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What was India like in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries? Detailed answer
Directory / Big encyclopedia. Questions for quiz and self-education Did you know? What was India like in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries? India belonged to those countries of ancient civilization where developed feudal relations appeared relatively early. The tribes and peoples of India were at different levels of economic development, which left their mark on the nature and pace of development of feudal society in various parts of the country. The path of development of feudal landownership in India: the distribution of land by the rulers of principalities. Already in the XNUMXth century. in India there were holdings of land on condition of service. With the termination of service or with the death of their holders, these possessions again returned to the prince. The dominant type of communities at that time was everywhere the rural community, consisting of a group of small and large patriarchal families. As property inequality grew in the communities, there were more and more families, and they sought to consolidate their economic advantages; these redistributions became more rare. The main form of feudal exploitation of communal peasants was food rent. In addition to her, community members were imposed labor service, not related to agricultural work. This area included work on the construction of irrigation facilities, fortresses, temples, bridges, roads, work on the estate of a feudal lord, etc. Product rent, despite the cruel exploitation of the peasants, in the presence of irrigated agriculture created conditions under which a part of the peasants was able to have a certain surplus in excess of the necessary product. The transition from the slave-owning system to the feudal one took place in the conditions of invasion and raids from Nepal and Tibet, the uprising of peoples and tribes, which led to the death of many ancient cities. But city life did not stop. It was preserved in those points that became the capitals of the feudal principalities, as well as in coastal regions with their foreign trade. The feudal lords settled in such cities artisans who were supposed to satisfy their needs. Especially encouraged the production of luxury goods that were sold. In addition to their main work, urban artisans were also engaged in agriculture. The agrarian character of the Indian city persisted throughout the Middle Ages. From the XNUMXth century India's foreign trade with other countries gradually began to grow. Merchants visited China and Japan. Arab merchants played an important role as intermediaries in India's trade. After the fall of the Gupta Empire, North India broke up into many small principalities. At the end of the VI century. in the north of the valley of the Jamna River, the principality of Thanesar began to strengthen. The local prince Harsha, after many wars, managed to unite almost the entire territory of the former Gupta state under his rule. Around 620, he made an attempt to subdue the decan lands. Harsha, as the supreme owner, donated land and distributed it for service. He collected tribute from princes. Otherwise, each principality led an independent life. A connection was established with China, where Harsha sent an embassy. At the beginning of the XNUMXth century in the west of the Deccan, a new power was formed. At the head was the Chalukya family. The founder of this state repelled Harsha's invasion of the Deccan. In India, there was a hierarchy of castes. Castes originated in ancient times, but they took their strict forms precisely in the Middle Ages. No person could be outside the caste. The transition from one caste to another was not allowed. Gradually, caste became the mainstay of routine in the field of production. Hinduism was the main religious system in India. He united a wide variety of beliefs and cults, ranging from animism, totemism and ending with religions with complex theological teachings. In the vision of the followers of Hinduism, three great gods - Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva - stand above an infinite number of deities. In their sacrificial rites, the priests "fed" and "watered" the god. The image of the god was rubbed with fragrant oils, temple dancers performed ritual dances to the sounds of music. People belonging to the lower castes were considered "impure" and had to live separately from those who considered themselves to be "pure" castes. There were also heretical movements. Their preachers said that in the face of God there are no "clean" and "impure" castes. In the XII century. a sect of Lingayats was formed, who began to choose priests from members of their sect, regardless of caste. Basava was the founder of this sect. The nature of the new social relations left its mark on the culture of the Indian people. In ancient times, almost the only building material was wood. Now, in the construction of temples, it is increasingly being replaced by brick and stone. Grandiose buildings are created from these materials. Thus, the height of the central tower of the temple in Tanjore (XI century), built in the form of a 14-storey truncated pyramid, is 61 m. The literature of this period follows the path of imitation of the classical literature of the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. One can note the standardization of poetic forms, the pretentiousness of style. Epic, lyrical and dramatic works were written in Sanskrit. Indian philosophy continues to develop. Its development proceeds in the form of a further development of the old idealistic systems. The impetus in the development is given to legal literature. In the XII century. the first medical treatises were written. The author of a famous treatise on therapy was Chakranandita (XI century). Author: Irina Tkachenko
Where can one observe elongated cylindrical clouds up to a kilometer long? A rare phenomenon called "Morning Gloria" is an elongated cylindrical cloud up to a kilometer long, moving at speeds up to 60 km / h. Periodically, such clouds are found in different parts of the world, but most often they can be observed in Australia, in the Gulf of Carpentaria. The characteristic shape is formed due to the fact that at the leading edge there is a rapid movement of air vertically upwards, and in the middle and rear of the cloud the air mass descends, thus, as it were, twisting the cloud.
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