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What was France like in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries? Detailed answer
Directory / Big encyclopedia. Questions for quiz and self-education Did you know? What was France like in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries? From the XNUMXth century In France, the process of state centralization begins. The royal power began to wage a more active fight against feudal anarchy, which was undermining the country's productive forces. The centralizing policy of the kings was supported by the cities, which fought against large feudal lords and were interested in weakening their influence. The kings skillfully used and incited this struggle. But the French kings had strong rivals. In 1154, one of the French feudal lords - Count of Anjou Henry Plantagenet - became the king of England. His possessions in France (Anjou, Maine, Touraine, Normandy, Poitou, etc.) were several times greater than those of the French king. The rivalry between the Capetians and the Plantagenets flared up especially under Philip II Augustus. He achieved the greatest success in the fight against the English king John Landless, declaring his possessions in France confiscated and conquering Normandy. The strengthening of royal power also took place in the reign of Louis IX, during which this process was consolidated by a number of important reforms. A single monetary system was introduced in the royal domain. This contributed to the economic cohesion of the country. Louis IX carried out judicial reform. Judicial chambers were formed in the country, which became known as parliaments. The main parliament was in Paris, which became the capital of France. A lot of efforts to strengthen the unity of France were made by the last representative of the Capetian dynasty - King Philip IX the Handsome. Realizing that the greatly expanded French state required expenses to maintain controllability, Philip IX began to take care of increasing state revenues. He introduced a monetary tax levied on all classes, including the clergy. By this he violated the rights of the Pope, on whom the clergy depended. Having conceived decisive action against the pope, Philip IV convened in 1302 the States General, where the clergy, nobles and townspeople were represented. Philip IV informed the participants of the meeting of his intention to enter into a fight with the pope. The Estates General supported the king. At the insistence of Philip IV, a new pope was elected, a Frenchman by origin, who moved his residence to the city of Avignon, in the south of France. Here the popes lived for almost 70 years in submission to the French king. The time of the papal stay in Avignon was called the Avignon captivity of the popes. The accession to the French throne of the Valois dynasty led to the beginning of the Hundred Years War between France and England, which was of paramount importance for the future fate of France. The Hundred Years' War was basically a fight over the southwestern French lands under the rule of the English kings. These lands were needed by France for its final unification. For many decades, the British won military battles with the French. The most successful was the British offensive in France in the XNUMXth century. They managed to occupy the north of France and Paris. They also captured the French king. The situation changed somewhat after the siege by the British in 1428 of the city of Orleans on the Laure, which was an important strategic point in the south of France. The peasant girl Jeanne D'Arc took an active part in deciding the fate of the city of Orleans. She was imbued with the conviction that, according to God's will, she should help France in the fight against the British. She managed to persuade the French king Charles VII to take decisive action, as a result of which the siege of Orleans was lifted. The British retreated to Paris. In 1430 Joan of Arc was captured by the British, who burned her at the stake. The fierce struggle and execution of Jeanne awakened the patriotic feelings of the French. All classes of the kingdom rallied around Charles VII. In 1436 the French king solemnly entered Paris. The war was ended by 1453 with the victory of France, but the port of Calais remained with the British. Victory in the war cost the French people innumerable victims, at the cost of which the independence of the country was saved. In the sixteenth century France entered as an already centralized state with developing economic ties, rich cities, and a growing cultural community. Author: Irina Tkachenko
What bacteria managed to survive in the sterile rooms where spacecraft are assembled? The bacterium Tersicoccus phoenicis was discovered in 2013 in the rooms where you least expect to find it - the sterile rooms of NASA and the European Space Agency. Moreover, they are not connected with each other in any way: one is located in Florida, where the Phoenix spacecraft was assembled, and the other at the Kourou cosmodrome in South America. In such rooms, excess air pressure is maintained, they are cleaned with the strongest chemicals and ultraviolet light, but these conditions are quite suitable for bacteria. They may have already made it to Mars on the Phoenix or some other spacecraft.
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