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What was the essence of the crusades (goals, participants, results)? Detailed answer
Directory / Big encyclopedia. Questions for quiz and self-education Did you know? What was the essence of the crusades (goals, participants, results)? In 1095, at the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban III called for a crusade to rescue the holy places from the yoke of the Saracens (Arabs and Seljuk Turks). The first echelon of the crusaders was made up of peasants and poor citizens, led by the preacher Peter of Amiens. In 1096 they arrived in Constantinople and, without waiting for the approach of the knightly army, crossed over to Asia Minor. There, the poorly armed and even worse trained militia of Peter of Amiens was easily defeated by the Turks. In the spring of 1097, detachments of crusader knights concentrated in the capital of Byzantium. The main role in the First Crusade was played by the feudal lords of Southern France: Count Raymond of Toulouse, Count Robert of Flanders, son of the Norman Duke William (the future conqueror of England) Robert, Bishop Ademar. The main problem of the crusaders was the lack of a unified command. The dukes and counts participating in the campaign did not have a common overlord and did not want to obey each other, considering themselves no less noble and powerful than their colleagues. Gottfried of Bouillon was the first to cross to the land of Asia Minor, followed by other knights. In June 1097, the crusaders took the fortress of Nicaea and moved to Cilicia. In October 1097, after a seven-month siege, Gottfried's army captured Antioch. The city tried to recapture the Sultan of Mosul, but suffered a heavy defeat. Bohemond founded another crusader state - the Principality of Antioch. In the autumn of 1098, the crusader army moved towards Jerusalem. Along the way, she took possession of Accra and in June 1099 approached the holy city, which was defended by Egyptian troops. Almost the entire Genoese fleet, which carried siege weapons, was destroyed by the Egyptians. However, one ship managed to break through to Laodicea. The siege engines delivered by him allowed the crusaders to destroy the walls of Jerusalem. On July 15, 1099, the crusaders took Jerusalem by storm. On August 12, a large Egyptian army landed near Jerusalem, in Ascalon, but the crusaders defeated it. At the head of the Kingdom of Jerusalem founded by them stood Gottfried of Bouillon. The success of the First Crusade was facilitated by the fact that the united army of the Western European knights was opposed by the scattered and warring Seljuk sultanates. The most powerful Muslim state in the Mediterranean - the Egyptian Sultanate - only with a great delay moved the main forces of its army and navy to Palestine, which the crusaders managed to break in parts. Here, the Muslim rulers clearly underestimated the danger threatening them. For the defense of the Christian states formed in Palestine, spiritual and knightly orders were created, whose members settled in the conquered lands after the bulk of the participants in the First Crusade returned to Europe. In 1119, the Order of the Templars (knights of the Temple) was founded, a little later the Order of the Hospitallers, or St. John, appeared, and at the end of the XNUMXth century. The Teutonic (German) Order arose. The second crusade, undertaken in 1147-1149, ended in vain. According to some estimates, up to 70 thousand people participated in it. The Crusaders were led by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany. In October 1147, the German knights were defeated at Dorileus by the cavalry of the Sultan of Iconium. Then epidemics hit Conrad's army. The emperor was forced to join the army of the French king, with whom he had previously been at enmity. Most of the German soldiers chose to return to their homeland. The French, in January 1148, were defeated at Khonami. In 1149, Conrad, and then Louis, returned to Europe, realizing the impossibility of expanding the boundaries of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. In the second half of the XII century. Saladin (Salah ad-Din), a talented commander, became the sultan of Egypt, which opposed the crusaders. He defeated the crusaders at Lake Tiberias and in 1187 captured Jerusalem. In response, the Third Crusade was proclaimed, led by Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa, French King Philip II Augustus and King Richard I of England the Lionheart. When crossing one of the rivers in Asia Minor, Frederick drowned, and his army, having lost its leader, broke up and returned to Europe. The French and British, moving by sea, captured Sicily, and then landed in Palestine, but acted generally unsuccessfully. True, after a siege of many months, they took the fortress of Acre, and Richard the Lionheart captured the island of Cyprus, recently separated from Byzantium, where he took rich booty in the East. But the strife between the English and French feudal lords caused the departure of the French king from Palestine. Without the help of the French knights, Richard was never able to take Jerusalem. On September 2, 1192, the English king signed a peace with Salah ad-Din, according to which only the coastal strip from Tire to Jaffa remained under the control of the crusaders, and Jaffa and Ascalon were previously destroyed by Muslims to the ground. The fourth crusade began in 1202 and ended in 1204 with the conquest of Constantinople instead of Palestine and a significant part of the possessions of Christian Byzantium. On the site of Byzantium, the Latin Empire was founded, which existed for half a century. They were an ephemeral formation, dependent on the Venetian fleet and parasitizing on Byzantine wealth. With the return of many crusaders to Europe, the military power of the Latin Empire also weakened. In 1205, her army was defeated by the Bulgarians near Adrianople, and the emperor Balduin (Baudouin) I was captured. In 1261, the Emperor of Nicaea, Michael III Palaiologos, with the help of the Genoese, expelled the crusaders from Constantinople. The Fifth Crusade was organized in 1217-1221. to conquer Egypt. It was headed by King Andras II of Hungary and Duke Leopold of Austria. The crusaders of Syria met the newcomers from Europe without great enthusiasm. It was difficult for the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which survived the drought, to feed tens of thousands of new soldiers, and it wanted to trade with Egypt, not to fight. Andras and Leopold raided Damascus, Nablus and Beisan, besieged, but could not take the strongest Muslim fortress of Tavor. After this failure, Andras returned to his homeland in January 1218. To replace the Hungarians in Palestine in 1218, the Dutch knights and German infantry arrived. It was decided to conquer the Egyptian fortress of Damietta in the Nile Delta. It was located on an island, surrounded by three rows of walls and protected by a powerful tower, from which a bridge and thick iron chains stretched to the fortress, blocking access to Damietta from the river. The siege began on May 27, 1218. Using their ships as floating wall-beating guns and using long assault ladders, the crusaders captured the tower. In mid-July, the Nile began to flood, and the crusader camp was flooded, while the Muslims prepared in advance for the revelry of the elements and did not suffer, and then cut off the path of retreat for the army of Pelagius. The crusaders asked for peace. At this time, the Egyptian sultan was most afraid of the Mongols, who had already appeared in Iraq, and preferred not to tempt his luck in the fight against the knights. Under the terms of the truce, the crusaders left Damietta and sailed for Europe. He led the Sixth Crusade in 1228-1229. German Emperor Frederick II Hohenstaufen. The emperor himself, before the start of the campaign, was excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX, who called him not a crusader, but a pirate who was going to "steal the kingdom in the Holy Land." In the summer of 1228 Frederick landed in Syria. Here he managed to persuade al-Kamil, who fought with his Syrian emirs, to return Jerusalem and other territories of the kingdom to him in exchange for help against his enemies - both Muslims and Christians. The corresponding agreement was concluded in Jaffa in February 1229. On March 18, the crusaders entered Jerusalem without a fight. Then the emperor returned to Italy, defeated the pope's army sent against him and forced Gregory, under the terms of the Peace of Saint Germain in 1230, to lift the excommunication and recognize the agreement with the sultan. Jerusalem thus passed to the crusaders only due to the threat that their army posed to al-Kamil, and even thanks to the diplomatic skill of Frederick. The Seventh Crusade took place in the autumn of 1239. Frederick II refused to provide the territory of the Kingdom of Jerusalem for the crusading army led by Duke Richard of Cornwall. The Crusaders landed in Syria and, at the insistence of the Templars, entered into an alliance with the Emir of Damascus to fight the Sultan of Egypt, but together with the Syrians were defeated in November 1239 at the Battle of Ascalon. Thus, the seventh campaign ended in vain. The Eighth Crusade took place in 1248-1254. His goal was to recapture Jerusalem, captured in September 1244 by Sultan as-Salih Eyyub Najm ad-Din, who was assisted by 10 Khorezmian cavalry. Almost the entire Christian population of the city was slaughtered. This time, the French king Louis IX played the leading role in the crusade, and the total number of crusaders was determined at 15-25 thousand people, of which 3 thousand were knights. The Egyptians sank the Crusader fleet. Louis's starving army left Mansoura, but few made it to Damietta. Most were destroyed or captured. Among the prisoners was the French king. Epidemics of malaria, dysentery and scurvy spread among the captives, and few of them survived. Louis was released from captivity in May 1250 for a huge ransom of 800 bezants, or 200 livres. Louis remained in Palestine for four more years, but, having not received reinforcements from Europe, in April 1254 he returned to France. The ninth and final crusade took place in 1270. It was prompted by the successes of the Mamluk Sultan Baibars. The Egyptians defeated the Mongol forces at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260. In 1265 Baybars captured the Crusader fortresses of Caesarea and Arsuf, and in 1268 Jaffa and Antioch. The crusade was again led by Louis IX the Saint, and only French knights took part in it. This campaign was unsuccessful. Author: Irina Tkachenko
How does an airplane take off? To understand how an airplane rises into the air, we first need to understand the forces that keep airplanes in the air. Since an airplane weighs more than the same volume of air, it needs a force to keep it in the air. It's called lifting power. The aircraft develops this force by rapidly moving forward and overcoming air resistance. Why does this movement create lift? Due to the fact that in the process of its air masses flow around the wings. The air dissected by an airplane passes over and under the wings. That part of it that passes under the wings pushes the plane up. The wing has a convex shape on the upper side, and the air, bending around this bulge, creates a zone of low pressure at these points. Thus, there are two forces acting simultaneously: the air under the wings pushes the aircraft up, and the reduced pressure above the wings contributes to this movement. The result is an uplift. To move forward, the aircraft needs the power of the engine. Propellers are screwed into the air just like a screw into wood. This effect becomes possible due to the fact that the air, when moving quickly through it, as well as when the air itself moves quickly, begins to act as a dense medium. This forward movement is called thrust. Thrust overcomes air resistance, lift overcomes the force of gravity - and the plane flies through the air. As long as the lift force balances the gravitational forces, the plane moves straight ahead at the same level. As the speed increases, the aircraft will shoot up as the lift force has increased and the pilot needs to lower the nose of the aircraft slightly to counteract this force. If the speed decreases, the pilot must raise the nose of the aircraft slightly up. If this is not done, the air flow around the wings is stalled, the aircraft loses lift and, accordingly, speed, risking entering a tailspin. If the stall occurs high in the sky, this height is enough to level the plane and pick up speed again, but if it happens low above the ground, disaster is inevitable.
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