheels in bulk substances) and surface (mainly these are layers when dirty wheels move on asphalt, but there may also be traces of delamination - when the bumper slides over the fender of another car, when the paint peels off).

According to the mechanism of formation, rolling traces are static. Dynamic wheel tracks, when the wheels skid along the asphalt surface, are unsuitable for identification, but they allow you to set the speed of the car by the time the braking starts.

Most often, local traces are investigated, but it is also possible to use peripheral traces, for example, the detection of a dry area of ​​asphalt in the place of a missing car at a time when the surrounding surface of the asphalt, wet from rain, allows the shape and size of the area to at least approximately determine the make of the car.

The characteristics of car tracks used in transport traceology are borrowed from automotive technology.

Track - this is the distance between the same points of the running tracks of single wheels or the center lines of paired wheels. When driving in a straight line, the traces of the rear wheels partially or completely overlap the traces of the front ones. Therefore, the tread of the front wheels can be measured from the tracks on the turn.

The vehicle base is the distance between the front and rear axles of a two-axle vehicle. Three-axle vehicles have a different common base, i.e. the distance between the front and rear geometric axis passing through the middle of the bogie base (bogie base - the distance between the middle and rear axles).

The tread is the part of the tire that is in contact with the road and is patterned for better traction.

The discovery of traces at the scene of the incident makes it possible to obtain preliminary information for putting forward versions and planning an investigation. In particular, the brand (model) of the vehicle, the model of tires (at least on the rear wheels), the degree of wear and tear and features of the tires, the presence of damage (for example, a broken headlight), extraneous marks (layers of blood, brain matter, hair, patches of clothing) are established. by car. In addition, the traces can be used to establish the circumstances of the incident: the direction and speed of the car, the place of collision with a pedestrian, collision with another vehicle, the beginning of braking, stopping.

In a number of cases, these issues are put to the resolution of a diagnostic, often complex (trasological and forensic autotechnical) examination.

The discovery of the suspect and the seizure of his car allows you to appoint an identification examination. The wheels of a car are most often provided as samples for a comparative study. However, in some cases (for example, for heavy vehicles), it is necessary to obtain experimental wheel displays, which are provided to the expert.

2.15. The concept and system of forensic weapons science

Forensic weapons science is a branch of forensic technology that studies the design principles and patterns of operation of various devices designed to defeat (up to destruction) a person or animal, the patterns of formation of traces of the use of these devices, and also develops tools and techniques for collecting, researching and evaluating such devices. objects and traces in the detection, investigation and prevention of crimes. A weapon in forensics is a material means, structurally and functionally designed to defeat a person or animals.

Forensic weapons science as a branch of forensic science includes:

▪ forensic examination of firearms and traces of their use (forensic ballistics);

▪ forensic examination of bladed weapons and traces of their use;

▪ forensic examination of throwing weapons and traces of their use;

▪ forensic research of other types of weapons, special means and traces of their use.

Forensic, or forensic, ballistics (from the Greek “ballyu” - “throw”) is a sub-branch of forensic technology that studies firearms, ammunition and firing patterns, and also develops means and techniques for collecting and examining these objects as material evidence in crime investigation and prevention.

In forensic (judicial) ballistics, there are General and Special parts. The general part includes the concept of the subject and objects of science, its tasks, techniques and methods, the means used to solve these problems, issues of interaction with other branches of forensic technology and other forensic disciplines.

The special part of forensic (judicial) ballistics consists of three large sections:

1) examination of a firearm;

2) research of ammunition;

3) investigation of gunshot injuries.

2.16. The mechanism of the formation of traces of weapons on the shells

Traces on the cartridge case fired from a firearm are formed as a result of its loading, firing and removal of the spent cartridge case. On the example of a rifled magazine firearm with a sliding bolt, the process of formation of traces of weapons on the sleeve is as follows.

When loading, the bolt is retracted and leaves a trail of sliding of its lower surface on the body of the next sleeve. When the shutter returns forward and the next cartridge is advanced from the chamber in the upper segment of the bottom of the sleeve, an imprint is formed from the shutter rammer and scratches on the body from the magazine lip. When the cartridge enters the chamber, the muzzle or slope of the case body contacts with two diametrically opposite sections of the breech section of the chamber, with the formation of slip marks in these sections of the cartridge case. After the cartridge is fully loaded into the chamber, as a result of some forward movement of the bolt, the ejector hook jumps over the flange of the bottom of the sleeve or into the groove of the body, forming a sliding track on the side surface of the bottom of the sleeve (flange).

When fired, the striker pierces the primer or strikes the bottom of the cartridge case on the flange. In this case, either a hemispherical or a quadrangular dent is formed. The sleeve, as a result of the pressure inside it, is somewhat given back and pressed with its bottom against the cartridge stop; as a result, an imprint of the cartridge stop is formed on the primer and, possibly, on the bottom of the sleeve. Large defects (shells, bottomholes, burrs) of the chamber at the time of the shot can also be displayed on the case body.

When the weapon is unloaded, the ejector hook pulls the cartridge case out of the chamber. In this case, the hook causes a secondary mark, resembling a notch, dent or scratch on the bottom of the groove or on the case body. The shutter is retracted back until the shutter window (shutter housing, receiver cover) is fully opened and the bottom hits the reflector. As a result of such an impact, a dent with some shift is formed on the bottom. With further backward movement, the sleeve, under the influence of the ejector hook and reflector, loses alignment with the barrel, turns the muzzle towards the window, enters it and hits its edge with the body or muzzle. As a result, a dent is formed on the sleeve with a slip trace from the edge of the shutter window.

The discovery of a cartridge case at the scene of the incident makes it possible, as a result of a preliminary study, to obtain orienting, non-procedural information used to put forward versions and plan an investigation. First of all, this concerns the determination of a weapon sample by traces on the shells.

Such a determination is carried out with the help of a forensic specialist, well-versed in forensic ballistics, in accordance with the following methodology:

1) by design features and markings, it is established which part of the cartridge of which sample (and model) the detected sleeve is;

2) it is clarified for which models of firearms this cartridge is standard, as well as the possibility of its non-standard use;

3) a complex of traces of weapons is installed on the sleeve, which corresponds to the complex of traces left when shooting from standard weapons. The coincidence of the complexes allows us to establish a sample of the weapon in which, most likely, the cartridge case was fired, or several samples in which it could be fired.

In conclusion, it is necessary to try to find out from the traces the features or defects of the weapon in which the cartridge case was fired.

2.17. The mechanism of the formation of traces of weapons on the bullet

Bullet marks have traditionally been examined only for projectiles fired from rifled firearms. In this case, the mechanism for the formation of traces is as follows.

When loading on the cartridge pool, a trace of the lip of the magazine in the form of a scratch and a trace of the breech section of the chamber in the form of a worn area may remain. Both traces are practically unsuitable for weapon identification.

When fired, the process of interaction between the bullet and the bore has three stages.

First stage: the bullet moves out of the case mouth and moves until it contacts the rifling fields. The movement is progressive and there are no marks left on the bullet.

At the second stage, from the beginning of the contact of the leading part of the bullet with the fields of rifling and until full penetration into them, the translational motion becomes translational-rotational. Primary traces remain on the leading surface of the bullet, which, after the end of the trace formation process, have the form of a triangular zone of parallel tracks located to the left and above the right-handed secondary traces. For left-handed rifling, the primary traces are located to the right of the secondary traces.

The third stage begins with the moment of full penetration of the leading part of the bullet into the rifling fields and ends with the exit of the bullet from the muzzle of the bore. Passing the rifled part of the barrel, in which the rifling (and rifling fields) make a turn of 360 °, i.e. one revolution, the bullet acquires a translational-rotational motion and secondary traces of rifling fields form on its leading part. They have the character of strip-like recesses located with the same slope as the rifling in the bore. At the bottom of the traces there are traces, which display the features of the surface of the rifling fields in the area adjacent to the muzzle, and the edges of the muzzle itself. If a bullet is fired from a weapon that has a gas outlet located on the rifling field (for some Kalashnikov assault rifles), the trace from this hole remains at the bottom of the secondary trace.

As the bore wears out, the division of traces into primary and secondary becomes less clear, up to the formation of a continuous striation on the bullet, when the rifling fields are smoothed to the level of the bottom of the rifling.

2.18. Mechanism of formation of gunshot wounds

The nature of shot marks on an obstacle is influenced by: the distance of the shot, the phenomena of internal and external ballistics, the mechanical properties of the most common obstacles (glass, tin, wooden boards).

There are three typical distances in forensic ballistics:

1) point-blank (or close to point-blank);

2) within the limits of additional factors of the shot;

3) outside of this action.

In relation to a specific damage, the distance can be set in centimeters.

The internal ballistics of a shot begins with the firing pin pricking the primer, which causes explosive decomposition of the primer (initiating) composition and rays of flame through the ignition holes of the anvil of the cartridge case ignite the powder charge. After the entire powder charge has ignited and the design pressure inside the cartridge has been reached, the projectile begins to move under the action of powder gases along the barrel bore. Rubbing of the surface of the projectile along the surface of the bore occurs. The powder gases following the projectile wash away the resulting metal particles. By the time the projectile leaves the barrel, the combustion of gunpowder results in the formation of a complex mixture, collectively called “powder gases.” They have a high temperature (up to 2000-3000 °C) and exert significant pressure on the walls of the barrel bore, the bottom of the bullet and the inner surface of the bottom of the cartridge case (up to 1000 atmospheres).

By the time the internal ballistics of the shot is completed, the powder gases include the following fractions:

a) gaseous products of gunpowder combustion;

b) microscopic solid particles (tiny lumps of burnt powder and metal flakes);

c) incompletely burned powders. When the first shot is fired, microscopic droplets of barrel and cartridge lubricant are included in the powder gases.

At the moment the projectile and powder gases exit the muzzle of the barrel bore, the processes of internal ballistics end and the processes of external ballistics begin.

The processes of external ballistics are traditionally considered from the point of view of the action of the main and additional factors of the shot. The main factor of the shot is the damaging effect of the projectile on the barrier, i.e. the formation of any damage. According to the degree of change in the trace-perceiving object, all gunshot injuries can be divided into penetrating (with the penetration of the projectile not less than the length or diameter of the projectile) and superficial.

Penetrating damage is subdivided into through and blind, superficial - into tangents, ricochet marks and dents formed from a blow with an exhausted projectile.

Traces of additional shot factors must be considered in the system:

Phenomenon - Additional Shot Factors - Traces

The first phenomenon is the recoil of the weapon and its reflex forward return. As a result, when fired at close range or close to the stop, the muzzle of the barrel (the front end of the bolt housing or barrel housing) hits the barrier, which is an additional factor in the shot. From this blow, a trace is formed on the barrier, called stamping mark.

The second phenomenon is the expiration of powder gases from the bore at high speed. It creates a number of additional factors that are displayed through the following traces.

The mechanical effect of powder gases on the obstacle is displayed in the form of tears of the edges of damage resulting from the spreading of gases over the surface of the obstacle. In this case, textile fabrics, felt and even dressed leather are damaged.

The next additional factor is the thermal effect on the barrier. Its traces have significant variations: from slight singing of the pile of textile fabric to its charring.

Such an additional factor as the deposition on the barrier of substances that are part of the powder gases is realized through three types of traces: the zone of soot deposition (coal lumps and metal particles), the zone of deposition or penetration of incompletely burned powder particles, and the zone formed by lubricant stains.

Among the phenomena that give rise to additional factors of the shot, include the contact of the surface of the projectile with the edges of the damage. The surface of the projectile affects the edges of the damage. This is evidenced primarily by such a trace as a wiping belt (metallization belt).

As a result of such an impact on synthetic materials (fabrics), traces of a thermal nature are formed - sintering of the edges of the damage.

On the display of additional factors of the shot, i.e. The nature of the shot marks is also influenced by the physical (mainly mechanical) properties of the barrier material. Let's consider the most common of them.

Gunshot damage to wood objects (boards) is largely determined by the degree of dryness (moisture) of the wood, as well as the angle at which the projectile enters the object. In a dry board with a perpendicular entry of the projectile, the inlet has a rounded shape and a diameter slightly exceeding the diameter of the leading part of the bullet. The edges of the inlet are uneven, serrated, the uneven edges are correlated with structural units - annual rings and layers of wood. The outlet usually has an irregular quadrangular shape. Its lateral sides, passing through the annual layers of wood, are quite even. The same sides that are located across these layers are uneven, jagged, with flakes and spalls.

Gunshot damage to sheet iron (drainpipes, roofs, car bodies) has the shape of a funnel, tapering along the course of the projectile. The edges of the hole are shaped like the rays of an irregular star. The dimensions of the hole correspond quite accurately to the diameter of the bullet.

Gunshot damage to sheet glass is characterized by a funnel-shaped or crater-shaped shape with expansion along the course of the projectile. Radial and concentric cracks form around the damage. On the side faces of the cracks surrounding the damage, smaller cracks are formed, some ends of which are collected in a bundle, while others diverge like a panicle. At a meeting angle close to a direct one, the diameter of the damage on sheet glass corresponds quite accurately to the diameter of the bullet.

In textile fabrics, the projectile forms round or square damage, depending on the structure of the fabric. The projectile destroys and carries away the fibers of the threads, and at the point of its contact with the barrier, the so-called "fabric minus" is formed, i.e. the clearance that remains when the ends of the threads come together along the edges of the damage. The ends of the filaments are uneven, filamentous, facing into the lumen of the damage and inward, in the direction of the projectile. The dimensions of the inlet are usually somewhat smaller than the diameter of the bullet.

The same questions are put to the resolution of a forensic ballistic examination, although in order to solve them, in addition to the damage itself, it is necessary to present the weapon from which the shot was fired and similar experimental cartridges, especially to establish the distance of the shot.

2.19. The concept and classification of edged weapons

A cold weapon is a device designed to inflict serious bodily harm on a person or animal using the muscular strength of a person in close combat.

The criteria for classifying an object as a melee weapon are as follows:

▪ intended purpose - causing damage dangerous to human or animal life, fixed in the design of the object;

▪ constructive principle of action - the use of human muscular strength;

▪ guaranteed range of action - close combat, direct contact with the enemy.

Design features common to all types of edged weapons:

1) a part (detail) specially designed to cause predetermined damage (point, blade, spike, thickening, shock load);

2) a device (handle) for conveniently holding an object in the hand, providing the possibility of causing damage and protecting the hand from self-harm;

3) mechanical strength of the structure, which makes it possible to use the weapon repeatedly.

With regard to specific constructive types of edged weapons, these features constitute a single complex and are supplemented by features that can be called private.

Stabbing weapons are swords, stilettos, part of daggers, needle bayonets, historical pikes and "pikes" of modern criminals. They do not have a blade and, due to the point, tear the soft tissues of the body (and the fabric of clothing).

Piercing and cutting weapons are divided into single-edged (knives) and double-edged (daggers).

Design features of knives classified as edged weapons:

1) the blade has a triangular point, formed by the meeting of the smooth rounding of the blade with the butt (butt bevel) at an angle usually less than 45 °;

2) the point of the point lies only in the interval between the longitudinal axis of the blade and the butt line;

3) the length of the blade, sufficient to inflict penetrating damage to the chest or abdominal cavity (currently established as 9 cm and above);

4) the handle, convenient for deduction in a hand;

5) the overall strength of the knife and the rigidity of the blade.

Double-edged knives, i.e. daggers also have a set of features:

1) with a general longitudinal symmetry, the point is formed by the convergence of two blades at an angle of not more than 45 °;

2) the tip lies on the longitudinal axis of the blade, even if the blade is curved;

3) the length of the blade, sufficient to penetrate the human body;

4) the handle, convenient for deduction in a hand;

5) the overall strength of the structure and the rigidity of the blade, which is achieved due to the presence of stiffeners.

Quite rarely in investigative and forensic practice, there are chopping (hatchets), chopping-cutting (battle axes, including halberds and reeds, sabers), simultaneously piercing-cutting and chopping-cutting weapons (checkers, cleavers, scimitars, broadswords, bayonets, cleavers, large daggers).

Weapons of shock-crushing action - batons, brass knuckles, handhelds, cue balls, flails, etc. The clubs used by criminals are usually made from scraps of metal pipes, pieces of cable, legs of chairs, parts of shovels and broomsticks. However, in order to recognize such an object as a cold weapon, it is necessary to establish the presence of certain dimensional data (length - at least 30-40 cm, diameter - about 3 cm), which determine the mass of the object, the hardness of the material from which it is made, and the mandatory handle - wrapped with insulating tape or a notched area, as well as holes with a wrist loop (lanyard).

Brass knuckles are a figured plate and consist of a frame with a striking surface and holes for fingers, a rack and an emphasis.

Handhelds consist of a ring bandage (leather or fabric) and a metal plate (most often lead) fixed on it, round, oval or quadrangular in shape. The handheld is put on the hand so that the plate is on its inner surface and the blow is applied with an open palm.

The cue ball (cue ball) in design resembles half of a one-two-kilogram dumbbell. It is held in the fist so that the spherical shock part is under the little finger and the blow is applied from top to bottom.

The flail is a historical type of edged weapon of shock-crushing action. It consists of a rigid handle, a flexible suspension and an impact weight ("apple"). Sometimes the handle is equipped with a wrist loop.

Nunchucks are a type of edged weapon that not only has a shock-crushing, but also an infringing and suffocating effect. Nunchucks consist of two (rarely three, four, five) wooden cylindrical (or conical) smooth or faceted elements 25-30 cm long, weighing at least 0,8 kg each, connected by a flexible suspension.

In practice, there is a combined edged weapon: a knife-brass knuckles, a club-stiletto, and also in combination with firearms (for example, a revolver-brass knuckles-stylet of the Lefoshe system).

2.20. The concept and system of forensic examination of documents

Forensic examination of documents is a branch of forensic technology that studies the signs of writing, types and methods of changes in documents, develops and improves methods for examining and examining documents in order to detect and investigate crimes.

A document in forensic science is a material object that records information about any occurred or alleged facts or circumstances that are relevant to a criminal case.

Classification of documents is carried out on various grounds. Depending on the method of fixation, documents are divided into:

▪ written (handwritten texts, digital symbols, as well as texts and digital symbols made using various printing devices);

▪ graphic (drawings, drawings, plans and diagrams);

▪ photographic documents;

▪ film documents;

▪ phonological documents (tape recordings);

▪ electronic documents;

▪ video documents.

Depending on the origin, the documents are divided into:

▪ unofficial (correspondence between citizens);

▪ official (correspondence between citizens and organizations, as well as organizations among themselves with appropriate official identification, certification).

According to the procedural nature, documents are divided into:

▪ evidence documents (if the information contained in them is important for establishing the circumstances to be proven - part 1 of article 84 of the Code of Criminal Procedure);

▪ documents - material evidence (if they retain traces of criminal actions, or were the direct subject of a criminal attack, or can serve as means for detecting a crime and establishing the circumstances of the case - Part 1 of Article 81 of the Code of Criminal Procedure); in such cases, the investigator is interested not only in the content, but also in the document itself (its appearance, details, signs of forgery, etc.).

By substantive nature, documents are distinguished:

▪ authentic (the contents and details of which correspond to reality);

▪ counterfeit or counterfeit (the content or details of which do not correspond to reality).

The object of forensic research of documents as a branch of forensic technology is mainly documents - physical evidence. They are carriers of the material traces of the crime, information about the identity of the offender and are indispensable in a criminal case.

As stated above, a document will be considered evidence if it was:

▪ means of committing a crime (fake invoices, invoices, receipts, checks, etc.);

▪ a means of concealing a crime (anonymous letters written with the aim of directing the investigation along the wrong path, etc.);

▪ the direct object of a criminal attack (for example, stolen documents);

▪ a means of detecting a crime, establishing the factual circumstances of the case.

Forensic examination of documents consists of the following sections:

▪ forensic study of writing (written speech and handwriting);

▪ technical examination of documents;

▪ forensic examination of typewritten texts and texts made using various printing devices.

2.21. The concept of signs of written speech, their system and forensic significance

Written speech reflects the semantic side of the letter. Signs that reflect the semantic side of the letter and determine the level of proficiency in written speech are divided into general and particular.

The general features that characterize written speech as a whole include features that reflect the degree of development of stylistic, lexical and grammatical skills.

Signs characterizing the degree of development of stylistic skills are determined by the ability to use a particular style of writing.

There are the following styles: official-business, scientific, production-technical, journalistic, literary-artistic, colloquial-everyday.

The general construction of written speech (architectonics) is characterized by the presence or absence of a logical connection between the individual elements of the text and is determined by the correctness, completeness and consistency of the presentation of thoughts; the presence or absence of paragraphs; the predominant type of proposals; the presence of symbols, abbreviations, corrections.

Common stylistic features include accentuation skills - highlighting the main provisions in various ways (underlining, in a different font, spacing, etc.), using exclamation marks, ellipsis, brackets in the text.

The degree of development of lexical skills is determined by the general vocabulary of the performer (author) of the text, consisting of neutral (common) vocabulary and vocabulary that has limited use, characteristic of a certain social group of people. These words include:

▪ dialectisms - words, phrases, expressions characteristic of persons living in a certain area;

▪ professionalisms - features of written speech characteristic of certain professions and specialties;

▪ argotisms - words and expressions with a special meaning ("khata" - apartment, "cash" - cash, etc.);

▪ vulgarisms - words and expressions, the use of which does not meet generally accepted standards of morality and ethics (rude words and obscene expressions);

▪ archaisms - outdated words and expressions that are not currently used by most people ("verst" - an ancient measure of length, "kartuz" - a headdress, etc.);

▪ neologisms - new words and expressions that have not fully entered into everyday use;

▪ barbarisms - words borrowed from other languages ​​and having an analogue in the Russian language ("consensus" - understanding, agreement, "pluralism" - coexistence of several opinions, etc.);

▪ exoticisms - words and expressions characterizing the life and national characteristics of other peoples ("aksakal", "pan", "hacienda", etc.);

▪ jargon - words and expressions used in a criminal environment ("ksiva" - document, "boilers" - watch, etc.).

The degree of development of grammatical writing skills is characterized by the performer's mastery of the rules of the Russian language and is determined by the number and nature of errors per 5-7 pages of handwritten text.

A high degree of literacy is characterized by one or two minor spelling or punctuation errors and one or two errors in word choice and sentence construction; medium - one or two gross spelling and punctuation errors and three errors in the choice of words and construction of sentences; low - twelve or more errors of the first group, respectively, as well as six or more errors of the second group.

Particular signs of written speech are manifested in individual lexical, grammatical and stylistic skills characteristic of a particular handwritten text executor (author).

Lexical individual skills include: incorrect use of words, expressions due to a lack of understanding of their meaning; repetition of the same words (poverty of vocabulary); the use of superfluous words; incorrect use of phraseological units; signs of the author's vocabulary (the use of certain words, professionalisms, dialectisms, etc.).

The grammatical individual skills of the performer of the text include: repetition of homogeneous spelling and punctuation errors, incorrect use of verbs, pronouns, etc.

Stylistic individual skills are characterized by the style of presentation, the peculiarities of the construction of written speech, accentuation, characteristic of a particular performer (author).

2.22. The concept of signs of handwriting, their system and forensic significance

Handwriting is a system of habitual movements in the execution of written characters, which is characterized by individuality and relative stability, which make it possible to identify the executor of the manuscript.

The individuality of handwriting is understood as a set of features of the writing and motor skills inherent in a given person. Relative stability means the persistence of individual characteristics in handwriting for a long time, and often throughout life.

Common features of handwriting include:

▪ signs characterizing the spatial orientation of movements;

▪ reflecting the degree and nature of the development of written-motor skills;

▪ reflecting the structure of movements along the trajectory.

The following are general features of handwriting that characterize the spatial orientation of movements (sometimes they are called topographic features):

▪ placement of the text as a whole: on how many sides of the sheet is the text located (on one, on both), at what distance from the top (bottom) edge of the sheet cut (large - more than 3 cm, medium - from 1 to 3 cm, small - less than 1 cm);

▪ placement of independent fragments: headlines, appeals, signatures, resolutions, etc. regarding the main text and sections of the sheet;

▪ presence or absence of fields (if any - right, left), their size, line configuration (convex, concave, straight, winding);

▪ shape of the writing line in a line (straight, curved, concave, convex);

▪ placement of movements when performing punctuation marks, the interval between the punctuation mark and the preceding word, etc.

General characteristics of handwriting, reflecting the degree and nature of the development of written-motor skills, are characterized by the development of handwriting and the degree of complexity of movements when performing individual characters and the structure of handwriting as a whole.

The development of handwriting is determined by the level of proficiency in the technique of writing and is characterized by the pace and coordination of movements. Depending on this, they distinguish between underdeveloped handwriting (low coordination and degree of connectedness of movements, continuous writing of less than two or three letters in a word), medium developed (continuous writing of four or five letters) and highly developed (six or more letters made together).

The degree of complexity of movements is determined by the level of possession of technical and graphic skills and the peculiarities of writing and motor skills when performing written signs. In accordance with this, they distinguish: simple, simplified, complicated handwriting.

General features of handwriting, reflecting the structure of movements along the trajectory, are characterized by shape, direction, slope, size and acceleration.

The predominant form of movement in writing is considered to be the execution of letters and their elements in rectilinear-circular (arc) movements. However, there are also such forms of movements as rectilinear-angular, sinuous, loopy, angular and mixed.

The predominant direction of movement is considered in relation to the implementation of arc (oval) elements. Distinguish left-handed direction of movement (counterclockwise) and right-handed (clockwise); there may be a mixed direction of movement.

According to the slope, handwriting is distinguished between right-handed, left-handed and mixed. In addition, the text can be written in vertical handwriting, i.e. without slope.

Handwriting size is determined by the height of lowercase letters. There are small (height of lowercase letters up to 2 mm), medium (from 2 to 5 mm) and large (more than 5 mm) handwriting.

The extent of horizontal movements, or acceleration, of handwriting is determined by the ratio of the extent of horizontal movements and the predominant vertical extent (size of handwriting). Depending on this, compressed, medium and sweeping handwriting is distinguished.

The coherence of handwriting is the ability of the performer to perform a certain number of written characters without tearing off the writing instrument (continuity of movements). According to the degree of coherence, handwriting is divided into solid, highly coherent, medium coherence, low or low coherence, and jerky handwriting.

Handwriting pressure is the distribution of efforts in the execution of written characters. Distinguish handwriting with weak, medium and strong pressure.

Particular features of handwriting characterize the features of the execution of written characters, their elements and connections between them by a specific person, i.e. they reflect the features of the writing and motor skills of this person. It is the particular signs that mainly make it possible to identify the artist of the manuscript by handwriting.

Handwriting features include:

▪ form of movements (characterized by the outline of the elements of a written sign; rectilinear, angular, arcuate, oval, loop and tortuous forms of movements are distinguished when performing elements of written signs and their connection);

▪ direction of movements when performing a written sign (from top to bottom, from bottom to top, from right to left or vice versa: right-circular - clockwise, left-circular - counterclockwise);

▪ length of movements (characterized by an increase or decrease in size, both vertically and horizontally, of individual written characters and their elements - the ratio of size, acceleration of letters in words);

▪ coherence of written signs and their elements (characterized by the type of connection of movements - continuous and interval types);

▪ number of movements (determined by comparison with existing standard recipes in the direction of decrease or increase - increased or decreased);

▪ sequence of movements (characterized by a violation of the sequence of movements compared to the provided standard recipes);

▪ relative placement of movements (determined by the location of the elements of a written sign relative to the line of writing, as well as relative to other elements);

▪ complexity of movements when performing a written sign relative to the copybook (simplification of movements when performing written signs and their connections and complication of movements); in addition, a distinction is made between the usual execution of written signs (in accordance with the rules or close to them).

Particular signs are characterized by the greatest degree of stability and remain, in principle, unchanged throughout a person's life. True, a particular person may still experience some changes in handwriting. They are explained by both objective and subjective factors. These changes can be divided into natural and intentional. Natural changes in handwriting are determined both by unusual writing conditions (changed posture of the writer, unusual writing material, unusual writing instrument, insufficient lighting) and the internal state of the writer (age-related changes, various diseases, functional state - fatigue, intoxication).

Intentional changes in handwriting consist in the cursive disguise of the writer's handwriting, imitation of the typeface, change of the writing hand, imitation of the handwriting of another person.

2.23. Rules for sending materials for handwriting examination

In forensics, free and experimental handwriting samples are usually distinguished.

Free handwriting samples are handwritten texts made out of connection with a criminal case and, as a rule, before its initiation (personal and official correspondence, statements, questionnaires, autobiographies, etc.).

Basic requirements for free handwriting samples:

▪ reliability (certainty) of origin, i.e. execution of the document by the person being verified, and not by another person;

▪ compliance with the document under study: samples must be close in time of writing, form and content, executed in the same language, the same type of paper and similar tools;

▪ sufficiency of samples in quantitative terms: two to five pages of handwritten text and 10-15 signatures.

Experimental handwriting samples are handwritten texts specially made by the alleged perpetrators at the suggestion of the investigator in accordance with the requirements of the criminal procedure legislation. Obtaining experimental samples is carried out on the basis of the decision of the investigator and is drawn up in a protocol.

Rules for obtaining experimental samples:

▪ the conditions under which the samples are performed must be familiar (ordinary) to the writer, however, if necessary, samples are also taken in conditions unusual for the writer (with a change in posture, an unusual writing instrument for him, etc.) or with a deliberate change in handwriting (imitation of printed font, execution of text with a change of writing hand, etc.);

▪ samples, as a rule, are performed under dictation, and a special text is compiled, which includes words and phrases from the manuscript being studied;

▪ the text under study should not be shown to the sample performer;

▪ samples are obtained with a time gap on different sheets of paper;

▪ the volume of experimental samples should be at least five to ten pages and at least five pages of sample signatures (10-20 on each page).

After all the materials necessary for the examination are collected, the investigator selects an expert institution or expert and issues a decision on the appointment of a handwriting examination, which briefly indicates the circumstances of the case relevant to the study, lists in detail the materials sent for examination, and formulates the questions that are necessary. decide during the research. In questions posed to the expert, the name and details of the document to be examined (number, date, etc.) should be indicated. If a manuscript is subject to research that does not have a title or any details, then it is necessary to indicate what words it begins and ends with. It also indicates what exactly is being investigated (text, part of the text, a separate entry, signature, text and signature at the same time), surnames, first names, patronymics of the alleged performers.

The following questions are posed before the handwriting examination: which of the persons indicated in the resolution made handwritten notes (signatures) in the document under study; who signed on behalf of a certain person - by himself or by another person; what gender is the handwritten text written by; under ordinary or unusual conditions it is performed; whether the handwritten text is written in a distorted handwriting; whether the author of the document is a specific person; what are the characteristic data of the author of the text (native or predominant language, place of formation of speech skills, literacy level, profession, etc.).

2.24. Types of document forgery. Techniques and means of detecting signs of forgery

There are two types of document forgery - full and partial.

A complete forgery is the production of a document in its entirety with all its details or its letterhead, seal impressions, stamp, signatures in it.

Partial forgery is the modification of the content or individual details of a genuine document.

Ways to completely fake:

▪ production of the entire document or its form;

▪ entering deliberately false data into a document;

▪ forgery of the signature of the person certifying the document;

▪ forgery of seals and stamps.

Methods of partial falsification of documents:

▪ erasure - mechanical removal of part of the text;

▪ etching and washing - removing text with chemical reagents and various solvents;

▪ addition - adding new words, phrases or individual characters to the document;

▪ replacing parts of a document - pasting individual sheets, re-gluing photographs, replacing sheets, etc.

Ways to forge blank documents:

▪ drawing;

▪ production using homemade clichés;

▪ photo reproduction;

▪ production using duplicating equipment, using printing and computer equipment.

The main way to establish signs of forgery of a blank document is to compare it with samples of genuine blanks. This draws attention to:

▪ accuracy of reproduction of watermark designs, protective mesh, emblems, typographic font signs;

▪ color of dyes;

▪ paper quality.

Signs of replacing a photo (part of a photo):

▪ the presence of lines of separation of the photograph, differences in background density, discrepancy between images in certain areas of the photograph;

▪ wrinkling of the emulsion layer, traces of glue in the photograph, stains of the dye of the seal impression (stamp);

▪ violation of the integrity of the surface layer of paper around the photograph;

▪ discrepancy between the lines of circles, size, pattern, color, color intensity of parts of the seal impression on the photograph and the document;

▪ absence of a gap in the print lines at the border of the photograph and the document;

▪ exceeding the size of the photograph compared to the size of the frame, gluing the photograph on the frame line;

▪ absence of stamps on the photograph;

▪ discrepancies between parts of relief prints or strokes of a mastic seal imprint on the photograph and the document form;

▪ differences in the graphic characteristics of letters in parts of the print on the photograph and the document;

▪ separation from the substrate and deformation of the emulsion layer;

▪ differences in the color of glue particles protruding from under the photograph.

Cleanup signs:

▪ violation of the structure of the top layer of paper (weakening or disappearance of paper gloss, ruffled fibers);

▪ reducing the thickness of the paper (increasing its light transmission at the point of erasure);

▪ damage to the ruling, protective grid and other printed elements of the form;

▪ remnants of strokes of deleted text;

▪ dye smears in the strokes of newly written text.

Signs of counterfeit prints of seals and stamps:

▪ different sizes and graphic designs of letters of the same name in words;

▪ discrepancy between the axes of the letters and the radius of the circle;

▪ uneven spacing between circle lines, words, logos;

▪ lack of symmetry in the image of the print elements;

▪ broken line of lines;

▪ sinuous strokes of oval elements;

▪ grammatical errors;

▪ uneven axes tilt;

▪ discrepancy in size, shape, content, placement of text in the print and samples;

▪ the presence of handwritten versions of signs, traces of writing instruments and preliminary preparation;

▪ pallor and blurriness of the strokes of the print;

▪ uneven lines of circles, inaccuracies in the designs of the coat of arms, angularity of ovals, mirror images of individual signs.

Signs of etching (washout):

▪ staining of the protective mesh;

▪ presence of stains, change in paper color, loss of gloss;

▪ surface roughness, increased fragility, damage to paper;

▪ blurred notes;

▪ the presence of discolored or discolored strokes;

▪ remains of strokes of the original text;

▪ smears of dye in newly written strokes and their difference in color and shade from the strokes of the rest of the text.

Signs of addition and reprint:

▪ differences in strokes in color and color intensity;

▪ differences in the structure of strokes;

▪ differences in the placement of records in relation to each other, graph lines, rows, document edges;

▪ differences in sizes and designs of typewritten characters of the same name;

▪ differences in the spacing between letters and lines, violation of line lines, parallelism of lines, vertical arrangement of characters;

▪ presence of a reprint of the sign;

▪ differences in general and specific characteristics of the printing devices used;

▪ traces of test prints in the form of double images of characters;

▪ differences in the color intensity of characters in individual parts of the text;

▪ non-parallelism of lines, different positions of the longitudinal axes of signs relative to the vertical;

▪ illogical abbreviations of words, some of them protruding beyond the edges of the document;

▪ uneven spacing between lines, words and letters within words;

▪ differences in general and specific features of handwriting;

▪ the presence of strokes of the main text, their thickening and doubleness;

▪ differences in the intensity and shades of the dye of the strokes;

▪ smudges of dye in the strokes of new entries in places where text has been deleted;

▪ violation of the logical structure in the content of the document.

Signs of replacement of sheets or part of a sheet, its fragments:

▪ different thickness of paper in different parts of the document;

▪ the presence of underdrawing of protective grid lines, graphing, and ruling;

▪ discrepancy between the strokes of records, the ruler of the protective grid pattern, and other images at the gluing (connection) boundary;

▪ violation of the order of page numbering or inconsistency of numbers with each other;

▪ differences in the types of typographic font, in the design of the protective grid, the shape and size of the ruler;

▪ discrepancy between sheets in size, paper quality and degree of wear;

▪ additional punctures in places where sheets are attached;

▪ differences in the color or shade of the dye of the strokes;

▪ differences in the characteristics of handwriting and typewritten texts.

Signs of a fake signature:

▪ the presence on the front side of extraneous strokes in the form of indentations, dye residues, and on the back side - a raised, raised image of the signature;

▪ tortuosity of lines, their angularity, breaks in strokes or their thickening;

▪ presence of underdrawing elements;

▪ weak intensity, heterogeneity or blurred stroke coloring;

▪ the absence of clearly defined edges on the strokes;

▪ swelling and warping of the surface layer of the document (from moisture in the copy material);

▪ difference in the luminescence color of individual sections of the signature and the document.

Signs of violations of the laminating layer:

▪ significant (non-standard) thickness of the document;

▪ presence of a second layer of paper under the photograph;

▪ damage to the surface of the form along the edges of the photograph;

▪ the presence of folds, cracks, bubbles, matte areas on the surface of the laminate, bifurcation of the laminate;

▪ the presence of foreign inclusions under the laminate, stains of the form, text, damage to sections of paper;

▪ differences in the intensity of luminescent glow of different parts of the document.

2.25. The study of typewritten texts and texts made using printing devices

The objects of research in this case will be: documents made by typography, typewritten texts, documents made using personal computer printers, faxes, copying and duplicating equipment.

The most important factor for combining these objects into one group is the commonality of the mechanism for the formation of printed characters and methods for their study. Thus, the mechanism of formation of printed characters is characterized by the features of the printing mechanism and the font of the printing device.

These features form a set of features that are divided into general and particular. Common features include: step of the printing mechanism, line spacing, character set, font brand.

The step of the printing mechanism is determined by the horizontal distance between adjacent characters. The measurement is carried out between the same-name elements of prints of one character within one line, followed by dividing this distance by the number of characters between them, including spaces.

Line spacing is the distance between the bases of adjacent lines. The measurement is carried out between the extremely remote parallel rows, followed by division by the number of rows. Single-spaced texts are selected, when the line spacing is less than the height of a lowercase letter, as well as one-and-a-half, two, two-and-a-half, and three-spaced texts.

The set of characters for various printing devices varies depending on the type and model of this device (for example, on typewriters, the number of characters ranges from 84 to 92).

A font brand is determined by its size and configuration and has a corresponding numeric number or name. Conventionally, by size, fonts can be divided into large (over 2,25 mm in height), medium (from 2 to 2,25 mm) and small (up to 2 mm).

In various printing devices, common features also appear that characterize the method of applying a dye that forms signs (there are matrix printers, printers with a monolithic type carrier; inkjet, thermal laser printers). Depending on this, signs are distinguished that characterize the type of printer device. These features include: the width of the strokes, microstructure, the presence of gloss in the strokes; the nature of the edges, the presence of halos around strokes, signs, the presence of traces of pressure; the presence of magnetic properties of the substance of strokes, the ratio of the coloring matter to various solvents (water, acetone, alcohol), the glow of paper and strokes in infrared luminescence; the presence or absence of certain characters that are structurally provided for by this printing device, etc.

Particular features include features of the printing mechanism and font that appear in the text: displacement of individual characters both vertically and horizontally, misalignment of characters along the vertical, uneven intervals, uneven color intensity of characters, violation of the parallel placement of characters in a line, curvature of character elements , lack of cut-offs, differences in the sizes of individual elements of the same sign, etc.

In addition, there are signs that characterize the executor of a text made on one or another type of printing device: the ability of the person who executed this text to work on this printing device (observance of typing rules, use of the entire keyboard, etc.), features that appear when using a printing device (location of individual text elements, margins, paragraphs, page numbering, etc.).

Special mention should be made of the study of documents made by typographical method and using operational printing.

Methods for examining documents made using various printing devices include: visual examination, including using a microscope, various lighting sources; research in different spectrum zones; photographic research methods; the use of chemical reagents to study the dye; mathematical methods (probabilistic-statistical, analytical, method of graphical algorithms), etc.

In cases where special knowledge is required to establish the authenticity of a document, as well as to determine the printing device, a technical examination of documents is assigned. The objects of study in this case will be both the disputed document itself (or its details), and samples of the text made on a specific writing device, seals, stamps, original documents, securities, etc., the authenticity of whose origin is indisputable.

Depending on the object and objectives of the investigation, the expert may be asked questions of an identification nature, for example: whether the text of the document received for examination was executed on a printing device found on the suspect; a disputed document was made using one or different printing forms, etc. Diagnostic questions can also be raised, for example: what type (kind) of the model is the printer on which the document was made, what type of printing was used in the manufacture of the document form, whether the document was subjected to any changes (cleaning, etching, washing off, rewriting , reprint), and if it was, what method was used and what was the original content of the document, etc.

2.26. Forensic Habitoscopy. The concept and system of elements and signs of the external appearance of a person

Gabitoscopy is a branch of forensic technology that studies the patterns of imprinting a person's appearance in various displays and develops technical and forensic tools and methods for collecting, researching and using data on appearance in order to detect, investigate and prevent crimes.

The external appearance of a person is defined as a set of information about a person, perceived visually. Such information is used in the process of detecting and investigating crimes, in particular, to search for unknown persons who have fled the scene of unsolved crimes, if there is information about their appearance; search for well-known persons who are hiding from the investigation or court or fled from the place of punishment; search for the missing; identification of living and deceased (deceased) citizens.

The appearance of a person can be represented as a system of elements, i.e. details, parts highlighted during its visual study. Elements of the external structure (head, face, torso, limbs), functional manifestations of a person (posture, gait, facial expressions, etc.), general physical data (gender, age, anthropological type, etc.), details of clothing items and small worn items are forensically significant.

Elements of a person's external appearance can be conditionally divided into general (the largest - face, head, etc.) and private, component parts of the general (nose, mouth, ears, etc.).

The appearance of one person differs from the appearance of another by individual characteristics of the appearance as a whole or its elements (features).

Signs of appearance, or signs of a person’s external appearance, are defined as noticeable characteristics of the external appearance as a whole or its parts.

Elements and signs of the structure of the human body, manifestations of its vital activity are called own. They are peculiar to the person himself, to his appearance, and inalienably belong to him. Accompanying elements include complementary elements and signs of a person's external appearance. They are not elements of the structure of the human body or a manifestation of its vital activity, but to some extent they allow us to judge our own elements and characteristics (gender, age, habits, gait, etc.).

Own elements and their signs are divided into general physical, anatomical and functional.

The general physical elements of the external appearance of a person include gender, age, anthropological type. General physical signs are manifested in anatomical, functional and related signs, the general structure of the figure, facial features, in some features of functional manifestations, in clothing and other attributes. Therefore, general physical elements and features are often also called complex.

The anatomical elements of a person’s external appearance include parts of his body that are distinguished during observation (study) (the figure as a whole, head, face, neck, shoulders, chest, back, limbs, hairline, wrinkles, spots, folds, traces of various injuries and operations) . They are characterized by signs of shape, contour, configuration, size, position, color.

The functional elements of external appearance include the observed states of a person and his actions (posture, gait, facial expressions, articulation, gestures, everyday and special habits), which are determined by the position, relative position and movements of body parts. The features inherent in functional elements will also be functional. Forensically significant are not random positions and movements of anatomical elements, but only habitual, stable, stable.

Related items include clothing, small wear items, items used to decorate the appearance (or parts of them), and their signs.

All elements and signs of clothing and small wearable items can be divided into production, which are formed during the process of their manufacture, and reflective, which appear during use and operation of the item. Clothing and small wearable items are determined by type and variety, material, purpose and manufacturing features.

The reflective signs of clothing and small wearable items can be divided into groups according to their origin: elements and signs of the degree and nature of wearing clothes, elements and signs of clothing care and repair, traces of foreign substances on objects and things.

2.27. Technique for making subjective portraits

Displays of the external appearance of a person, used in the practice of solving and investigating crimes, are usually divided into subjective and objective.

Subjective displays arise as a result of direct visual perception (observation) of a person or his remains by another person. Often, the observation is subsequently supplemented by the reproduction of the mental image that has arisen in a materially fixed form (description, drawing).

Subjective displays include:

• mental image;

▪ description;

▪ subjective portrait.

A mental image can be used directly (when the attacker is identified by the victim) and indirectly, when it materializes in the form of subjective reflections (descriptions, making a subjective portrait).

Sometimes, according to the description, it is difficult to recreate the appearance of the person being installed. In such cases, it is advisable to make a subjective portrait.

A subjective portrait can be made by the bearer of the mental image himself or, according to his testimony, by other persons (operational workers, investigators, specialists). However, it must be remembered that subjective display gives only an approximate, similar idea of ​​​​appearance.

Modern forensic practice knows four main types of subjective portraits:

1) drawn;

2) compositional-drawn (composed of typified sets of drawings);

3) compositional-photographic (made from fragments of photographs of various individuals);

4) complex, or “living”. The name of the last type of subjective portrait is associated with a special technique for its production: according to eyewitnesses, a person is made up to look like the wanted person, who is then photographed or filmed.

Various technical means are used to make subjective portraits. When obtaining compositional photographic portraits in modern practice, polyprojectors are most often used. Compositional-drawn portraits are obtained using devices based on the "Identitykit" principle: ICR-2 (identification set of drawings) and its modification - "Portrait". For the production of subjective portraits, computer systems are also increasingly used ("Fotofit", "Portrait"). Regardless of the type of subjective portrait and the technical means used, the entire process of their production consists of three stages: preparatory, actual production and design.

As part of the preparatory stage, the personal characteristics of the eyewitness and the conditions of perception are studied, the most comfortable working conditions are created, an arbitrary description of the appearance of the wanted person is recorded, and technical preparation for production is carried out.

The stage of actually making a subjective portrait consists of preparing the initial version of the portrait, clarifying and "finishing" its details, obtaining a second version of the portrait, and, finally, approving it by an eyewitness.

At the final, design stage, the actions for making the portrait are recorded: a certificate is drawn up with a photo table attached to it, on which photographs of the intermediate and final versions of the portrait are placed. The certificate is signed by all participants in the work.

The value of subjective portraits is great, since they allow you to get a holistic view of the appearance of a person and, in fact, replace photographs.

Objective displays are photographs, especially color ones, that convey the appearance of a person with sufficient accuracy and completeness, video images, x-rays, death masks, etc.

2.28. Rules for sending materials for forensic portrait examination. Forensic examination of photographic portraits

Establishment of a person by the features of appearance displayed in photographs, as a rule, is carried out by conducting a forensic portrait examination. In this examination, a specific person depicted in a photograph acts as an identifiable object, and photographic portraits depicting an unidentified person act as an identifying object. The purpose of identification is to establish or eliminate the identity of faces depicted in different images.

Materials submitted for examination must meet the requirements of reliability (their origin must be undoubtedly established), admissibility (obtained in the manner prescribed by law). Photographs must be comparable in terms of angle, close in time of production, conditions for their receipt (illumination, background, etc.), and also good in quality, i.e. sharp, medium contrast, without retouching and veil, damage and pollution.

In the first stage of the forensic portrait examination, the properties of objects and their influence on the transfer of signs of external appearance are studied.

In the second (analytical) stage, a separate study of objects is carried out. Based on photographs, elements are measured, markup is performed, development tables are compiled.

In the third (comparative) stage, separately identified features are compared, while differences and coincidences are established, which are checked directly from the images when they are compared, combined, superimposed. Comparison is the main method of comparison; markings, coordination grids, and quantitative methods are often used for this. Combination of images of the face as a whole and individual details of the external appearance is used if they are in the same position in the image. Photographs are brought to the same scale, they are cut along different lines, and then a part of one image is added to another. Overlay (application) is used when there are images of faces photographed from the same angle. One of them - negative - is superimposed on another - positive - image.

In the fourth stage, an assessment is made of really coinciding and differing features, and conclusions are drawn. Finally, at the fifth stage of the study, an expert opinion is drawn up, and in the case of an extra-procedural study, a certificate.

2.29. The concept of micro-objects, their classification

Great help in the disclosure and investigation of crimes is provided by the study of so-called micro-objects. These are small and smallest particles of materials, substances, fibers, soil, as well as microtraces.

Microobjects are material objects associated with a crime event, the search, detection, seizure and study of which, due to their small size, is difficult or impossible without the help of magnifying devices. These actions can be carried out using special technical means that make it possible to work with small amounts of substances.

For practical use in forensics, a set of classifications of micro-objects for various reasons has been adopted.

1. Depending on the state of aggregation, all micro-objects can be divided into liquid (solutions, emulsions, suspensions), solid (crystalline, amorphous) and gaseous.

2. According to the nature of origin, organic and inorganic micro-objects are distinguished, which, in turn, are divided into natural and products of human activity.

3. Considering the origin of micro-objects, they can be divided into occurring:

a) from the criminal (his body, clothes, shoes, etc.);

b) the victim;

c) a crime weapon or vehicle;

d) the situation at the scene of the incident.

4. Depending on the mechanism of occurrence, there are micro-objects of mechanical separation, mechanical dissection, resulting from thermal or chemical exposure.

All technical means necessary for working with micro-objects, as a rule, are in a set of a special suitcase, which includes five groups of means.

The first group - tools designed to search, detect and inspect micro-objects. This is an ultraviolet illuminator, a set of magnifiers, a portable microscope, a magnet (magnetic brush), sticks made of organic glass and ebonite, an electric torch.

The second group is the means used to remove micro-objects, a micro-dust collector with a set of nozzles and removable filters, brushes, sticky PVC film, glass capillaries, syringes-tubes.

The third group - tools for working with micro-objects: a set of tweezers, a knife medical saw, a set of scalpels, probes, scissors, a knife, a tape measure, slides and coverslips.

The fourth group - means intended for packaging and storage of micro-objects. It includes polyethylene containers and bags, glass bottles, tracing paper, adhesive tape, packages with clean filters for the micro-dust collector.

The fifth group is auxiliary means.

In addition to a special suitcase, there is a small set of technical means for working with micro-objects at the scene, conventionally called "Drop".

The search and detection of micro-objects must be carried out with the observance of precautionary measures. All objects are first inspected without any movement; when changing the position of the object, a clean sheet of tracing paper, polyethylene, thick paper is placed under it; touch the object with clean tools, hands in rubber gloves or using gaskets made of sheets of tracing paper or polyethylene; contact of different parts of the object (its external and internal sides) should be excluded; the particles separated during the inspection from the carrier objects are stored for further study. If there are no conditions for violating objects on the spot, the corresponding trace-bearing items are withdrawn for examination in laboratory conditions.

Before starting the search for micro-objects at the scene, it is necessary to decide what micro-objects can be found in a given situation and where to look for them. This is found out on the basis of an analysis of the mechanism of the event, the method of committing the crime and the "picture" of traces at the scene. Each type of crime corresponds to characteristic carrier objects on which micro-objects can be detected. Thus, it is very important to establish what happened (the nature of the event), and to identify possible objects - carriers of micro-objects.

A study of practice shows that most often such objects are:

1) the body, clothes, shoes of a person (victim, criminal and other participants in the incident);

2) tools for breaking barriers and inflicting injuries on victims;

3) various furnishings of the scene of the incident, as well as soil, road surfaces, floors in the premises;

4) vehicles.

An important stage of working with micro-objects at the scene of an incident is their fixation and removal. First of all, it is necessary to describe them as fully as possible in the inspection report, which indicates the appearance and approximate dimensions of micro-objects, their distribution on the carrier object. The color, shape, quantity, pattern formed by the accumulation of micro-objects, and characteristic features are described in detail. The technical and forensic means used to detect and seize micro-objects must be indicated.

After being described in the protocol, micro-objects and carrier objects are photographed according to the rules of nodal and detailed shooting.

Micro-objects are seized either separately from the carrier object or together with it. If possible, it is better to remove the micro-objects together with the carrier object, since sometimes it is difficult or impossible to separate them from it, and, in addition, the location of the micro-objects on the carrier object can also matter.

2.30. Forensic odorology

Forensic odorology is a developing branch of forensic technology that studies the patterns of formation of human odor traces and develops means and methods for their detection, seizure, storage and use in order to solve and investigate crimes.

The smell of a person is individual and under certain conditions can be stored for decades. It has the ability to stay on the surfaces of objects that a person has come into contact with for a long time, which predetermined the forensic significance of the smell trace. In addition, like micro-objects, odor traces are not perceived by humans and in most cases remain at the scene.

The main means of collection and conservation of the scent trail include: pieces of baize or flannel (adsorbent) 10x15 cm in size; aluminium foil; glass jars with a capacity of 0,5 l with hermetically sealed lids; packing material, rubber gloves, tweezers, large scissors, spatula, water spray bottle.

The removal of odor traces is carried out before the start of the active part of the inspection of the scene. Objects that usually contain odor traces include: spots of dried blood, particles of the human body that have separated and dried without putrefactive processes; things (worn clothes, shoes), cigarette butts, instruments of crime or objects that have been in contact with the body of a living person for at least half an hour; footprints, shoes.

The collection of odor is carried out by means of prolonged contact (1-1,5 h) of the adsorbent with the subject-carrier of the trace. To do this, a clean flannel flap is removed from a jar or packaging foil with tweezers, applied to the place where there is supposedly an odor trace, and pressed tightly with a piece of foil. If the trace is removed from a flat horizontal surface, then the adsorbent must be pressed by some kind of load. Then, after the odor collection is completed, the adsorbent is placed in a jar and tightly closed. All these actions are described in the protocol of inspection of the scene, to which the seized objects are attached.

Physical evidence, which contains a sweat-fatty substance, traces of blood, etc., may be the objects of various examinations. At the same time, they are sources of individual smell. In such cases, the smell from these items is extracted in the laboratory using special equipment.

Authors: Vasilievich A.V., Georgievich F.A.

<< Back: Introduction to Forensic Science (The concept and subject of forensics. Tasks of forensics. System of forensics. System of forensics. Methods of forensics. Concept and scientific foundations of forensic identification. Objects of forensic identification. Their properties and characteristics. Forms and types of forensic identification. Concept of forensic diagnostics)

>> Forward: Forensic tactics (The concept and content of forensic tactics. Tactical and forensic techniques and recommendations. Tactical and operational-tactical combinations. The concept and types of investigative examination. Inspection of the scene of an incident. Preparation for its implementation. Working (research) stage of inspection of the scene of an incident. Recording the progress and results of the inspection scene of the incident. Tactics of examining a corpse at the place of its discovery. Exhumation. Inspection of objects and documents. Concept, general procedure and types of interrogation. Preparation for interrogation. Tactics of interrogation of witnesses and victims (interrogation in a conflict-free situation). Tactics of interrogation of suspects and accused (interrogation in a conflict situation). Recording the progress and results of the interrogation. The concept of confrontation. Tactics of its implementation. The concept and types of investigative experiment. Preparation for conducting an investigative experiment. Tactical techniques of an investigative experiment. Concept, general rules and types of presentation for identification. Preparation for presentation for identification. Presentation tactics for identifying people. The concept of search and seizure. Types of search. Preparing for a search. Tactical techniques for searching premises. Removal order. Concept of checking readings on site. Preparation for its implementation. Tactical techniques for checking readings on the spot. Control and recording of negotiations. Concept, types and significance of samples for comparative research. Concept and types of forensic examinations. System of expert institutions of Russia. Preparation and appointment of forensic examinations. The process of expert research and evaluation of its results)

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