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CULTURAL AND WILD PLANTS
Tomato (tomato). Legends, myths, symbolism, description, cultivation, methods of application
Directory / Cultivated and wild plants Content
Tomato (tomato), Solanum lycopersicum. Photos of the plant, basic scientific information, legends, myths, symbolism
Basic scientific information, legends, myths, symbolism Sort by: solanum Family: Solanaceae (Solanaceae) Origin: Central and South America Area: The tomato is distributed throughout the world as a cultivated plant. Chemical composition: Tomato contains many vitamins (A, C, K, B6, folic acid), minerals (potassium, magnesium, phosphorus), antioxidants (lycopene, beta-carotene) and other useful substances. Economic value: Tomatoes are used in the food industry for the production of various products (tomato juice, sauces, ketchup, canned foods, etc.), as well as in cooking. They also have medical significance due to their beneficial properties, such as protection against cancer and cardiovascular disease. Legends, myths, symbolism: In Mexican mythology, the tomato was the symbol of the goddess of beauty and love, Coatlicue. The plant was said to help attract love and strengthen family ties. In Europe, tomatoes were perceived as poisonous plants and were used only as ornamentals. It was believed that the plant could cause illness and death. In the symbolism of tomatoes, it is associated with vitality and energy. It is believed that tomatoes help to improve health and cheer up, as well as bring brightness and color to life.
Tomato (tomato), Solanum lycopersicum. Description, illustrations of the plant Tomato (tomato), Solanum lycopersicum L. var. Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. Botanical description, history of origin, nutritional value, cultivation, use in cooking, medicine, industry
Perennial, annual, herbaceous plant. The stem is erect or decumbent, thick, highly branched, up to 2 m high. The leaves are large, pinnatisected. The flowers are yellow, collected in an inflorescence - a brush, bisexual, adapted for self-pollination. The fruit is a fleshy, juicy, multi-seeded berry of various shapes, colors, and sizes. Seeds are flat, yellowish-beige. Blooms in June-September. Homeland tomato - South America (Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador). It was brought to Europe in the XNUMXth century. For almost three centuries, the plant was cultivated mainly for decorative purposes, and only in the XNUMXth century entered the culture as a vegetable. For the first time in Rus', tomatoes began to be grown at the end of the XNUMXth century. Thanks to many years of selection, hybridization, the quality of the fruit has improved so much that it is difficult to recognize in a tomato today the vegetable that first came to Europe. The fruits have acquired a more pleasant taste, they have increased the content of many useful substances. Currently, tomato culture is one of the most common; There are several thousand varieties adapted to different climatic conditions. Tomatoes are grown everywhere both in open ground and in greenhouses. In mid-latitudes, they are grown in open ground from seeds and seedlings. According to the terms of maturation, early, medium and late ripening are distinguished. Tomato is a light and heat-loving plant, demanding on the conditions of soil nutrition. Before sowing, the soil is plowed deeply, fertilizers are applied to it. Warmed and wetted seeds at the end of April are buried in moist soil, five to six pieces to a depth of 3-4 cm; the distance between the holes is 25-30 cm. The plants are thinned out twice. When growing seedlings, seedlings are planted when the soil warms up to 12-14 ° C. In mid-latitude conditions, this is the end of April - the beginning of May. The distance between the bushes is 80 cm. After the seedlings take root, they are watered abundantly along the furrows, but so that the water does not wet the stems and leaves. When fruit is set, the tomato is not watered; care consists only in loosening the soil. In the future, watering is carried out every five to seven days. Bushes must be tied to stakes. To obtain large fruits, stepchildren growing from the axils of the leaves are removed, and the tops of the stems are pinched. The fruits ripen 50-60 days after flowering. The crop is harvested as the tomatoes ripen.
A large number of useful substances are concentrated in ripe fruits: vitamins C, B1, B2, P, K, pantothenic and folic acids, carotene and related plant pigments, organic acids (citric, malic, oxalic, succinic, tartaric, etc.), saponins . They contain a lot of minerals (potassium, iron, magnesium, zinc, copper and iodine), pectin and fiber. There are amino acids and essential oils in the fruits, which, together with vitamins and sugars, form the taste and aroma of the fruit. As a medicinal plant, tomato is little known. This is explained by his comparative youth. Fresh tomatoes and juice are recommended for the prevention and treatment of polyavitaminosis. Tomatoes maintain the acid-base balance in the body due to the minerals and organic acids they contain. Together with delicate fiber, they increase the secretion of gastric juice, improve digestion. Tomatoes are especially useful for people suffering from hypacid gastritis and intestinal lethargy. In folk medicine, tomato juice is used as a bactericidal agent for purulent wounds and ulcers. Until recent years. It was believed that tomatoes contain a lot of oxalic acid, and this negatively affects salt metabolism. It has now been established that oxalic acid in tomatoes is much less than, for example, in rhubarb. Tomatoes are an excellent dietary product that is recommended for people of all ages. None of the vegetable crops is used in food as widely and varied as tomatoes. They are mainly consumed fresh in salads, spicy sauces. In addition, tomatoes are fried, stewed, used as a seasoning for borscht, soups, main dishes; they are salted, marinated, preserved, processed into pastes, mashed potatoes, juice, stuffed with eggplant, cheese, cheese, fried with ham, etc. Speaking of tomatoes, it should be noted that the seeds of unripe fruits contain the poisonous substance solanine, so they should not be eaten. When salting fruits, solanine decomposes, its harmful effect is reduced. Tomatoes are used to make skin care products - creams, lotions, etc. Authors: Kretsu L.G., Domashenko L.G., Sokolov M.D.
Tomato, Lycopersicum Mill. Botanical description of the plant, areas of growth and ecology, economic importance, applications
The genus Lycopersicum includes six species of tomatoes: L. esculentum Mill, (real), L. pimpinellifolium Mill. (currant), L. peruvianum (L.) Mill, (Peruvian), L. hirsutum Humb. 1 Bon. (hairy), L. gladulosum Mill, (glandular) and L. Cheesmanii Riley. The significance of the cultivated tomato is almost exclusively the species L. esculentum. Other species are of interest mainly in breeding as initial forms for hybridization with cultivars. L. pimpinellifolium Mill. (L. indoru / n Juss., L. racemigerum Lange, L. racemiforme Lange, Solanum pimpinellifolium Juss.) is a perennial herbaceous plant, usually cultivated as an annual (it dies from frost in open ground), slightly pubescent. Stem decumbent, 1-2 m long, 1-2 cm thick, with ascending apex. The inflorescence is a simple raceme (more precisely, bilateral, with a more or less symmetrical arrangement of fruits on both sides of the raceme), glandular-pubescent, 12-30-flowered; pedicels are short. The whisk is yellow. Fruit bilocular, spherical, 1-1,5 cm in diameter, smooth. Homeland - Peru, Ecuador and the Galapagos Islands. Participated in the formation of some early maturing varieties. L. peruvianum (L.) Mill. (Solanum peruvianum L., S. peruvianum Jack., S. commutatum Spr., Lycopersicum commutatum Roem. et Schul., L. peruvianum v. commutatum Link., L. Chrysobotrys Hort.) is a creeping perennial plant. The stem is thin, weak, relatively densely short-pubescent, short, straight or curly, with yellowish hairs. Leaves 4-9 cm long, 2-4 cm wide, pinnate, leaflets small, terminal lobe much larger. Inflorescence of 6-12 flowers, sometimes forked, common peduncle 3-10 cm long. Corolla orange-yellow, 1-1,3 cm across. The fruit is spherical or flattened-spherical, 1-2 cm in diameter, bilocular. It grows wild in Chile and Peru. The fruits are edible but tasteless. L. Cheesmanii Riley (L. peruvianum Mill.) is a perennial creeping or erect plant. The stems are cylindrical, shortly pubescent with capitate glandular hairs and at the nodes with longer non-glandular ones. Inflorescence hairy and glandular, racemose, 4-6 cm long, with 4-10 flowers, without bracts. The fruit is rarely pubescent, smooth, spherical, 0,6-0,9 cm in diameter when ripe. In the wild, it is found only on the Galapagos Islands. L. hirsutum Humb. i In onp. (L. hirsutum HBK, L. agrimoniaefolium (Pav.) Dun.) is an annual or perennial hairy plant. The stem is straight at the bottom, then partially creeping, 0,8-1,2 cm in diameter. The fruit is coarsely hairy, greenish-white with red longitudinal stripes, 1,5-2,5 cm in diameter. Corolla with broadly oval ends of slightly separated petals. It grows wild in Peru and Ecuador, rising to 2300 m above sea level. L. gladulosum Mill. is a perennial, profusely branching, slightly climbing plant with long stems, glandular-pubescent. The leaves are elongated or narrowly lanceolate, 6-12 cm long, intermittently pinnate. Inflorescence forked-cymose. The fruit is spherical, pubescent, 1-1,2 cm in diameter. It grows wild in Peru at an altitude of 1900-2800 m above sea level.
Common tomato (tomato), Lycopersicum esculentum Mill. Classification, synonyms, botanical description, nutritional value, cultivation
Synonyms: L. galemi Mill., L. solatiumlycopersicon Ind. Kew., L. solatium Medic, L. pomum-amoris Moench., Solatium luridum Salisb. Names: Ukrainian red eggplant; white masters; Az. tomato; arm. tomato, tomato; cargo, pamidori; German Tomate, Paradiesapfel, Paradies, Liebesapfel; Goal. tomaat, liebesappel; dates tomater; Swede, tomates, karleks-apple; English tomato, love apple; fr. tomate, pomme damour, pomme dor; it. pomodoro; Spanish tomato; port. tomato; rum. patlagela rosii; hung. paradicsom; Slovenian rajsko jabolko, rajcica, paradicsom; Serb, rajcica, crveni patlidzan; Czech rajska jablicka, paradajky; Polish tomato; uz. tomato. From the genus Lycopersicum in culture is, as we indicated, mainly the species L. esculentum Mill. Numerous (about 2000 names) large-fruited varieties belong to it, cultivated mainly for fresh consumption, as well as for the manufacture of canned food. The structure of the leaves. The sharpest gradations in the variability of this trait form the basis of the intraspecific taxonomy of tomatoes and are reduced to the following four types: 1) ordinary leaf, 2) potato leaf, 3) narrowly lobed, 4) wrinkled. The degree of dissection (into lobes, lobules and lobules) correlates with precocity. As observations have shown, early varieties (at least inside var. vulgare Bailey) are characterized by a greater dissection (greater complexity) of the leaf than late ones. Tomatoes are characterized by false dichotomous branching. Usually, with a single-beam culture, adopted mainly for the northern regions, the stem is created artificially by pruning small shoots, which contributes to the enhanced growth of one large shoot. This single poog is called the stem. In the case of tomato culture without pruning, the most developed shoot of the plant is considered to be the stem. If you measure the height of the plant along the main shoot, then in the vast majority of varieties it ranges from 90-130 cm. The height of tomatoes, like any other quantitative trait, varies greatly under the influence of the environment. As a rule, greenhouse specimens are higher than those grown in the ground. The tomato is extremely responsive to fertilizer in terms of increasing plant height. Differences in the color of the branches of tomatoes are very small. Almost all varieties have a green stem, which is covered under the action of the sun (usually after planting plants in the ground) with the so-called "tan", i.e., stained with anthocyanin. All plants behave this way with very few exceptions. Our scans of the world's tomato collections for stem color variability have found single plants that deviate from this general rule. The diversity in the structure of racemes can be roughly reduced to three main types: 1) a simple irregularly branched raceme, usually bearing no more than 8-10 fruits; 2) a complex brush with almost unlimited branching, bearing from 30 to 400 fruits; 3) double-sided, simple, slightly branched raceme with clearly defined 1-2 main branches, on which the fruits are located symmetrically on both sides. There are a number of transitions between these types of brushes. The location of the brushes on the plant. The first flower brush in tomatoes is usually laid over the 7-13th leaf (more often over the 9th). As a rule, those plants in which this brush develops lower (7-8th leaf) bloom and bear ripe fruits earlier, and, conversely, those tomatoes bloom and ripen later, in which the first brush is laid high (11-12-13 th sheet). Rare specimens lay the first brush even below the 7th sheet. Plants that have the second, third and subsequent brushes through each one leaf are called determinant. It can be noted that early maturity depends on the height of the first flower brush and on the location of subsequent brushes. More precocious are those plants that have fewer leaves between the brushes.
The structure of flowers. The structure of tomato flowers is associated with the structure of the brushes. Double-sided raceme tomatoes often have a simply built single flower with a single pistil. Due to the shift of t characteristic of the tomato and the fusion of tissues, sometimes single flowers with 5-6 sepals instead of 5 normal ones are located on bilateral racemes. Displaced simple racemes (simplex), which are characterized by fusion of pedicels, are also characterized by fusion of flowers. Pedicels grow together - flowers grow together. Tomatoes with a simple brush always have large flowers with several pistils fused together, with an increased number of stamens, petals and sepals. Fusion, even within the same brush, is uneven: flowers fuse either more or less. From the fused flowers, large irregularly shaped multi-chamber fused fruits are formed, giving a high yield of dry matter, few seeds, etc. Thus, the fusion of pedicels, characteristic of a simple brush, entails a change in a number of signs, such as: fusion of flowers, fusion of fruits, an increase in the size of the fruit, its irregular shape, ribbed surface, multi-chamber, fleshiness, few seeds, uneven coloring when ripe. There is another essential detail in the structure of tomato flowers, on which the method of pollination and abscission of flowers depends. Ketrar showed the possibility of cross-pollination in tomatoes when the flowers have a long pistil(s) rising above the circle of stamens. The vast majority of tomato varieties only self-pollinate. These are those varieties whose pistils are either lower than the stamens, or the same height as them. Varieties with a long pistil require isolation due to their tendency to cross-pollinate in seed production or breeding. Heterostyle varieties tend to fall off flowers in the absence of a pollinator. Order of flowering and fruit set. With natural branching, if the tomato plant is left unpruned, the order of formation of flower clusters and flowering is most often this. The first flower brush is formed on the most developed shoot. It also develops the second time of flowering and the third brush. The fourth brush is usually formed already on another shoot, the second largest after the most developed. Further, several brushes bloom at once on the lower shoots and the fourth brush on the main shoot. Then brushes bloom, located on even lower shoots. The method of pinching and pinching tomatoes is based on the uneven formation and flowering of brushes of different shoots. For the fastest production of ripe fruits, it is advisable to prune all shoots, except for the most developed one, on which the first three brushes develop. The order of fruit ripening on racemes does not differ from the described order of flowering of racemes. Leaving only one shoot from the plant and removing the others (single stem culture), we force the plant to form brushes on one shoot; while the flowering of the brushes always goes sequentially from the bottom up. Bilateral brushes begin to bloom in the direction from the stem to the top of the brush. Often, the flowers closest to the stem have already faded, and the most distant ones are just opening. But such an order of flowering of flowers on racemes is characteristic only of single simple flowers of a double-sided brush. The order of development of flowers on a displaced simple brush (simplex) is completely different. Flowering here can begin at the most different ends of the brush. Initially, that complex fused flower blooms, in which the degree of fusion is the highest. Then the next most complex flower blooms. The last flowers on a simple brush bloom, formed from the fusion of two flowers, or single. Fruits are formed in the same way. The first fruit is a simple brush - always irregular in shape with numerous sepals; the next in time of appearance is also strongly fused, but to a lesser extent than the first, etc.
Fruit coloration. Tomato fruits in a mature state are red, yellow and almost white. The color of the fruit consists of the color of the pulp and the color of the skin. The skin may be yellow or colorless, the flesh may be red or yellowish. In the event that the skin is yellow and the flesh is red, the fruits are red. If the skin is colorless and the flesh is red, the fruits are pink-red. If the skin is yellow and the flesh is yellowish, the fruit will be yellow. Finally, if the skin is colorless and the flesh is yellowish, the fruits are almost white. The shape of the fetus in tomatoes is associated with the structure of the hand. Correct, almost round or plum-shaped and pear-shaped fruits are characteristic of a double-sided brush. On simple racemes, fruits of irregular shape, flat or flat-round, usually develop. However, within even one brush, simple or complex, the fruits are not the same in shape. Judgment about the fruit shape typical for a variety has to be made for most fruits. In tomatoes, it is easy to trace the phenomenon of topophysis, due to which the fruits of the upper brushes are shorter than the lower ones. In accordance with such a difference in the shape of fruits on different racemes of the same plant, in different varieties it is necessary to compare fruits from races of the same number among themselves. The surface of the fetus directly depends on its shape or structure of the hand. Fruit size. This sign modifies depending on environmental conditions. Intimacy. Varieties with a double-sided flower brush are characterized by simple 2-4-chambered fruits. Often, even in a bilateral brush, there is a slight displacement and fusion of pedicels, as a result of which individual fruits on these brushes have 5-6 chambers. Meatiness. Dry matter. For processing into puree and paste, tomatoes require a high percentage of dry matter. This requirement is met by the most fleshy varieties, which are at the same time the most multi-chamber. Multi-chamber, high fleshiness and a large dry residue are directly correlated with each other. The fleshiness of the fetus consists of the number of inter-chamber partitions and their thickness. Naturally, multi-chamber fruits are the most fleshy. Small-chamber varieties of tomatoes are more suitable for fresh consumption, as well as for pickling and pickling. Seed output. Due to the strong fusion of fruits, seed cavities in multi-chamber varieties are often or completely devoid of seeds, or there are very few seeds in them. Seed growers are well aware that the multiplication factor of multi-chamber tomatoes is 1,5-2 times less than that of small-chamber ones. In small-chamber varieties, where the fruit develops normally, seeds are also normally formed. If in small-chamber varieties from 1 ha usually (in northern conditions) 80-100 kg of seeds are obtained, then in multi-chamber varieties the usual seed yield (under the same conditions) rarely exceeds 50 kg/ha. The previously mentioned multi-chamber American varieties, in which the fusion of fruits is most pronounced, are especially distinguished by low seed. Uniform staining of the fruit. Multi-chamber varieties due to the fusion of their fruits from several are characterized by uneven coloring of the fruit. Dosing ability. Numerous experiments have been carried out on the ripening of green fruits of various varieties of tomatoes. It has been established that almost 100% (excluding diseased fruits) in all varieties reach blange fruits. Green fruits reach worse, but this is due not to the variety, but to the degree of ripeness. In terms of early ripening, of particular interest are varieties either devoid of the green stage of maturity, or quickly passing through this stage. Taste and nutritional qualities. The study of the nutritional and palatability of tomatoes concerns mainly the content of sugars and acids. Particularly sharp differences in both sugar content and acidity were not found between varieties. Author: Ipatiev A.N.
Tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum. Methods of application, origin of the plant, range, botanical description, cultivation
Few, perhaps, there are still agricultural crops used for food in such a variety of ways. Tomatoes are eaten raw, fried, boiled, canned, in the form of sauces, alone or with other dishes. Fruits are widely used for canning: pastes, juices, sauces, powders are prepared from them. Tomato seeds contain up to 24% semi-drying oil. It is used as a salad dressing and in the manufacture of margarine and soap. Tomato fruits contain: about 94% water, 1% protein, 0,1% fat, 4% carbohydrates, 0,6% fiber, organic acids, vitamins A, C, PP, etc. The color of ripe fruits is determined by the presence of lycopene and carotene, however, in some varieties with yellow fruits, carotene is not formed. The alkaloid tomatine also accumulates in fruits and leaves. Although tomatoes are relatively poor in nutrients and vitamins, when consumed in large quantities they become an important source of these compounds. For example, in the United States, in the list of main fruits and vegetables, tomatoes are in 16th place in terms of vitamin A content, and 13th in vitamin C content. However, due to the high level of their consumption in the country (about 40 kg per person per year), they actually occupy the third place in the diet as a source of both vitamins. Only about 15% of all products are produced in the tropics. At the same time, the expansion of tomato production is very promising in tropical countries. This crop plays an important role in improving the nutrition of the population of developing countries, in increasing the profitability of agriculture, and in developing exports. Cultivation of tomatoes contributes to an increase in employment. Labor costs per 1 ha in the production of tomatoes are 2-3 times higher than in the production of rice. Information about the origin of the tomato and its early history is very scarce, but most researchers believe that the birthplace of this plant is the mountainous regions of Peru and Ecuador. Hence the wild tomato precursor Lycopersicon esculentum var. cerasiforme as a weed has invaded other tropical regions of South America. In Mexico, the tomato was first cultivated as a cultivated plant, perhaps due to its resemblance to the physalis, which has long been used as food. Wild relatives of the tomato are still found today in the rainforests of South America and in the drier regions of Mexico. The appearance of the tomato in Europe dates back to the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries. On the ships of the conquistadors, heavily loaded with gold stolen from the Indians, the seeds of outlandish plants also sailed to the Old World. The annals say that tomatoes were brought to our continent by Hernan Cortes in 1523, shortly after the conquest of Mexico. The first written mention of the cultivation of a new plant in Europe was made by the Italian botanist Piero Andrea Mattioli in 1554, although he mistook the tomato for a variety of the poisonous mandrake plant. To Asia, in particular to the Philippines, the tomato, apparently, was brought by the Spaniards. This happened already a few years after the discovery of the Philippine Islands by Magellan in 1521, although the known written references to the appearance of a plant on the islands date back to 1571. The paths of further distribution of the tomato to China, Japan and India coincide with the routes of trade caravans that went to these countries. from the Philippines. The appearance of the tomato in Great Britain was recorded by Gerard in 1579. In this country, the plant was called the "apple of love." The British, Dutch and French brought the tomato to their Asian colonies. At the end of the XVIII century. The tomato came from Europe to the United States of America. The first mention of the appearance of tomato in Russia dates back to the second half of the XNUMXth century. Its description can be found in the works of Andrey Bolotov. Tomato was first bred in the vicinity of Bakhchisaray, from the Crimea the plant began to spread further to the south. The name of a tomato, better known in our everyday life - tomato - comes from the Italian "golden apple". This name, obviously, is explained by the fact that the first tomatoes in Europe were yellow-fruited. The fruits of a new vegetable plant in European countries, with the exception of Italy, began to be eaten immediately. This was partly due to the fact that close relatives of the tomato in the Solanaceae family - belladonna and mandrake - are poisonous plants. They say that the enemies of J. Washington even tried to poison him with tomato fruits, considering them poisonous. The cook, acting in concert with the intruders, prepared a dish with tomato slices. George Washington, contrary to the expectations of the conspirators, began to praise the new dish. In the XVI-XVII centuries. in Europe, the tomato was an inhabitant only of botanical gardens and pharmaceutical gardens. Tomato flowers were in particular demand among European fashionistas. Appearing at a social event with a tomato inflorescence attached to a corsage was considered the highest chic for a lady. Concerns about the poisonous properties of the tomato turned out to be in vain. Unlike its relatives in the family, which do accumulate large amounts of toxic alkaloids, the tomato contains the much less toxic alkaloid tomatine. However, to this day, some people in Sri Lanka, India, and the Philippines believe that eating large amounts of tomatoes can cause indigestion. The tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) is the most common vegetable plant in the world.
Tomato is most often cultivated as an annual herbaceous plant, but there are also biennial and perennial forms. In height, it reaches 2 m or more. Bushes have either thick erect stems (especially in standard varieties), or, more often, decumbent. The stems are strongly pubescent, the hairs covering them emit a characteristic odor when damaged. Branching in tomato is sympodial, although at the base of the stem it can be monopodial. In the first case, the apical bud forms an inflorescence or, more rarely, dies, then a new shoot grows from the axillary bud. On each shoot, leaves are formed at several nodes, and it ends with an inflorescence; then this cycle is repeated. Unpaired leaves are placed on the shoot in a spiral. Each leaf consists of 7-9 lobes, arranged oppositely or alternately, sometimes they are dissected at the base (in a variety of large-leaved tomato - var. grandifolium - whole leaves). Smaller leaflets are placed between large lobes. In tomato, the following types of bush are distinguished: indeterminate (brushes on the stem are formed after 3 or more leaves) and determinant (brushes are formed after 1-2 leaves). There are also intermediate - semi-determinant - forms. Lateral shoots, called stepchildren, are most intensively formed in the axils of the lower leaves. The powerful tap root of the plant is often damaged during transplantation, and a dense lobe of lateral and adventitious roots develops to replace it. Bisexual flowers in a tomato are collected in an inflorescence extra-axillary curl. The productivity of the plant depends on the number of flowers in the inflorescence, as well as on the number of inflorescences on the plant. The fruit of the tomato is a multi-seed multi-seeded berry. For its setting, it is necessary that the fertilization of the ovules occurs. However, parthenocarpic formation of fruits is also possible, that is, without fertilization. Therefore, there are varieties on the plants of which seedless fruits are formed. This feature is controlled genetically, but the ability to induce parthenocarpy is also characteristic of some chemicals, in particular, auxins, which belong to the class of physiologically active substances. When ripe, each fruit goes through several phases, during which its color changes - from green to blange, brown, pink and, finally, red (botanical ripeness). Some varieties (Moneymaker, White filling) do not have a phase when the fruits are colored green. Ripening in this case is more even. The life forms represented by tomato plants are quite diverse. There are also liana-like plants - for example, the De Barao variety, under favorable conditions, can reach a height of 5-10 m, and dwarf forms, in which 1-2 brushes are formed on each plant. The weaker the growth, the less the plant branches, the weakest branching in determinant varieties. With an increase in the yield load, branching decreases. In culture, three varieties of tomato are most common: common (Lycopersicon esculentum var. vulgare), standard (Lycopersicon esculentum var. validum), large-leaved (Lycopersicon esculentum var. grandifolium).
The shape and size of the tomato fruit are important. Commercial varieties are characterized by fruits of medium size weighing 70-120 g. Large fruits are usually more affected by diseases, which leads to higher yield losses. For the canning industry, small-fruited forms with a relatively high content of solids are more suitable. For whole-fruit canning, varieties with small plum-like fruits are used; tomato paste is best prepared from fleshy fruits. The fruits of a tomato can be smooth and ribbed, the latter, as a rule, multi-chambered. A very ribbed fruit, for example, is characteristic of the polycenturial tomato species (Lycopersicon suscenturiatum). It has long been observed that the ripening of fruits is accelerated by the action of ethylene. The ripening of tomatoes after harvest is based on this effect. Ethylene is emitted in small quantities by the fruits themselves, however, if its concentration is increased artificially (for example, in a storage chamber), then ripening will accelerate. In some countries, they practice spraying plantations with ethylene producers - special preparations, ethylene. A large number of works have been done on the selection and genetics of tomatoes. One of the first chromosome maps of plants was drawn up specifically for the tomato. Intensive selection work is aimed at increasing crop yields, as well as improving other economically useful traits. An increase in crop yield is associated with an increase in the productivity of individual plants. An important factor determining productivity is the energy of fruit formation. Environmental conditions greatly influence the formation of fruits in plants. For example, the optimal night temperature for fruit formation in a tomato is 15-20 ° C. This is one reason why crop yields are limited in the tropics, where temperatures rarely drop below 20°C even during the winter months. The productivity of tomatoes largely depends on the resistance of plants to various diseases. The most common disease in the tropics is bacterial wilt (the causative agent of Pseudomonas nightshade - Pseudomonas solanacearum) can lead to the death of 30 to 100% of the crop. In some countries, late blight causes serious damage to tomatoes, and in greenhouse culture, plants suffer from cladosporiosis. Tomato is also susceptible to viral diseases. Great damage, especially in the tropics, is caused by nematodes living in the soil. Breeding programs are aimed primarily at creating varieties that are resistant to diseases (wild tomato species are often donors of resistance here, for example, hairy tomato (Lycopersicon hirsutum), Peruvian tomato (Lycopersicon peruvianum), Currant tomato (Lycopersicon pimpinellifolium) with improved fruit formation and fruit quality . At present, there are already numerous varieties and hybrids of tomato of different shape, fruit color, acidity to meet certain needs of the processing industry and consumers. Sometimes, especially in countries with a hot climate, it is important to delay the ripening of fruits so that they retain high commercial qualities longer. Mutants have been found whose fruits meet these requirements. In plants with the rin gene, the formed fruits remain firm and retain high consumer qualities for several months after harvest. The presence of the nor gene inhibits the formation of carotene and the softening of fruit tissues, so they retain their green color for a long time. Another important feature used in the creation of some varieties is the determinant nature of growth. Plants of these varieties are compact, with often arranged brushes, which makes them very convenient for machine harvesting. In the tropics, they are often grown in the aisles of young plants of sugar cane and corn. Varieties with a determinate habit, among which there are dwarfs that form only one brush, are of interest for growing in thickened crops. In greenhouse culture in European countries, predominantly indeterminate varieties are grown with unlimited plant growth and an extended fruiting period. Another illustrative example of the invasion of breeders in the "design" of a new plant is the creation of tomato varieties, the fruits of which are attached to the stalk without articulation. Unlike conventional cranked cultivars, whose fruits are severely damaged by mechanized harvesting, new tomato varieties are well preserved by this method of harvesting. Thus, in our time, not only engineers, creating agricultural machines, take into account the characteristics of plants, but also breeders, deducing new varieties, adapt them to machines. An important reserve for increasing the yield of tomatoes is the use of hybrids. In addition to high productivity, hybrid plants also have increased disease resistance, ecological plasticity, and higher technological qualities of fruits. Tomatoes are grown in the tropics mainly through seedlings. It is prepared in special nurseries. Seeds are sown on ridges or in nutrient cubes. Sometimes the tomato is propagated by cuttings, but in this case it is imperative to make sure that the mother plants are not carriers of viral diseases. Some kind of shelter is often arranged above the nursery to protect the plants from wind, sun, or heavy rainfall. Plants 8-10 cm high are planted in rows on ridges or ridges. The distance between rows is 75-90 cm, between plants in a row - 30-50 cm. Sometimes a two-line planting scheme is used. In areas where the soil is heavily infested with bacterial wilt pathogens or nematodes, direct seeding is best. In some countries, tomato grafting may be important to increase resistance to root rot. Sowing in Egypt is carried out in January - February and June - July, in Sudan - in August - November. In Southeast Asia, sowing dates are October-November and March-April. In India, on the flat terrain, the tomato is grown in 3 terms. Plants can grow with or without supports, using stakes driven into the ground or a trellis. When grown on supports, the plants stepchild. Aisles are useful to mulch. The culture is characterized by a relatively high water consumption up to fruit formation. Irregular watering, combined with insufficient calcium in the soil (due to which its supply to the plant is limited), can cause a disease called blossom end rot. During the fruiting period, this can also lead to cracking of the fruit. During the growing season, plants are fed. Tomato culture in many countries is largely mechanized. Plants are grown according to special technologies using a set of machines that make it possible to reduce labor costs (including during harvesting) to a minimum. Fruit ripening in indeterminate varieties begins 70-100 days after planting, in determinant varieties after about 60. Sometimes the fruits are removed from the plants green and ripened in the heat for a few more days. Authors: Baranov V.D., Ustimenko G.V.
Tomato (tomato), Solanum lycopersicum. Botanical description of the plant, area, methods of application, cultivation
The name "tomato" comes from the Italian pomo d'oro - "golden apple". The word "tomato" goes back to the Aztec name for the plant "tomatl" through the French tomate. At the moment, in Russian, both names are equal. In the work "The General History of the Affairs of New Spain" (1547-1577), Bernardino de Sahagún, relying on the Aztec information about the properties of plants, first cited various information about the tomato (shitomatl), in particular, that "an eye thorn disease that occurs in children, you need to treat caviar of a small lizard, and mix it with soot or water, and drip a few drops of this mixture into the eyes, or take matlali verdigris and mix with a tomato, and drip a few drops into them ... Runny nose in newborns is necessary treat with morning dew by putting a few drops into the noses of the said children, or the milk of their mothers, or the juice of a special root, which in the local language is called simatl, or by passing a finger dipped in tomato or in salt. In the middle of the 1692th century, the tomato came to Spain and Portugal, and then to France, Italy and other European countries. For a long time, tomatoes were considered inedible and even poisonous. European gardeners bred them as an exotic ornamental plant. The earliest recipe for a tomato dish was published in a cookbook in Naples in XNUMX, with the author referring to the fact that this recipe comes from Spain. In the XNUMXth century, the tomato came to Russia, where it was also first cultivated as an ornamental plant, since the berries did not fully ripen. The plant was recognized as a vegetable food crop thanks to the Russian agronomist A.T. Bolotov, who managed to achieve full ripeness of tomatoes using the seedling method of growing and the ripening method. Tomato is an annual herbaceous plant with an erect or decumbent branching stem from 30 cm to 2 m or more in height. It has a highly developed root system of the rod type. The roots are branched, grow and form quickly, go into the ground to a great depth (with a seedless culture up to 1 m or more), spreading in diameter by 1,5-2,5 m. In the presence of moisture and nutrition, additional roots can form on any part of the stem, so the tomato can be propagated not only by seeds, but also by cuttings and side shoots (stepchildren). Put in water, they form roots in a few days. The leaves of the tomato are pinnate, dissected into large lobes, sometimes of the potato type. The flowers are small, inconspicuous, yellow in various shades, collected in a brush. Tomato is an optional self-pollinator: in one flower there are both male and female organs. The fruits are juicy multi-celled berries of various shapes (from flat-round to cylindrical). They can be small (weighing up to 50 g), medium (51-100 g) and large (over 100 g, sometimes up to 800 g or more). Fruit color varies from pale pink to bright red and crimson, from white, light green, light yellow to golden yellow. The difference between the scientific and everyday (culinary) ideas about fruits, berries, fruits, vegetables in the case of a tomato (as well as some other plants, such as cucumbers) leads to confusion. Tomatoes - the fruits of a tomato - from the point of view of botany - multi-cell syncarp berries. By the way, in English there is no difference between the terms fruit and fruit (both words are fruit). In 1893, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously ruled that tomatoes should be considered vegetables for customs duties (although the court noted that botanically speaking, tomatoes are fruits.). In 2001, the European Union decided that tomatoes are not vegetables, but fruits. The birthplace of tomatoes is South America, where wild and semi-cultivated forms of tomato are still found. On the rest of the continents, only cultivars and forms of tomatoes are found, all of them are grown both on an industrial scale and in private farms. Discarded rotten tomatoes often give rise to feral plants that can grow for many years in landfills, on roadsides, in the vicinity of settlements, regularly renewing with seeds. Tomato fruits are distinguished by high nutritional, taste and dietary qualities. Calorie content of ripe fruits (energy value) - 19 kcal. They contain 4-8% dry matter, in which the main place is occupied by sugars (1,5-6% of the total mass of fruits), represented mainly by glucose and fructose, proteins (0,6-1,1%), organic acids ( 0,5%), fiber (0,84%), pectin (up to 0,3%), starch (0,07-0,3%), minerals (0,6%). Tomato fruits have a high content of carotenoids (phytoene, neurosporin, lycopene, non-alicopene, carotene (0,8-1,2 mg / 100 g of wet weight), lycosanthin, lycophyll), vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B5), folic and ascorbic acid (15-45 mg / 100 g of wet weight), organic (citric, malic, oxalic, tartaric, succinic, glycolic), high molecular weight fatty (palmitic, stearic, linoleic) and phenolcarboxylic (p-coumaric, caffeic, ferulic) acids . Anthocyanins, stearins, triterpene saponins, abscisic acid were found in fruits. The choline present in tomatoes lowers blood cholesterol, prevents fatty degeneration of the liver, increases the body's immune properties, and promotes the formation of hemoglobin. Tomato ash contains salts (%): potassium - 38,1, sodium - 17, phosphorus - 9,4, magnesium - 8,6, calcium - 6,1, as well as iron, sulfur, silicon, chlorine, iodine, vanadium , cobalt, zinc and others. Tomato today is one of the most popular food crops in the world due to its valuable nutritional and dietary qualities, a wide variety of varieties, and high responsiveness to the cultivation methods used. It is cultivated in open ground, under film shelters, in greenhouses, greenhouses, on balconies, loggias and even in rooms on windowsills. Tomato fruits are eaten fresh, boiled, fried, canned, they are used to prepare tomato paste, tomato puree, tomato juice, lecho, ketchup and other sauces. In Spain, cold tomato soups are popular - gazpacho, salmorejo. Tomatoes are pickled for the winter. The most rich in lycopene and other nutrients are dried tomatoes, which are added to soups. For 4-10 days of drying in the sun, cherry tomatoes lose 88% of their weight, and large-fruited tomatoes - up to 93%. To get a kilogram of dried tomatoes, it takes from 8 to 14 kg of fresh fruit.
Tomato varieties are characterized according to various criteria:
The most common varieties of non-standard tomato, which have thin stems, lodging under the weight of the fruit, and large, slightly corrugated leaves; bushes can be both dwarf and tall. Varieties of standard tomato are quite numerous. The stems of the plants are thick, the leaves are medium in size, with short petioles and contiguous lobes, strongly corrugated; little stepchildren are formed. Bushes are compact - from dwarf to srednerosly. Semi-stem varieties of tomato have been bred, occupying an intermediate position between the indicated groups. Varieties of the potato type, named for the similarity of its leaves with potatoes, are very few. According to the type of bush growth, tomato varieties are divided into deterministic (weak) and indeterminate (tall). In determined varieties, the main stem and lateral shoots stop growing after the formation of 2-6, sometimes more racemes on the stem. The stem and all shoots end in a flower brush. Stepchildren are formed only in the lower part of the stem. The bush is small or medium in size (60-180 cm). In addition to the typically determined varieties, superdeterministic varieties are also distinguished, in which plants stop growing after the formation of 2-3 racemes on the main stem (all shoots end in inflorescences and form a highly branched small bush; the second wave of growth is noted after most of the fruits have ripened; the first inflorescence is formed at a height of 7- 8th leaf), as well as semi-deterministic, whose plants are characterized by stronger, almost unlimited growth - form 8-10 brushes on one stem. In indeterminate tomato varieties, plant growth is unlimited. The main stem ends with a flower brush (the first brush is formed above the 9-12 leaf), and the stepson, growing from the axil of the leaf closest to the apical brush, continues the growth of the main stem. After the formation of several leaves, the stepson ends its growth by laying a flower bud, and the growth of the plant continues at the expense of the nearest stepson. This happens until the end of the growing season, which usually ends with the first autumn frost. The bush is tall (2 m or more), but the rate of flowering and fruit formation is lower than that of tomatoes of determinate varieties, stretched.
Tomato. The birthplace of the plant, the history of distribution and cultivation
Imagine that you are a conquistador! Here you are stepping on the coast of South America. Looking around. Around - huge trees, fragrant flowers, fragrant herbs, birds with colorful feathers. And here are the bronze-skinned Nahuatlaca Indians going about their business. Some of them eat some kind of fruit - not very large, golden in color, ribbed. They give you a try. - What it is? you ask. “Tomatl,” the imaginary Indians answer. The ships of the conquistadors - not imaginary, but real - brought tomatl, that is, tomatoes, to Europe. Here, the Italians especially liked them - but not in taste, but in beauty. They began to grow. After a few decades, under new conditions, the fruits became rounded, many also changed color to red. The name has also changed, but it was based on just the old color. The Italian physician and botanist Pietro Mattioli wrote in 1554 that this plant produces fruits "like roundish apples - first green, then golden and red. They are usually called "pomi d'or". Pomi d'or means "golden apples". And if without translation, then it will turn out "pomy d'or" - a tomato! And in 1554, talking about tomatoes, Mattioli continued: "They are sometimes eaten." Sometimes! And what did they do with them the rest of the time? Tomatoes were grown as ornamental plants, sometimes as indoor flowers - on the windows in clay pots. Tomatoes were treated: it was believed that they help with scabies and eye diseases. They were given to each other as a sign of tender feelings, and in France they even called rotte d'amoure - "pom d'amour", the apple of love. And this is why? What kind of special love properties do tomatoes have? Yes, none. Most likely, those Frenchmen who first saw tomatoes misheard the Italian name and gave their own, similar in sound. Where there is pomi d'or, there is pom d'amour. And for the gallant French, this name turned out to be closer and more pleasant. Gradually, tomatoes, tomatoes, golden apples, and love apples, whatever you want to call them, found more practical uses. Our agronomist Vasily Levshin, who worked at the very beginning of the XNUMXth century, in his book "Ogorodnik" already gave quite specific advice: "We should sow tomatoes in greenhouses in early spring, after which, when they are old enough for transplantation, plant them on an open ridge ". And the gallant French began to think not only about love, but also about the stomach. Although not without some reservations. A French dictionary of plants for 1803 states that tomatoes "can be eaten like cucumbers, although their fruit is offensive." Very often, the unusual seems unpleasant to people. That's the way a person is. By the way, it was from France that tomatoes returned to their historical homeland - to America. One French artist brought tomatoes to the New York area. However, he was never able to convince the locals to try the unknown fruits - they were considered poisonous. The opinion about the toxicity of tomatoes lasted in the United States for a surprisingly long time. It was common even among professional botanists. The secretary of the Connecticut Agronomic Board reported: "We grew our first tomatoes in 1832 as a curiosity, but did not eat them, although we heard that the French do it." As they say, tomatoes received citizenship rights in the United States by accident. In 1840, an unsuccessful attempt was made on the life of President Martin Van Buren. Having bribed the cooks, the attacker threw several pieces of tomato into the dish of the head of state, confident that this terrible poison would kill the president. But he not only remained unharmed, but also expressed a desire that the unusual additive would henceforth often be part of the dishes prepared for him. So the tomatoes were rehabilitated. Since then, even the Americans have not been afraid to eat them. Do not be afraid, and you Signora Tomato. Take an imaginary tomato. Cut it up. Throw it in a bowl that already contains an imaginary potato. A little more patience, and our imaginary salad will be ready. Great, we finished with Signor Tomato! Author: Gol N.
Gray dust of tomatoes. Featured article
At the end of the XNUMXth century, a cabbage butterfly fell on cabbage. Since there were no pesticides in those days, expert gardeners mainly exchanged experience. So, in one garden, several tomato plants settled between cabbages. They themselves settled. When the plot was weeded, they took pity on it and saved it. And then put, as always, stakes. Meanwhile, cabbage butterflies appeared and began to "process" cabbage. And then the owner of the garden noticed: there were no butterflies on the ridge where the tomatoes had penetrated. As if the ridge was covered with an invisible grid. Butterflies darted all over the garden, settling on everything else: onions and celery, carrots and parsley, even on prickly, rough lashes of cucumbers. But not for tomatoes! With them, the butterflies always kept some distance. It happened several times that gusts of wind brought cabbages to tomatoes. And then, fluttering their white wings, they hurried to get away from the unpleasant neighborhood. The surprised owner once gratefully stroked the stems and leaves of his defenders with his palm. There was a grey-green mark on the fingers. The palm smelled sharp and unpleasant. Maybe this smell drove away annoying butterflies? However, he was not yet as poor with cabbage as he was with turnips and radishes. The earthen flea ate them clean. The turnip had to be resown. Wise with experience, the owner planted tomato bushes next to the root crops. And - it happened! A flea on a turnip has never been seen since. Other gardeners, of course, immediately began to implement this experience in their plots. And as a result, some thanked from the bottom of their hearts, others scolded him abusively: the tomatoes did not help. The pests did not disappear... One of the gardeners came to the rescue. And he explained it this way. The same tomato bush may or may not help. The main thing here is at what age to expect help from him. A young bush will not save you from a pest. The old one is quite different. On the old, a gray-green coating appears over time. He rubs his hands. It's all about it. There is no plaque on young bushes. Such a simple remedy was not used by gardeners, because the tomato itself was under suspicion. Back in the time of Empress Catherine II, it was brought to Russia, but, having tried it, it was rejected. And only in recent decades, the tomato suddenly gained such popularity in the world that it overtook all vegetables and fruits in terms of fruit collection. He left far behind watermelons, apples and even cabbage. And only the grapes are yet to come. But the difference between them is small, and who knows if he will overtake him in ten years? Indeed, over the current decade, grapes have multiplied their ranks by only one tenth, and tomatoes have tripled! With such a rapid growth in production, of course, there are still many unresolved problems. Some gardeners get 18 kilograms of fruit from a bush, others, with the most careful care, three times less. The laggards try to use different tricks. So, the 80-year-old gardener A. Simonov began to cover them with roofing paper to insulate the beds. I planted tomato bushes in the holes. The ground under the roof warmed up better. In addition, no weeding was required, and there was less watering. He decided to place the fruit brush in a plastic bag to protect it from all evil spirits. However, he was out of luck here. The fruits are rotten. Then the idea came to replace the film with a bag of crispy potatoes. The replacement was successful. The fruits stopped hurting, began to ripen and pour much faster. Resourcefulness helped Simonov grow a variety of varieties. He has 100 different ones every year. There are even brown and black fruits. It seems that not a single vegetable crop knows such a variety of varieties in household plots. Author: Smirnov A. Tomato. Basic information about the plant, use in medicine and cooking
Tomato fruits are rich in a wide variety of vitamins, citric and malic acids, iron salts. All these compounds heal and tone the skin and improve its elasticity and softness. With normal and dry skin, masks made from fresh fruit pulp are especially useful. A fresh tomato is peeled, a mushy mass is prepared, squeezed through gauze to remove the seeds, mixed with oatmeal and a mask cream is obtained. Sometimes oatmeal is replaced with half an egg yolk and a few pinches of starch. With oily skin, you can make a mask of pure tomato gruel. Often the fruits are cut into circles and cover the face and neck with them for 15-20 minutes. During this time, the juice will be absorbed into the skin, giving it softness and elasticity, remove and smooth wrinkles, whiten spots (freckles) and darkening. Massage of oily skin with tomato halves is useful. Before the massage, the face is thoroughly washed with warm water and soap. The skin of the hands will not darken when peeling potatoes and other vegetables, if you first wipe your hands with tomato juice or the juice of a fresh crushed tomato. During cleaning, you need to rinse your hands as necessary in water, to which a little tomato juice is added. If you forgot about this rule, you can wipe your hands several times with tomato juice after cleaning and rinse with soft or boiled water. After cleaning and cooking onions and garlic, hands are rubbed with half a tomato and washed in cold water. Meat is faster and easier to stew if you add a little tomato puree. Colored noodles are obtained if tomato puree is added to flour instead of water at the rate of 125 g per 250 g of flour. Author: Reva M.L. Tomato. Interesting plant facts
One of the funniest mistakes made by Old World botanists is the tomato story. All the plants of the nightshade family they knew before, and there are less than a dozen of them in the Old World, were poisonous to varying degrees. The first European botanist, who mentioned the tomato in 1554, the Italian Pietro Andrea Mattiolli, because of the large fruits, first attributed it to the mandrake genus, famous for its poisonousness. And since yellow-colored tomatoes came to Europe, they received the Italian name "pomo d'oro" - a golden apple. Later, the tomato was assigned to the genus nightshade and named Solanum lycopersicum (wolf peach nightshade). And its modern name is no better - Lycopersicum aesculentum - edible wolf peach. Beautiful tomato fruits, hanging in elegant clusters, aroused interest among flower lovers, and new ornamental plants firmly established themselves in the collections of botanical gardens and flowerbeds. The French called them "pom d'amour" - the apple of love. Which of the Europeans was the first to try the tomato and when it happened is unknown, but as far back as the 1780th century this plant was of little use as a food. In 1572, the Russian ambassador to France reported to Catherine II that French vagabonds were eating tomatoes from the flower beds and did not seem to suffer from this. Moreover, even in America, on the continent where the Peruvian and Mexican Indians have long grown tomatoes (the name "tumatl" after the Mexicans was first used in 1776 by the Italian scientist Gilandini), the tomato was considered poisonous until the middle of the XNUMXth century. And so poisonous that in XNUMX, during the American struggle for independence, George Washington's cook tried to poison him with meat cooked with tomatoes. The cook himself was so frightened by what he had done that he cut his own throat in fear of punishment, and George Washington, after tasting the tomato sauce, was both alive and satisfied. This is how the botanists, who were smart with tomatoes, frightened the Europeans for a long time with their imaginary poisonousness. The tomato boom in the world began only after the First World War - more than 350 years after the first acquaintance of Europeans with tomatoes. Author: Zamyatina N.
Tomato (tomato), Solanum lycopersicum. Recipes for use in traditional medicine and cosmetology
Ethnoscience:
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Tomato (tomato), Solanum lycopersicum. Tips for growing, harvesting and storing
Tomato or tomato is an annual or perennial herbaceous plant. It is cultivated as a vegetable crop for its edible fruits - juicy multi-celled berries of various shapes and colors, also called tomatoes or tomatoes. Tips for growing, harvesting and storing: Cultivation:
Workpiece:
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