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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Commercial activity. Types of entrepreneurship (lecture notes)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) LECTURE No. 2. Types of entrepreneurship 1. Private, collective, state entrepreneurship Entrepreneurial activity is classified according to various criteria: type of activity, forms of ownership, number of owners, organizational, legal and economic forms, the degree of use of hired labor and other indicators. All types of business can operate separately or in combination. In modern market conditions, state entrepreneurship plays an important role. A market operating according to its own laws, without state regulation, remains only a theory. In reality, the state is an active participant in market relations. Even in the period of free competition, most of the productive forces went beyond the scope of classical private entrepreneurship and the state had to take on the maintenance of large socially important economic structures: railways, mail, telegraph, etc. capital and energy-intensive production, the monopolies themselves became interested in strengthening the regulatory role of the state, in its support, and through it, providing access to new domestic and foreign markets. The market mechanism is unable to solve all the difficulties associated with defense, science, ecology, reproduction of the labor force and, ultimately, with the overall economic growth of the country. But there are also disadvantages, since the state cannot always respond in time to changing conditions, thereby holding back production processes. State regulation of the economy dates back to the Middle Ages. In modern conditions, any state regulates the national economy - with different levels of pressure. As history has shown, everything is good in moderation - since both state monopoly and the complete absence of state regulation cause significant damage to the country's economy. With skillful competent influence by means of tax policy, the legislative system, etc., amazing results can be achieved. During the XNUMXth century, the entrepreneurial activity of the state itself was formed and expanded, the public sector in the economy gained an increasing share. State enterprise takes over management in cases where huge capital investments are required, the payback period is long and the risks are high. This is where the main difference from private entrepreneurship emerges: the primary goal of state entrepreneurship is not to make a profit, but to solve social and economic problems (ensuring the necessary rates of economic and production growth, mitigating cyclical fluctuations in the economy, ensuring employment and eliminating unemployment, stimulating scientific and technological progress). etc.). There are challenges faced by the state enterprise: 1) provision of benefits; 2) financial assistance to important science- and capital-intensive sectors of the economy; 3) stimulation of scientific and technological progress and strengthening of the country's place in the world economy; 4) creation of new industrial enterprises; 5) increase in the number of jobs; 6) protection of the environment and the ecological situation; 7) development of fundamental scientific research; 8) production of goods that are, by law, a state monopoly. However, private entrepreneurship, for objective reasons, is developing at a faster pace than the state one. In the activities of state enterprises there are always political motives, which often run counter to economic ones. The state can regulate market relations only when powerful economic control levers are in its hands. The state influences the market mechanism through: 1) their expenses; 2) taxation; 3) regulation; 4) state entrepreneurship. Government spending represents government purchases and transfer payments. Such spending contributes to national income and directly uses resources. Taxation is an indispensable element of state policy. Taxes make up 75-85% of the budget. The government levies various types of taxes. At high tax rates, massive tax evasion begins, and budget replenishment decreases. It's a vicious circle. The legislative form of regulation shapes the activities of entrepreneurs (antimonopoly laws). Tax and credit forms affect the national volume of production, changing the volume and direction of production, affecting private and collective entrepreneurship. The collective enterprise acts in two guises: on the one hand, it hires labor, on the other, the members of the labor collective live by selling their own labor. This feature determines the specifics of the economic behavior of such an enterprise. The utility function of a collective enterprise is comparable to the utility function of a family enterprise and includes the total money income and the total free time of the work collective. Each of its members is faced with a contradiction in the desire to get the maximum income and free time. The assessment of value in this case will be subjective. In the collective enterprise, there is another task that does not face the family economy: the division of income between the members of the collective. Often, due to dissatisfaction with this issue, labor motivation decreases and production efficiency decreases. Most often this type is found in agriculture. As a rule, the entire volume of manufactured products is sold on the free market at a market price, so the proceeds from the sale are equal to the cash income of the labor collective. Collective income is divided into 2 parts: the first is distributed in proportion to the labor expended by each member of the collective, the other is divided according to other principles determined by the members. 2. Industrial entrepreneurship Industrial entrepreneurship is one of the leading types of entrepreneurship. Here the production of products, goods, works is carried out, services are provided, certain values are created. The function of production in this type of business is the main, defining, and the accompanying functions are of complementary importance (storage, transportation, marketing, etc.). After Perestroika in Russia, this sphere of activity underwent the most significant negative changes: economic ties were broken, logistics was disrupted, the sale of the previous volumes of products became impossible, and the financial situation of enterprises deteriorated sharply. Manufacturing businesses include innovative and scientific and technical activity, direct production of goods and services, their use in further production. Every entrepreneur who is ready to engage in production activities must first determine what exactly he will produce. Then the entrepreneur conducts marketing activities, is engaged in market research and consumer demand. If you conclude a contract with a potential buyer, then this will minimize entrepreneurial risk, but this ideal option is almost always not possible. The next stage in the activity of industrial entrepreneurship is the acquisition or rental of factors of production. Factors of production include: production assets, labor force, information. Production assets, in turn, are divided into fixed and circulating. Basic production assets - buildings, structures, transmission devices, power machines and equipment, working machines and equipment, etc. Working capital assets include raw materials, basic and auxiliary materials, fuel and energy resources, containers. The entrepreneur needs to calculate the costs of the future period. The point is to ensure cost savings in the early stages of new product development. Subsequently, over a certain period of time, these costs will be charged to production costs. An entrepreneur hires labor through advertisements, through labor exchanges, employment agencies, with the help of friends and acquaintances. When selecting personnel, one should take into account the candidate's education, his ability to learn, the level of his professional skills, previous work experience, and personal qualities. Further, the entrepreneur acquires all the information he needs about the possibility of attracting resources: material, financial and labor, about the market for the product or service planned for manufacturing, etc. Factors affecting entrepreneurship, especially production, can be divided into economic, technological, political and legal, institutional, socio-cultural, demographic and natural. All of them have an impact on the prevalence of resources and society as a whole, which is important for entrepreneurial activities. Numerous economic factors include: the scale of markets and the level of their development, the income of the population, the size of effective demand and competition in different industries, the exchange rate of the national currency, etc. All this affects industry business and entrepreneurial initiative. In Russia, the situation is extremely difficult, since the incomes of the population remain low, effective demand is not provided, enterprises have nowhere to sell their goods, and foreign markets are practically inaccessible. Technological factors talk about the level of scientific and technological progress and material and technical base. There are 7-8 programs in Russia that can make it one of the leading countries in the world technology market: developments in the field of nuclear energy, biotechnology, etc. Without state support, this is impossible. Political and legal factors determine the relationship between society and the state, the mechanisms of state influence and the processes of making important decisions, the development of the legal framework and legal awareness in the country. It is necessary to significantly strengthen the role of the state in regulating and stimulating industrial entrepreneurship, which is objectively due to the national specifics of Russia (a vast territory, a multinational population, a diversified nature of the economy), and factors associated with its modern socio-economic conditions. Difficulties are caused by the loss of control over economic processes, since the state has lost its authority and many of the regulatory functions that are necessary in market conditions. Political and economic instability to this day hinders entrepreneurship, including manufacturing. The deepest crisis has befallen all sectors and sectors of the economy, and without state support, entrepreneurship will not be able to cope with it on its own. The quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the material and technical base allow us to conclude that in the current state, entrepreneurship will not be able to move not only to expanded, but also to simple reproduction. In addition, outdated equipment and production methods greatly increase the risk of industrial accidents. The role of the state for the successful functioning of industrial entrepreneurship consists in solving the following tasks: 1) state financial support for industrial entrepreneurship; 2) competent tax regulation; 3) legal and information support for industrial entrepreneurship. Large and medium-sized industrial enterprises, due to their characteristics, no less than small ones, require state attention and financial support. In the context of limited budget funds, their lack of support for industrial entrepreneurship, it is possible to provide indirect support, which today is poorly applied and highly corrupt. 3. Trading business Production is inextricably linked with entrepreneurship in the sphere of circulation - in order to make a profit, the goods produced must be sold or exchanged for other resources. Therefore, it is trade entrepreneurship that is developing at the fastest pace as one of the main types of Russian entrepreneurship. The functioning of commercial business differs from production. Here the entrepreneur acts as an intermediary between the producer and the consumer. He, as a merchant or trader, sells purchased finished goods received from other persons to the buyer, receiving income from the difference in prices. A characteristic feature of commercial entrepreneurship are close economic ties with wholesalers and retailers, consumers of goods, works, services. Commercial business includes all types of activities that relate to all kinds of types of exchange of goods and money. Despite the fact that financial and monetary relations of purchase and sale of goods are fundamental for commercial entrepreneurship, it uses the same factors and resources as in industrial entrepreneurship, but the scale is less significant. Trading activities are especially attractive for entrepreneurs, since there are real prospects for making significant profits in the shortest possible time. In addition, there are no difficulties that arise during the production process. Despite the seeming ease of conducting trading activities, an entrepreneur must have certain skills, knowledge and skills, as well as a certain amount of luck. There is a trading business with shops, markets, stock exchanges and other trading institutions. In a market economy, entrepreneurs get a wide range of opportunities to start their own business by buying or building a store, organizing a retail outlet. In order for the activity of commercial entrepreneurship to be successful, it is necessary to constantly study the unsatisfied demand of the consumer, to be able to respond quickly, providing the necessary goods and services. Trade entrepreneurship is mobile, constantly changing, adjusting to the interests of a particular consumer. For the development of Russian commercial entrepreneurship, it is necessary to fulfill such conditions as a constant steady demand for goods (market research is necessary), low purchase prices for goods from manufacturers. This will allow traders to recoup trading costs and get the desired profit. Domestic trade is an independent system of this industry and is a set of trading enterprises that are engaged in the purchase and sale of goods and the provision of services on the territory of the Russian Federation. Retail is the final element in the movement of goods from the manufacturer to the final consumer. Retail trade has its own characteristics: 1) explores the relationship between supply and demand in the market; 2) determines the market situation; 3) selects goods according to the principle of greatest utility; 4) makes settlements with suppliers for the goods received; 5) finalizes goods and forms prices for them. Retail trade is an important element of the country's economy and commercial entrepreneurship. Every year the turnover in Russia is growing, this is confirmed by the positive trends in the development of retail trade. There are various retail enterprises in the domestic market of the country. They can be divided: 1) according to the assortment sold; 2) in the form of trade services; 3) by price level; 4) by type of operating enterprise; 5) by concentration and location of trading organizations. Retail is focused on a specific consumer, adapts to his interests. Today, retailers are used to varying degrees by different segments of society. Wholesale trade is no less important for the country's economy, facilitating maneuvers with material resources, the distribution of stocks of products and their surpluses, and the elimination of commodity shortages. Wholesale trade makes the most of the totality of commodity resources. In wholesale trade, goods are purchased in large quantities. Wholesalers, as a rule, are not connected at all with end consumers in their activities. Most often, this form of trade is established between enterprises of individual regions and various industries. Wholesale trade is characterized by: 1) creation of a resource base for wholesale trade; 2) participation in the creation of market infrastructure elements that assist in the free choice of trading partners and the formation of commercial relations for the successful implementation of trade transactions. Today, wholesale trade is of great importance for the Russian economy, since it is it that is an active conductor of domestic and imported goods. 4. Financial entrepreneurship The sphere of activity of financial entrepreneurship is the circulation and exchange of values. Financial activity is connected with production and commercial activities, and these relationships are constantly deepening. However, financial entrepreneurship can also be in the form of banking, insurance, etc. The main field of activity of financial entrepreneurship is commercial banks and stock exchanges. Commercial Bank - this is a financial and credit institution of a joint-stock type, lending on a fee basis to various organizations, accepting cash deposits and performing all kinds of settlement operations on behalf of the client. The operations of commercial banks are divided into three areas: 1) passive (raising funds); 2) active (placement of funds); 3) commission and intermediary (performing various operations on behalf of clients with payment of a commission). In Russia, a feature of the activities of commercial banks is the attraction of funds from enterprises for a significant period; however, credits and loans are issued for relatively short periods. Banks are exposed to risks of a commercial nature no less than entrepreneurs, since they have their own debts and obligations that must be fulfilled within a certain time frame. Therefore, the bank must have certain reserves in case of unforeseen circumstances. In addition, at this point in time, in today's conditions, most banks do not have the ability to provide long-term loans in significant amounts. The share of long-term loans issued by commercial banks is only 3% of all assets. And the main source of income in private banks in Western developed countries are long-term loans. Hence the instability of the income of commercial banks in Russia, their frequent bankruptcy. This also leads to distrust of them and unwillingness to use their services. Stock Exchange - institutionalized, regularly functioning securities market, which contributes to increasing the mobility of capital and revealing the real value of assets. The principle of operation of the stock exchange is based on the rapid and timely regulation of supply and demand. There are so-called stock quotes on the stock exchange. They are regularly evaluated by specialists of the quotation department for all securities with which they work on the stock exchange. Such information is always available, current rates are constantly displayed on a light board and are regularly published in special bulletins. The change in rates shows at what price at a certain moment on a given exchange you can buy or sell specific shares. These prices are recalculated according to a certain system of formulas and serve as the basis for the subsequent receipt of exchange activity indices that reflect all changes in the economic situation. Abroad, firms and enterprises themselves are not present on the exchange - their interests are protected either by a bank or a brokerage company of the exchange. Financial entrepreneurship acts as a special form of commercial entrepreneurship, in which currency, values, securities (stocks, bonds, etc.) sold by the entrepreneur to the consumer or provided to him on credit are the subject of sale and purchase. The essence of financial entrepreneurship is that the entrepreneur acquires finance and sells it to the buyer for a fee higher than the initial one, as a result of which an entrepreneurial profit is created, which is based on the price difference. 5. Insurance business The essence of the insurance business is that the entrepreneur guarantees the client compensation for damage in accordance with the conditions prescribed in the contract, which does not contradict the current legislation, in the event of unforeseeable circumstances of the loss of property, valuables, health, life and other losses for a certain amount when concluding an insurance contract. The profits of the insurance business are insurance premiums minus insurance payments under certain circumstances. As a rule, the probability of occurrence of force majeure circumstances is small and a significant part of insurance premiums forms entrepreneurial income. Despite the fact that the insurance business does not produce any goods, it still remains one of the most risky activities. Insurers (organizations, enterprises, individuals), on the contrary, can receive compensation for a certain fee when the events specified in the contract occur. Despite the fact that this type of entrepreneurship is gaining momentum, the level of trust of potential clients remains very low. Entrepreneurs have to resort to certain tricks and spend money on large-scale advertising campaigns. Each client, in accordance with the contract, pays insurance premiums, which form the insurance fund. It is used for insurance payments. However, the conduct of insurance activities is possible only if there are legislative documents, instructions and methodological materials necessary for the formation of insurance relations, which together form the insurance legislation. The foundations of insurance legislation in Russia were laid back in 1987 by the adoption of the Law "On Cooperation". The Law "On Insurance" was considered in 1992, but it really came into effect only in 1995, together with the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, in which an entire chapter is devoted to insurance, and many other normative acts. Insurance legislation covers all branches and types of insurance, reinsurance operations; only legal relations on state social security are not regulated. On January 17, 2004, the Law "On the organization of insurance business in the Russian Federation" came into force. It covers in detail the issues of interaction between insurance companies among themselves, it also talks about the principles of state regulation of insurance business. In addition, there have been changes in the size of the authorized capital (it has increased), the calculation coefficients have increased, the entry of foreign insurers into the Russian insurance market has been simplified. This document is the most important and authoritative. Tasks, the implementation of which is necessary for the development of insurance: 1) formation of a strict legislative framework for insurance activities that does not allow for various interpretations; 2) development of compulsory and voluntary insurance; 3) creation of an effective body controlling the insurance activity; 4) joint work of the national insurance system with foreign insurance markets. The legal essence of the insurance business is to establish legal relations to protect the client's property interests at the expense of insurance payments in accordance with the concluded contract. The property interest of the insured is a condition for cooperation with the insurer; without it, insurance activities are impossible. Insurance business is different from commercial insurance and all kinds of government support. In this case, insurance is only a type of activity for the purpose of making a profit, and insurance payout funds are formed separately for each company. The basic principles of insurance, which are reflected in Russian legislation, are formulated as follows: 1) existence of property interest; 2) provision of complete and reliable information about the risk; 3) compensation in proportion to the insurance premium; 4) the existence of a causal relationship between the event discussed in the insurance contract and the damage caused to the object of insurance. All legal relations in the insurance business are divided into two groups: 1) legal relations belonging directly to insurance; 2) all processes of organization of insurance business. Issues of the first group are regulated directly by the insurance legislation, and criminal and civil law can be connected to the solution of the problems of the second. The obligations of the insurer include: 1) inspection and evaluation of objects subject to insurance; 2) informing the client about the rules of insurance; 3) calculation and acceptance of insurance premiums; 4) confirmation of the occurrence of an insured event and its causes, drawing up an insurance document; 5) determination of the amount of compensation; 6) insurance payment. The insured also has obligations: 1) timely payment of insurance premiums; 2) transfer to the insurance company of all necessary information for the conclusion of the insurance contract; 3) notification of the insurer about the occurrence of an insured event within the established time limits; 4) providing data on the circumstances and cause of the insured event, the amount of damage. Voluntary insurance consists in drawing up a contract with the provision of a written or oral application of the insured and the issuance of an insurance certificate (policy). This applies only to the insured, since the insurance company does not have the right to refuse the client. The main feature of insurance contracts is that formally they are considered bilateral, but in fact they turn out to be trilateral or multilateral. Insurance premiums are not reimbursed, with the exception of cases specified in the contract, when the amount of insurance premiums paid is equal to the amount of compensation. 6. Intermediary business Intermediary activity is to make a profit for the provision of certain services to the consumer, in the role of which entrepreneurs can also act. As a rule, this is a simplification of purchase and sale operations, information services, etc. An entrepreneur as an intermediary is faced with the following tasks in order to attract clients: 1) determining the deficit, the needs of certain market segments and finding ways to meet them; 2) identification of business areas that need intermediary services of various types. Intermediaries - individuals or legal entities that can engage in entrepreneurial activities without creating a legal entity, representing the interests of the manufacturer or consumer, acting on their behalf and receiving income from this. In economic theory, mediation - this is an operation carried out in the period of time between the release of products (provision of services, performance of work) and its delivery to the consumer. In the process of doing business, most entrepreneurs use the services of intermediaries when concluding transactions. Mediation facilitates the manufacturer's sales processes, increases the efficiency of his work, since he does not have to be distracted directly from production, sharing with the intermediary the responsibility for promoting the goods to the consumer. Trading intermediary activity differs from other varieties of this entrepreneurial activity in that it acquires ownership of the goods with which it works. The largest part is retail trade (products are resold to the final consumer) and wholesale trade (very rarely deals with the final buyer). Wholesalers improve the efficiency of the sales process. A small manufacturer, which has limited financial resources, cannot create and ensure the organization of competent marketing. Even if you have sufficient funds, it is more productive to direct them to the development of your own business, and not to the organization of wholesale trade. Good wholesalers - with decent experience in their activities, with a stock of special knowledge and skills - have a large number of business contacts in the field of retail sales. Retailers who need a wide range of products usually prefer to buy a complete set of products from one wholesaler, rather than piecemeal from different manufacturers, as this saves time and money. In addition, wholesale trade stimulates the sale of goods. Wholesalers have a mature customer base that helps the manufacturer reach many small consumer firms at relatively low cost. The buyer, as a rule, receives more guarantees from the wholesaler than from some distant manufacturer. The wholesaler selects the necessary products and forms the necessary product range, thereby relieving the client of significant hassle. With wholesalers, in contrast to manufacturing enterprises, it is possible to agree on a reduction in the size of consignments of goods or their crushing. Wholesalers carry out warehousing of commodity stocks, thereby reducing the corresponding costs of the supplier and consumer, perform faster delivery of goods, being closer to customers than manufacturing enterprises. Taking ownership of the goods, the intermediary assumes additional risks, bears the costs in case of its theft, damage, deterioration and obsolescence (moral and physical). Wholesalers assist their customers in providing information about competitor activity, new products, price developments and market changes. Resellers provide customers with the purchase of products at a lower cost than the manufacturer would provide, the seller, in turn, is relieved of the need to find ways to sell, which significantly increases the cost of advertising, transport, and storage facilities. Intermediaries can provide a full range of services to manufacturers and consumers - from finding a partner and concluding a deal agreement to post-warranty service. Agency intermediaries act only as a representative of their client. They do not acquire ownership of the product they work with. If resellers earn on the difference in prices for the purchase and sale of products, then agency intermediaries receive their income in the form of fees and commissions. Commissioners are endowed with broad powers on the part of the client. They take over all the physical manipulations with the goods, agree on the terms of the transaction. Payment for their services is determined by deducting their remuneration from the profits received, the remainder is given to the client. An organization acting as a commission agent concludes a commission agreement with the client, carries out entrepreneurial activities that are aimed at making a profit from the performance of services for the conclusion of transactions for the sale of commission goods, i.e. the property of another organization (committent). The commission agent often has the necessary inventory for receiving, storing, processing and selling goods. The commission agreement contains a number of provisions: 1) upper and lower price levels for the sale of goods; 2) clear deadlines for the delivery of goods on customer orders; 3) warranty periods of the goods, the period of time for satisfaction of claims; 4) the amount and terms of payment of the commission. Under commission agreements, the commission agent sells goods owned by the client firm, or, conversely, purchases goods for the committent, and, if necessary, does both. Commission relations mainly arise when dealer relations are unprofitable, and agency agreements severely limit the powers of intermediaries and interfere with work when concluding purchase and sale transactions. When making a commission transaction, the remuneration in most countries is small (no more than 4%), and in retail sales, with the provision of guarantees for the operation, its size can increase up to 10-15%. A commission agent can provide additional services to increase income: evaluate the quality of goods, carry out advertising, determine the size of the optimal price, etc. There is also a commercial risk when providing commission services. A variety of such agents are traveling salesmen - intermediary entrepreneurs who search for and select available resources in various regions interacting in commodity exchange operations, and involve production waste and secondary resources into circulation. A traveling salesman, as a rule, is a representative of an enterprise, but can carry out his activities freely from anyone; his fee depends on the completion of a trade transaction for a certain type of product. Salespeople are engaged not only in selling, but also in delivering to the client. Traveling salesmen include traveling representatives of trading companies. They offer customers products based on samples and catalogs, provide fairly effective and intrusive advertising of goods and services, and use previously established strong sales channels for products. Brokers do not work directly with the goods. They clearly follow all the instructions and instructions of the client, have fewer opportunities in the course of work. Speculative intermediaries buy and sell goods with one goal - to profit from price changes, very often slow down transactions and trading operations in order to increase income due to constantly occurring changes in the level of inflation. In agricultural markets, the most well-known participants are processors and producers of basic foodstuffs. There are also support organizations that assist the rest of the intermediary groups in their tasks. They do not participate in commodity research processes, but provide assistance: they provide premises, equipment, provide various services, conduct research for various groups of intermediaries. 7. Combination of types of entrepreneurship The combination of types of entrepreneurship is typical in the conditions of concentration of production and the transitional economy, as well as for large enterprises that carry out a variety of activities. With a variety of types and subspecies, ways of doing business, any business operation is characterized by the presence of certain characteristics that have a certain sequence. Entrepreneurship is characterized by fairly typical commodity-money relations that are carried out between the participants in the operation. Any entrepreneur in the process of carrying out his activities is not isolated, he interacts with other businessmen, organizations, structures. In general, there are no clear boundaries in the division of entrepreneurship into types in reality. The same organization can belong to different types under certain conditions. In a market economy, an enterprise has to mobilize all its resources to stay afloat. If business partners fail, an enterprise has to look for others to avoid a crisis or perform their functions itself - for example, a manufacturing company can refuse the services of intermediaries, having a good marketing research department, performing its functions. Thus, the types of entrepreneurship are combined. There are many such examples, every entrepreneur is constantly faced with this. Authors: Egorova E.N., Loginova E.Yu. << Back: What is business? (Business and entrepreneurship. Concept and essence. Basic signs and features of entrepreneurship. Forms of entrepreneurship. History of Russian entrepreneurship. Resources, factors and business results. New approaches to the problem of increasing the efficiency of entrepreneurship. Virtual business) >> Forward: Business Operations (Business operation: concept, essence, components. Scheme of resource support for a business operation. Monetary calculation of a business operation)
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