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HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY, TECHNOLOGY, OBJECTS AROUND US
Locomotive. History of invention and production
Directory / The history of technology, technology, objects around us A steam locomotive is an autonomous locomotive with a steam power plant that uses steam engines as an engine.
The history of the steam locomotive combines two stories: the history of the rail track and the history of the locomotive. Moreover, the first arose much earlier than the second. Sebastian Munster writes about the use of wooden rails in mining in his book, published in 1541. In the XVIII century, rails began to be made of cast iron, and at the beginning of the XIX century - from soft iron (cast iron, due to its fragility, quickly collapsed). For a long time, railway tracks were built only in mines, but then horse-drawn passenger roads became widespread. The first such railroad was built in 1801 in England between Wandsworth and Croydon. As for the locomotive, it could only come into existence after Watt's great invention. As soon as the steam engine gained some popularity, there were many inventors who tried to adapt it to the needs of transportation - for example, using a steam engine as an engine for a self-propelled cart. The first attempt of this kind was made by Watt's assistant Murdoch. He understood before others that the engine of a steam car must differ in design from a stationary steam engine. In order for the wagon to be able to carry a payload in addition to itself, the engine must be compact, light and powerful. First of all, Murdoch proposed to increase the pressure in the cylinder to 3-3 atmospheres (then this pressure was considered very high). He also considered it necessary to abandon the condenser and release the exhaust steam "for exhaust" into the atmosphere. In 5, Murdoch built a working model of a steam cart. However, Watt reacted very coldly to the experiments of his assistant, and Murdoch had to leave his experiments. Fortunately, a bright and inquisitive teenager, Richard Trivaitik, was present during Murdoch's experiments in Redreth. What he saw made a huge impression on him, and, having matured, he devoted his life to the creation of steam self-propelled vehicles. Trivaitik started where Murdoch left off. First, he designed a high-pressure steam engine that worked "for exhaust" without a condenser.
Then, in 1801-1803, he built a number of steam wagons, which ran with great success along the bad road from Camborne to Plymouth. In fact, these were the first cars in history. But before the invention of pneumatic tires, only enthusiasts could drive such machines. There were few good roads, and no springs saved the car and its driver from severe shaking. In addition, all these structures were very bulky and heavy in order to move along dirt roads.
Trivaitik had the idea to put a steam car on rails. In 1804 he created his first steam locomotive. This locomotive was a cylindrical steam boiler resting on two axles. The firebox was located in front under the chimney, so that the tender (a wagon with coal, where the stoker sat) had to be hitched in front of the locomotive. A long horizontal cylinder 210 mm in diameter had a piston stroke of 1 m. The piston rod protruded far ahead of the locomotive and was supported by a special bracket. On one side of the locomotive there was a complex gear-and-wheel transmission on both axles, on the other - a large flywheel, like a factory steam engine. In many respects, this first steam locomotive in history had amazing characteristics. So, with its own weight of 4 tons, it transported five wagons with a total weight of 5 tons at a speed of 8 km / h. Empty, it moved at a speed of 25 km / h.
Trivaitik was not sure that the friction between the wheels and the rails would be enough for the forward movement of the locomotive. Therefore, the outer part of the wheel, which protruded beyond the rails, was studded with nail heads, which were pressed into the bars laid parallel to the rails. However, very soon Trivaitik was convinced that there was no need for these additional devices - the locomotive could move perfectly along smooth rails and drag several wagons behind it. Despite its good driving performance, the first steam locomotive did not arouse interest. The fact is that Trivaitik had to demonstrate his offspring on the Merthyr Tydfil horse railway. The heavy steam locomotive constantly broke cast-iron rails. It was obvious that special paths would have to be built for him. However, the owners of the mines, whom Trivaitik wanted to be interested in the steam locomotive, did not want to invest in the construction of a new road and refused to finance the inventor. In subsequent years, Trivaitik designed and built several more steam locomotives. The 1808 steam locomotive was a further step forward. Trivaitik removed the bulky gear train. The movement from the vertical cylinder was transmitted through simple connecting rods with cranks to the rear axle. Part of the exhaust steam was used to heat water in the boiler, and part was released through a narrowed hole into the chimney to increase draft in the furnace. This improved steam locomotive reached a speed of 30 km / h when empty. However, no one was interested in such a wonderful car either. In 1811, finally ruined, Trivaitik had to stop his experiments. His trouble was that he came with his invention too early. Not only iron, but also cast iron were still too expensive. Therefore, the construction of railways seemed unprofitable. There were also very few high-precision metal-cutting machines. All parts of the locomotive had to be made by hand, their cost was high. In addition, there was a war with Napoleon, England was constrained by the continental blockade, and all projects that required large investments could not be implemented. But, of course, no difficulties could stop technical thought. New inventors appeared who took up the creation of a steam locomotive. For a long time, the belief was widespread among mechanics that a smooth wheel could not roll on a smooth iron rail. Trying to avoid this imaginary danger, some inventors have gone down the wrong path. In 1812 Blenkiston, one of the owners of the Middleton Colliery in Yorkshire, built a small railway 6 km long between Middleton and Leeds specifically for the steam locomotive. In the same year, the mechanic Murray built a steam locomotive according to the Blankiston project, which had fairly good technical performance. He moved on ordinary rails and had wheels with smooth rims. But the movement was carried out with the help of a gear wheel rolling along a gear rack laid next to smooth rails. The machine had two steam cylinders. The engine cranks were offset from each other by 90 degrees. When one of them was at a standstill, the other at that time acted with the greatest force.
It was the first double-acting steam engine capable of starting from any position of the crank. The Murray steam locomotive could transport 20 tons of payload at a speed of 6 km / h. With a lighter load, he could take very steep climbs. Several of these steam locomotives were built to serve the mines, but they were not widely used due to the fact that they had a very low speed, a high price, and were often idle due to broken tracks. Another inventor, Brunton, in 1813 built a steam locomotive with two mechanisms that, like legs, were supposed to push off the ground and move the car forward (during the first test, this locomotive exploded, since errors were made in the calculation of the boiler).
It was soon proved that a smooth wheel could move along a smooth rail. Two inventors - Blackett and Headley - built a special cart with smooth rims, which was driven by a gear train by people on it. Iron was loaded onto the cart, thus changing its weight. In the course of these experiments, it was shown that the friction of the driving wheels of the bogie (that is, those wheels that received revolutions from the engine) was 50 times higher than the friction of the wheels rolling freely along the rail. Therefore, thanks to the stop of its driving wheels, any locomotive could pull a load 50 times greater than its coupling load (the weight falling on the wheels of a steam locomotive paired with an engine). In 1815, Blackett and Hadley assembled a very good engine, which was named "Puffing Billy". With the drawings of Trivaitik at their disposal, they were able to take advantage of many of his developments. For a very long time, designers struggled with the problem that faced all the inventors of the steam locomotive of that time - how to reduce the axle load so that the locomotive did not break the rails. At first this happened too often, so that before each trip the tender had to be loaded with a supply of cast-iron rails. Finally, Blackett and Hadley put the boiler on the same frame with the tender, providing it with four pairs of wheels, so that "Billy" had four driving axles. Only after that did he stop spoiling the tracks. This locomotive was operated at the mine until 1865, after which it was handed over to the London Museum.
Meanwhile, the final victory over Napoleon led to a change in market conditions. England entered a period of a new industrial upsurge. The demand for coal increased sharply, as a result of which the owners of the mines became more and more aware of the need for steam transport. Now many of them were ready to finance experiments on the construction of steam locomotives. At that time, the idea of steam traction was in the air, several dozen mechanics worked on it in different places in England at once, developing various designs of steam locomotives. The locomotives designed and built by George Stephenson turned out to be more successful than others. In 1812, as the chief mechanic of the Killingworth mines, Stephenson proposed to his master, Thomas Liddell, the design of his first steam locomotive. He agreed to pay for its construction. In 1814 the work was completed. The steam locomotive, which received the name "Blucher", was involved in the maintenance of the mine. In design, it strongly resembled the Blenkinston steam locomotive, but without a geared drive wheel. It had two vertically placed steam cylinders; the movement from the piston was transmitted by connecting rods to two leading ramps. These slopes were connected by a gear-wheel drive. The tender was separated from the locomotive and hitched at the rear. "Blucher" could carry a load weighing 30 tons, but could not take steep climbs and developed a speed of only 5 km / h with a load. In many respects, he was inferior to the "Puffing Billy" and after a year of operation turned out to be only slightly more profitable than the horses used before. The reason for the failure was weak traction. The exhaust steam was released directly into the air, and not into a pipe, where it could increase the draft in the furnace. Stephenson eliminated this shortcoming in the first place. After the exhaust steam began to flow into the pipe, the thrust increased. The improved locomotive was already seriously competing with horses, and Liddell willingly gave money to continue the experiments.
In 1815 Stephenson built his second steam locomotive. In this design, he abandoned the connection of the axles with a gear-wheel drive. Vertical steam boilers were placed directly above the axles, and the movement from the pistons was transmitted directly to the drive axles, paired with a chain. In 1816, the third engine "Killingworth" was completed. For him, Stephenson first invented and applied springs (before that, the boiler was installed directly on the frame, as a result of which the locomotive literally shook the soul out of the driver, bouncing at the joints). At the same time, Stephenson worked on improving the track. Brittle iron rails were widely used at that time. When moving a heavy steam locomotive, they now and then burst at the joints. Stephenson came up with the oblique joint and took out a patent for it. However, at the same time it became completely clear to him that as long as the cast-iron rails were not replaced by iron ones, cardinal improvements could not be expected. Iron was several times more expensive than cast iron, and the owners were reluctant to build such expensive roads. But Stephenson proved that it is profitable to use steam locomotives only when their traction force is large enough. In order for steam locomotives to be able to carry large trains and develop significant speeds, it is necessary resolutely, sparing no expense, to rebuild the existing horse roads, along which the first steam locomotives had to travel, in two respects: soften the slopes and strengthen the rails. Stephenson managed to realize these ideas in a few years.
In 1821, Edgar Pease, one of the Darlington mine owners, founded a company to build a railroad from Darlington to Stockton and commissioned Stephenson to build it. The total length of the road with side branches was 56 km. It was a significant undertaking for those times, and Stephenson enthusiastically undertook its implementation. With great difficulty he succeeded in persuading Pisa and his companions to install iron rails for half the length of the road instead of iron ones, although they cost twice as much. On September 19, 1825, the first train of 34 cars solemnly passed along the road. Six of them were loaded with coal and flour, the rest had benches for the public. All these wagons were pulled by a new steam locomotive "Movement", which was operated by Stephenson himself. To the sound of music and cheerful exclamations of passengers, the train successfully passed to Stockton.
The average speed of the train was 10 km/h. In front of the locomotive, a rider with a flag was galloping, asking the audience to release the rails. In some sections, he had to rush at full speed, because the train accelerated to 24 km / h. In total, more than 600 passengers were carried on this flight. Together with the rest of the cargo, this audience weighed about 90 tons.
With the successful construction of the Darlington-Stockton Road, Stephenson's name became widely known. In 1826, the board of directors of the Manchester-Liverpool Road Transport Company offered Stephenson the post of chief engineer with a salary of £1000. The construction of this road was of great difficulty, since it passed through very rugged terrain. Many different artificial structures had to be erected: embankments, excavations, tunnels, etc. Some bridges were built 63. Under Liverpool itself, it was necessary to lay a tunnel 2 km long in the rocky ground. Then I had to make a cut in a high sandy rock (in total, during this work, 4 thousand cubic meters of stone were removed). Particularly difficult was the construction of a canvas through the Chet Moss peat swamps, 480 km wide and 6 m deep. The total cost of the work soon exceeded all preliminary estimates, while Stephenson insistently demanded that expensive iron rails be laid instead of cheap cast-iron rails. It took him all his eloquence and all his authority to prove to the directors that this is how, and not otherwise, railways should be built. Finally, all obstacles were successfully overcome. In 1829, when the road was nearing its completion and it was already necessary to think about rolling stock, the company announced a free competition for the best locomotive design. Near Rainhill, a new section 3 km long was allocated. The steam locomotives participating in the competition had to cover this distance 20 times. Stephenson exhibited in Rainhill his new steam locomotive "Rocket", built at his factory according to the latest technology of the time. Back in 1826, he developed the design of a locomotive with an inclined cylinder (for the first time it was tested on the steam locomotive "America"). This made it possible to reduce the harmful space in the cylinders, which, with their vertical arrangement, was very important. The steam boiler was also significantly improved, and smoke tubes were used for the first time, about which more must be said. In general, the steam boiler was one of the most important components of the steam locomotive, on which its technical characteristics largely depended. A number of requirements were imposed on him: with a small consumption of coal and water, he had to give the largest possible amount of elastic steam. This effect could be achieved, first of all, by increasing the area of contact between water and hot gases.
Early steam locomotives used a simple cylindrical boiler. Here D is a cap where steam is collected, conducted to the steam valves through one of the tubes B (the other was connected to the safety valve). The boiler had an inclined grate R, through which atmospheric air was delivered to the coal poured through the funnel T. The coal slid down the funnel as it burned, with the strongest combustion occurring at the bottom of the grate; the flame from there rose under the sloping vault G, where there was an opening b, through which hot gases entered the first chimney F under the boiler. Then these gases entered c and into the side chimney F, and through connection d on the front side they passed along F again to the back of the boiler, from where they were already flown out into the chimney. Thus, the boiler, as it were, was flowed around with hot air from all sides. The ash door K and the damper S were simple devices with which the stoker regulated the flow of air into the firebox.
The simplest modification of a cylindrical boiler was a boiler with a flame tube, in which the first chimney did not pass under the boiler, but inside it. The next step was the tubular boiler, invented in 1828 by the French engineer Seguin. Metal smoke pipes passed inside this boiler, through which hot gas moved from the furnace to the chimney. In a tubular boiler, the heating surface was much larger than in a cylindrical one. At the same time, a much larger part of the heat went to vaporization and a relatively smaller part flew into the chimney. On the "Rocket" the total heating surface of the boiler was about 13 square meters, of which 11 accounted for tubes. Therefore, with the same dimensions, the boiler's productivity was much greater.
Rainhill competitions became a major event in the history of the locomotive; it is believed that they ended the period of his childhood. The competition was attended by about 10 thousand spectators, and this best of all speaks of the great interest of the common public in steam transport. The hopes that Stephenson placed on his creation were fully justified. October 10 "Rocket", going empty, has developed a record speed for those times of 48 km / h. With its own weight of 4 tons, this locomotive freely pulled a train with a total weight of 5 tons at a speed of 17 km / h. The speed of the steam locomotive with one passenger car reached 21 km / h. By all measures, the "Rocket" was an order of magnitude better than all other locomotives, and the prize of 500 pounds was awarded to Stephenson. He shared it with his assistant Booth, who proposed the idea of a tubular boiler (neither Booth nor Stephenson himself at that time knew anything about Seguin's invention). The "Rocket" can be considered a completely perfect steam locomotive, since it had all the most important features of later locomotives: 1) the furnace was surrounded by boiler water; 2) the boiler was located horizontally and had fire tubes; 3) steam went into the chimney, which increased the draft and increased the temperature of the furnace; 4) the power of the steam was transmitted to the wheels through the connecting rods without any gears. The following year, the Liverpool - Manchester line was inaugurated. The construction of the road required capital investments unheard of at that time. The total cost of laying it amounted to 739 thousand pounds. However, the need for this road was so great that it paid off fairly quickly. This was the best recommendation for a new mode of transport. A few years later, rapid railway construction began around the world. The age of the steam locomotive had begun. The significance of the Liverpool-Manchester road in this process can hardly be overestimated - it was the first large, technically correct railway construction project in history. Many of Stephenson's findings, concerning the construction of embankments, the construction of dams and tunnels, the laying of rails and sleepers, etc., later became a model for other engineers. The large-scale changes caused by the widespread use of steam locomotives were so huge that it can be said without exaggeration - they changed the face of the world. Before the invention of railroads, the most important industrial cities lay along the coast or on navigable rivers. Sailing ships served as the main means of transport. Inside the country, the transportation of goods took place by horse-drawn vehicles, and in all countries the roads were in a very bad condition. In the absence of roads, industry could not develop. Many territories that had minerals were nevertheless doomed to inactivity. The transition to steam transport led to a significant increase in the speed of movement and cargo turnover, despite the fact that the cost of transportation has decreased markedly. The most remote areas were soon connected by railways with industrial centers, ports and sources of raw materials, and were involved in the general rhythm of economic life. Distance ceased to be an obstacle, and industry received a powerful impetus for its development. Author: Ryzhov K.V.
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