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What were the specific features of Europe in the Late Middle Ages (XVI-XVII centuries)? Detailed answer
Directory / Big encyclopedia. Questions for quiz and self-education Did you know? What were the specific features of Europe in the Late Middle Ages (XVI-XVII centuries)? The time period from the end of the XV-XVIII centuries. in historiography they are called differently: Late Middle Ages; early modern times; the period of initial accumulation of capital, if we are talking about progressive changes in the economy; the era of proto-industrial civilization, if we are talking about the early stage of the genesis of industrial society; the time of the Renaissance and the Reformation, associated with the emergence of new worldview ideas, forms of economic activity, methods and goals of political struggle, reflecting the collapse of traditional society. During this period, there was a process of disintegration of feudal relations and the formation of a new type of relations - capitalist. Not all European countries were equally affected by this process. In some of them, capitalist forms did not have noticeable success, and the growth of commodity-money relations and foreign trade relations was used by the nobility to enrich themselves by returning to corvée and serfdom. But in the most progressive states, such as England, France, the Netherlands, there were significant changes. In the economic sphere in these countries, the feudal forms of the economy were disintegrating, there was a process of initial accumulation of capital, the emergence of a new economic structure. In the social sphere, the class stratification of traditional society was eroded, new social groups arose - the bourgeoisie and hired workers. In the ideological sphere, new ideological orientations arise - humanism, reformist creeds (Lutheranism, Calvinism) and radical teachings with egalitarian ideas. Significant changes also took place in the political sphere. The estate-representative states were replaced by absolute monarchies. The late Middle Ages are also famous for the first acts of bourgeois revolutions. This is the Reformation, and the Peasant War in Germany in 1525, and the Dutch bourgeois revolution, the result of which was the formation of the first bourgeois republic in Europe - the Republic of the United Provinces (Holland). On the basis of growing economic ties, the gradual formation of the capitalist structure, most of the countries of Western Europe are territorially united, a common language and culture for each country is being formed, which creates conditions for the emergence of nations. The geographical discoveries of Europeans of previously unknown lands accelerated the process of decomposition of traditional society. Portuguese, Spanish, Italian navigators rushed to search and capture them. The expeditions of H. Columbus, Vasco da Gama, F. Magellan significantly expanded the economic opportunities of the Old World. European newcomers actively developed new territories, subjected them to their influence. But the influence of geographical discoveries did not affect the Old World in the same way everywhere. The discoveries contributed to the movement of trade routes and trade centers within Western Europe. Thus, Europe's relations with India and the New World went along new paths, this reduced the importance for Europe of Mediterranean trade and Italian cities as Europe's trade intermediaries with overseas countries. In the sixteenth century the role of intermediaries began to play Lisbon, Seville, Antwerp. The expansion and increase in the volume of commodity production led to progressive changes in the economic life of European countries. One of the distinguishing features of this period was that money, which was the key to a certain power, began to play an increasingly important role in the life of Europeans. The concentration of the main financial resources in the cities in the hands of large merchants, entrepreneurs and artisans and the strengthening of their economic position also determined the growth of their political influence. The accumulation of funds made it possible to strengthen the technical equipment of production. Progressive changes took place in the leading industry of that time - metallurgy. Its active development made it possible to move on to the improvement of labor tools, which contributed to an increase in labor productivity, an increase in the volume of output both in the field of handicraft and agricultural production. Author: Irina Tkachenko
Why did Europeans until the 17th century believe that there were two different states on the territory of China? For a long time, Europeans believed that on the territory of modern China there were two states, roughly called "Sina" or "China" (China), which they knew about from navigators, and "China" or "Katay" (Cathay), which they knew from Central Asian caravaners. Their identity was established only at the beginning of the 17th century. The confusion was aggravated by the fact that for Muslim travelers the symbolism of Buddhism, including statues, chants, clothes of priests, looked very similar to the attributes of Christianity, and the Europeans from their words believed that "Katai" was a Christian country, which they themselves in "Chin" did not observe.
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