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How did science develop in the XNUMXth century? Detailed answer
Directory / Big encyclopedia. Questions for quiz and self-education Did you know? How did science develop in the XNUMXth century? XIX - early XX century. - a special time in the development of science. Great discoveries followed one after another. The process of industrialization required the intensification of scientific work. At the same time, technological progress made it possible to create the instruments necessary for scientific research. The main feature of the natural scientific discoveries of the nineteenth century. was that they radically changed the established ideas about the structure of matter, space, time, movement, about the development of living nature, about the place of man in nature, about the origin of life on Earth. Among the great discoveries of the century is the discovery of electromagnetism, made by M. Faraday. This discovery led to the creation of an electric motor. A real sensation was the discovery of D. K. Maxwell. He developed the electromagnetic theory of light, which generalized the results of experiments and theoretical constructions of many scientists in the field of electromagnetism, thermodynamics and light. Maxwell's theory was presented by him in 1873, and in 1883 the German engineer G. Hertz confirmed the existence of electromagnetic waves. Based on these discoveries, the telegraph and radio were created. The Dutch physicist H. A. Lorenz continued to develop the electromagnetic theory, he tried to explain it from the point of view of the atomic structure of matter. In 1891, the English scientist J. Stoney came to the conclusion that the atom is not indivisible, but consists of electrons. Thus, a new picture of the world was gradually formed, which exists today. At the end of the nineteenth century. in Germany, the physicist V.K. Roentgen discovered invisible rays, which he called X-rays. The great discovery immediately received practical application in medicine - an X-ray machine was created on its basis. Roentgen was the first physicist to be awarded the Nobel Prize. The phenomenon of radioactivity was studied by a whole group of scientists, including A. Becquerel, P. Curie and M. Sklodowska-Curie, E. Rutherford, N. Bohr. This group of scientists created the doctrine of the complex structure of the atom. The discovery of radioactivity opened the way to the world of microparticles. A revolution in natural science was also made by Charles Darwin's teaching on evolution in living nature. L. Pasteur's research in the field of microbiology served as the basis for the doctrine of immunity. A great contribution to the development of medicine was made by J. Corvisart. R. Laennec, R. Koch. The rapid development of industrialization changed the education system and its organization. The main thing in this case was the task of expanding the accessibility of education. In the nineteenth century reforms were carried out in the European states and the USA in school education. Primary education became compulsory, it acquired a secular character. The problems of creating secondary schools were not ignored. D. Dewey, who became the most famous American teacher and philosopher of the late XNUMXth century, had a great influence on the formation of the secondary school. The new processes that took place under the influence of industrialization were comprehended at the philosophical level as well. Liberal ideas enjoyed the greatest influence in the West. Liberalism, like most other ideological concepts, has its roots in the Enlightenment. In the nineteenth century Enlightenment ideas were further developed. The most prominent representatives of this doctrine in this period of time were D. Bentham, D. Mill, G. Spencer, who defended the priority of the rights of the individual. Liberals were consistent supporters of the idea of social progress. History was viewed by them as a continuous progressive movement towards more perfect forms of social organization. A radical reaction to the rapid development of bourgeois relations was the Marxist doctrine, which proceeded from the fact that capitalist relations lead to antagonistic contradictions that will inevitably lead to the elimination of capitalism and the establishment of socialism. Supporters of Marxism were champions of the revolutionary way of implementing the idea of social progress. Theorists of conservatism enjoyed a certain influence in Western countries. A prominent representative of this concept is E. Burke. Conservatives advocated the preservation of traditional values, without which society could degenerate. Author: Irina Tkachenko
What did the first guns look like? The first samples of small arms appeared in the fourteenth century. They were known as hand cannons. They had copper and iron pipes (barrels) closed at the back. On the same side (closer to the butt) a small hole was drilled to ignite the gunpowder inside the barrel. The butt had a recess into which the stock was inserted. The mechanism by which a gun fires a shot is called a lock. Around 1425, a forked piece of iron was attached to the bed on one side, which held a burning wick. With the help of this device, it was possible to light a charge with a wick. Guns fired in this way were called muskets. The next improvement was a change in the shape of the butt, which began to be beveled, which allowed the shooter to put the weapon to his shoulder and take on the recoil. At the same time, this allowed him to aim while looking along the barrel. Such a weapon was called an arquebus. Around 1515, the wheel lock was invented. A rough-surfaced steel wheel struck sparks from the flint. The result was sparks that ignited gunpowder on a small shelf connected by a hole with a charge in the barrel. By the end of the 1840th century, flintlock guns were improved to the limit. But the principle of their operation remained the same, and they were used with minor changes until about XNUMX. In 1807, the "shock" system was invented. Its meaning was that the powder charge was ignited with the help of not a flint, but a primer with a detonating substance, which was hit by a trigger hammer.
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