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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Zoopsychology. Animal psychology as a science (lecture notes)
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents (expand) Topic 1. Animal psychology as a science 1.1. History of zoopsychology Animal psychology from ancient times to the creation of the first evolutionary doctrine. Currently, the science of animal behavior - zoopsychology - is experiencing a period of active development. Over the past ten years alone, a number of new magazines have appeared, as well as Internet sites devoted to the problems of zoopsychology; numerous articles reflecting the development of the main branches of this science are published in periodicals on biology and psychology. The study of animal behavior has attracted the attention of scientists at all stages of the development of human society. The science of animal behavior was created and developed by scientists who sometimes held diametrically opposed views on the nature of the same phenomena. Probably, in the way of studying these phenomena, in their interpretation, all existing philosophical systems, as well as religious views, were reflected. It is traditional to divide the history of zoopsychology into two periods: 1) before Charles Darwin created the theory of evolution in 1859; 2) the period after Darwin. The term “scientific zoopsychology” is often used for the latter period, thereby emphasizing that before the development of evolutionary teaching, this science did not have a serious basis and therefore could not be considered independent. Nevertheless, many prominent scientists of antiquity and the Middle Ages can rightfully be classified as zoopsychologists. One of the main questions that occupied the minds of researchers of antiquity was the question of whether there is a difference between the complex activity of animals and the rational activity of man. It was over this issue that the first clashes of philosophical schools took place. Thus, the ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus (341-270 BC) and his followers, especially the Roman poet, philosopher and scholar Lucretius (V century BC, the main work "On the Nature of Things"), argued that the animal, like man, has a soul, but at the same time they definitely defended the position of the materiality of such a "soul". Lucretius himself repeatedly said that the expedient actions of animals are the result of a kind of natural selection, since only animals with useful properties for the body can survive in changing conditions. In contrast to the views of materialists, ancient Greek philosophers Socrates (470-399 BC) and Plato (427-347 BC) considered the soul as a divine phenomenon, not associated with the body. According to Plato, the soul is noticeably older than the body, and the souls of man and animals are different, since the human soul has a purely mental power. Animals, on the other hand, have only the lowest form of the soul - motivation, attraction. Later, on the basis of this worldview, the first ideas about instincts were formed. Most modern zoopsychologists are inclined to think that the very idea of instinct was born on the basis of an idealistic opposition between the soul of man and animal. The first naturalist among the philosophers of antiquity can rightfully be called the ancient Greek scientist and philosopher Aristotle (485-423 BC, treatise "On the Soul"). His views on the problems of the soul in man and animals were markedly different from those of his predecessors. Aristotle ascribed to man an immortal "reasonable soul" - the embodiment of the divine spirit. According to Aristotle, only the soul animates the perishable matter (body), but only the body is capable of sensory impressions and attractions. Unlike man, endowed with reason, the ability to know and free will, animals have only a mortal "sensual soul". However, Aristotle made a reservation for mammals, believing that all animals with red blood and giving birth to live young have the same five senses as humans. Throughout life, the behavior of animals is aimed at self-preservation and procreation, but it is motivated by desires and drives, sensations of pleasure or pain. But among other animals, Aristotle believed, there are rational animals, because the mind is expressed in different animals to varying degrees. Reasonable animals, in addition to the general features of behavior inherent in animals as a whole, are capable of understanding the purpose of any of their actions. The uniqueness of Aristotle's teachings also lies in the fact that when studying the behavior of animals, he relied on specific observations. In ants, which he studied for many years, the scientist noticed the dependence of their activity on external factors, in particular on lighting. He pointed to the ability to learn from each other in a number of mammals and birds, described cases of sound communication between animals, especially during the breeding season. In addition, Aristotle was the first to conduct experiments on living objects, trying to better understand all the subtleties of animal behavior. For example, he noticed that after the removal of the chicks from their parents, they learn to sing differently than the latter, and from this he deduced the conclusion that the ability to sing is not an acquired natural gift, but arises only in the learning process. Aristotle first began to separate the innate and acquired components of behavior. He noted in many animals the ability for individual learning and memorization of what was learned, which he attached great importance to. The teachings of Aristotle found continuation and further development in the teachings of the Stoics, although in some respects there are also significant differences. The Stoics, in particular the ancient Greek philosopher Chrysippus (280-206 BC), for the first time give a definition of instinct. Instinct is understood by them as an innate, purposeful attraction that directs the movements of the animal to the pleasant, useful and takes it away from the harmful and dangerous. Indicative were experiments with ducklings hatched by a hen, which, nevertheless, at the moment of danger tried to hide in the water. As other examples of instinctive behavior, Chrysippus referred to nest building and caring for offspring in birds, the construction of honeycombs in bees, the ability of a spider to weave a web. According to the Stoics, animals perform all these actions unconsciously, since they simply do not have a mind. Animals carry out instinctive actions without understanding the meaning of their activity, on the basis of purely innate knowledge. It is especially significant, according to the Stoics, that the same actions were performed by all animals of the same species in the same way. Thus, already in the writings of ancient thinkers, the main problems of animal behavior were touched upon: issues of innate and acquired behavior, instinct and learning, as well as the role of external and internal factors in the mental activity of animals were discussed. Oddly enough, the most accurate concepts were born at the junction of two diametrically opposed areas of philosophy, such as the materialistic and idealistic understanding of the essence of mental activity. The teachings of Aristotle, Plato, Socrates and other thinkers of antiquity were ahead of their time in many ways, laying the foundation for zoopsychology as an independent science, although it was still very far from its true birth. Animal psychology in the 18th-19th centuries. The next significant research in the field of animal psychology was made only after a thousand-year gap, when a revival of scientific creativity began during the Middle Ages, but only in the 18th century. the first attempts are being made to study animal behavior on a solid foundation of reliable facts obtained as a result of observations and experiments. It was at this time that numerous works of outstanding scientists, philosophers and naturalists appeared, which had a great influence on the further study of the mental activity of animals. One of the first zoopsychologists can rightfully be considered a French materialist philosopher, a doctor by education J.-O. Lamettry (1709-1751), whose views later had a great influence on the scientific work of J-B. Lamarck. According to Lamettry, instincts are a set of movements performed by animals forcibly, regardless of thought and experience. Lamettry believed that instincts are primarily aimed at the survival of the species and have a strict biological fitness. He did not dwell on the study of the instinctive activity of certain types of animals, but tried to draw parallels, comparing the mental abilities of different mammals, as well as birds, fish, and insects. As a result, Lamettri came to the conclusion about the gradual increase in mental abilities from simpler creatures to more complex ones, and placed man at the top of this peculiar evolutionary ladder. In the middle of the XVIII century. saw the release of the "Treatise on Animals" by the French philosopher and teacher E.B. Condillaca (1715-1780). In this treatise, the scientist specifically considered the question of the origin of animal instincts. Noticing the similarity of instinctive actions with actions that are performed out of habit, Condillac came to the conclusion that instincts arose from rational actions by gradually turning off consciousness. Thus, in his opinion, at the basis of any instinct lies rational activity, which, through constant exercise, became a habit, and only then turned into an instinct. This point of view on the theory of instincts has caused heated debate. One of the ardent opponents of Condillac was a French biologist Sh.Zh. Leroy. In his work “Philosophical Letters on the Mind and the Capacity of Animals for Improvement” (1802), which was published 20 years later than Condillac’s main work, he put forward the task of studying the origin of the mind from the instinct of animals as a result of the repeated action of sensation and memory exercises. Leroy's treatise was based on many years of field research. Being a keen natural scientist, he persistently argued that the mental activity of animals and especially their instincts can be known only with comprehensive knowledge of their natural behavior and taking into account their way of life. Simultaneously with Leroy, another great French naturalist was studying the instincts of animals. J.L. Buffon (1707-1788, "Histoire naturelle des animaux", 1855). Having based his research on fieldwork experiences, Buffon for the first time was able to correctly interpret the results of his research, avoiding anthropomorphic interpretations of behavior. Anthropomorphic scientists tried to explain the behavior of animals, endowing them with purely human qualities. According to them, animals can experience love, hate, shame, jealousy and other similar qualities. Buffon proved that this is not so, and that many of the actions of animals cannot be found adequate "human" explanations. According to the teachings of Buffon, animals, in particular mammals, with which the naturalist mainly worked, are characterized by various forms of mental activity, such as sensations and habits, but not understanding the meaning of their actions. In addition, animals, according to Buffon, are able to communicate, but their language expresses only sensory experiences. Buffon insisted on the connection between environmental influences and the internal state of the animal, seeing this as the determining factor in its behavior. He drew attention to the fact that the mental qualities of an animal, its ability to learn, play the same, if not more important, role in the survival of the species, as well as physical qualities. All Buffon's concepts, built on real facts, entered the unified system of natural science he created and became the basis of the future science of the behavior and psyche of animals. In his later treatises, Buffon argued that the complex actions of animals are the result of a combination of innate natural functions that give the animal pleasure, and habits. This concept, which was based on numerous field observations and experiments, largely anticipated the development of zoopsychology, giving food for thought to future researchers. The further development of zoopsychology as a science is closely connected with another area of biology - the theory of evolutionary teaching. The urgent task of biologists was to identify which traits are inherited in behavior, and which are formed as a result of environmental influences, which trait is universal, species, and which is individually acquired, and also what is the significance of different components of animal behavior in the process of evolution, where line between man and animal. If until that time, due to the dominance of metaphysical views in biology, the instincts of animals seemed to be in an unchanged state from the moment they arose, now, based on evolutionary theories, it was possible to explain the origin of the instincts and show their variability using specific examples. The first evolutionary doctrine was proposed at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. French naturalist J.-B. Lamarck (1744-1829, "Philosophy of Zoology"). This doctrine was not yet a holistic, complete study and in many respects lost to the later concepts of Charles Darwin, but it was it that served as a new impetus for the further development of zoopsychology. Lamarck based his evolutionary conception on the idea of the guiding action of the mental factor. He believed that the external environment affects the animal organism indirectly, by changing the behavior of the animal. As a result of this influence, new needs arise, which in turn entail changes in the structure of the body through greater exercise of some and non-exercise of other organs. Thus, according to Lamarck, any physical change is based primarily on behavior, that is, he, following E.B. Condillac defined mental activity as the basis of the very existence of an animal. Lamarck argued that even the most complex manifestations of mental activity developed from simpler ones and should be studied precisely in a comparative evolutionary plan. Nevertheless, he was a strict materialist and denied the existence of any special spiritual principle, not related to the physical structure of the animal and not amenable to natural scientific study. All mental phenomena, according to Lamarck, are closely connected with material structures and processes, and therefore these phenomena are cognizable by experience. Lamarck attached particular importance to the connection of the psyche with the nervous system. According to many psychologists, it was Lamarck who laid the foundations of comparative psychology, comparing the structure of the nervous system of animals with the nature of their mental activity at different levels of phylogenesis. Lamarck also gave one of the first definitions of instinct, which for a long time was considered classical: “Animal instinct is an inclination that attracts (animal - Author), caused by sensations based on the needs that arise due to their needs and compels them to perform actions without any participation of thought, without any participation of the will." [1] Lamarck argued that the instinctive behavior of animals is changeable and closely related to the environment. According to him, instincts arose in the process of evolution as a result of long-term effects on the body of certain agents of the environment. These directed actions led to the improvement of the entire organization of the animal through the formation of useful habits, which were fixed as a result of repeated repetition. Lamarck talked about the inheritance of habits, and often even habits acquired within the same generation, since no one could yet give an exact answer how long it takes for an animal to form one instinct or another under the influence of certain exercises. But at the same time, Lamarck argued that many instincts are extremely tenacious and will be passed on from generation to generation until any cardinal change occurs in the life of the population. Lamarck saw in the instincts of animals not manifestations of some mysterious supernatural force lurking in the body, but the natural reactions of the latter to environmental influences formed in the process of evolution. At the same time, instinctive actions also have a pronounced adaptive character, since it is precisely the components of behavior that are beneficial to the body that are gradually fixed. However, the instincts themselves were considered by Lamarck as the changeable properties of the animal. Thus, Lamarck's views compare favorably with the views on instinct that are encountered to this day as the embodiment of some purely spontaneous internal forces that initially have an expedient direction of action. Despite numerous shortcomings and errors, Lamarck's theory is a completely finished work, which later served as the basis for the largest studies of the human and animal psyche, carried out by both Lamarck's followers and his antagonists. It is difficult to overestimate the role of this great natural scientist as the founder of the materialistic study of the mental activity of animals and the development of their psyche in the process of evolution. In many ways, he was ahead of his time and laid the foundation for further study of the evolution of mental activity, continued after some time by Charles Darwin. The development of zoopsychology and the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin. The development of zoopsychology as a science cannot be imagined without the concepts of evolutionary teaching developed by Charles Darwin (1809-1882). Only after the recognition of Darwin's teachings did the idea of a single pattern of development in living nature, of the continuity of the organic world, become firmly established in natural science. Darwin paid special attention to the evolution of mental activity in humans and animals. Thus, for his main work “The Origin of Species” (1859), he wrote a separate chapter “Instinct”, at the same time the fundamental work “The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals” (1872), a series of separate articles on animal behavior, was published. Darwin used a comparison of instincts in animals and humans, trying, on the basis of this comparison, to prove the commonality of their origin. He was the first among biological scientists to separate rational actions associated with the experience of individuals from instinctive actions transmitted by inheritance. Although Darwin avoided giving a detailed definition of instincts, he nevertheless emphasized that instinct is an action that is performed without prior experience and equally by many individuals to achieve a common goal. Comparing instinct with habit, Darwin said: “It would be a great mistake to think that a significant number of instincts can arise from the habit of one generation and be hereditarily transmitted to subsequent generations.” [2] Darwin emphasized the great role of natural selection in the formation of instincts, noting that during this process there is an accumulation of changes beneficial to the species, which continues until a new form of instinctive behavior arises. In addition, based on the study of the external manifestations of the emotional state of a person, he created the first comparative description of the instincts inherent in both animals and humans. Although the constant comparison of the feelings of man and animals from the outside looks like anthropomorphism, for Darwin it was a recognition of the commonality of the biological foundations of the behavior of animals and humans and provided an opportunity to study their evolution. In his research, Darwin paid little attention to individual learning, since he did not recognize its essential significance for the historical process of the formation of instinctive behavior. At the same time, in his works, he often referred to the highly developed instincts of working individuals of ants and bees, which are not capable of reproduction and, consequently, of transferring accumulated experience to offspring. In his works "The Origin of Species", "The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals", Darwin gave a well-founded natural-scientific explanation of the expediency of animal instincts. He classified instincts in the same way that he classified animal organ systems, emphasizing that natural selection preserves beneficial changes in innate behavior and eliminates harmful ones. This is because any changes in behavior are associated with morphological changes in the nervous system and sensory organs. It is these features of the structure of the nervous system, for example, changes in the structure of the cerebral cortex, that are inherited and subject to variability along with other morphological features. The expediency of instincts, according to Darwin, is the result of natural selection. Darwin spoke in his works about the hierarchy of instincts. He believed that in the process of evolution, certain parts of the brain responsible for instinct have lost the ability to respond to external stimulation in a monotonous, i.e., instinctive manner, and such organisms exhibit more complex forms of behavior. Instinctive actions, according to Darwin, dominate to a greater extent in animals that are on the lower rungs of the evolutionary ladder, and the development of instincts directly depends on the phylogenetic rank of the animal. As later studies have shown, such an interpretation of Darwin is not entirely correct, and the division of mental activity into monotonous and variable components is very arbitrary, since in more complex forms of behavior, any elements of behavior appear in a complex. Accordingly, at each phylogenetic level, these elements will reach the same degree of development. But it took more than a decade to figure it out. And Darwin's teaching itself is a landmark in the development of zoopsychology: for the first time, on the basis of a huge amount of factual material, it was proved that the mental activity of animals is subject to the same natural-historical patterns as all other manifestations of their life activity. The evolutionary teachings of Darwin were positively received by many major scientists of that time: the German biologist E. Haeckel (1834-1919), English biologist and educator T.G. Huxley (1825-1895), German physiologist, psychologist and philosopher W. Wundt (1832-1920), English philosopher and sociologist G. Spencer (1820-1903). Darwin's views on instinct as an innate form of behavior were supported by an American geneticist T.Kh. Morgan (1866-1945), D. romens (1848-1894, "The Mind of Animals", 1888) and many other researchers who continued to develop this theory in their works. Animal psychology in Russia. One of the major Russian evolutionists who worked on the doctrine of instinct simultaneously with Charles Darwin was a professor at Moscow University K.F. steering wheel (1814-1858). He was one of the first Russian scientists who spoke out against the notions of the supernatural nature of instinct. Roulier argued that instincts are an integral part of animal life and should be studied along with anatomy, ecology and physiology. Roulier especially emphasized the relationship of instincts with the habitat of animals, he believed that their emergence and development is closely connected with other manifestations of life, therefore, the study of instincts is impossible without a comprehensive study of all its main manifestations. The origin of instincts and their further development, according to Roulier, were subject to a general biological pattern and were the result of material processes and the influence of the external world on the body. He believed that instinct is a specific reaction developed by living conditions to manifestations of the environment that has formed over the long history of the species. The main factors in the origin of instincts, according to Roulier, are heredity, variability and an increase in the level of organization of the animal in the historical process. Roulier also believed that the instincts of highly developed animals could change in the process of gaining new experience. He especially emphasized the variability of instincts along with the bodily qualities of animals: “Just as cattle degenerates, just as the qualities of a pointer dog, unexercised, become deaf, so the need to fly away for birds that for some reason have not flown away for a long time may be lost: domestic geese and ducks have become sedentary, while their wild relatives are constantly migrating birds. Only occasionally does a domestic drake stray from home, while his girlfriend is sitting on the eggs, begin to run wild, take off and attach itself to wild ducks; only occasionally does such a wild drake fly off in the fall with its relatives to a warm country and next spring he will again appear in the yard where he was hatched." [3] As an example of a complex instinct that changes throughout the life of an animal, Roulier cited the flight of birds. At first, birds fly only because of the instinctive processes that they learned from their parents, and, focusing on adults in the flock, they fly away even before the onset of cold weather, but gradually, accumulating knowledge, they can already lead the birds themselves, choose the best, most calm and feeding places of flight. It should be especially noted that Roulier tried to fill each example of the use of instinct with specific content, he never used this term unfounded, without the application of scientific evidence, which scientists of that time often sinned. He obtained this evidence during numerous field studies, as well as experiments in which he emphasized the role and interaction of environmental factors and physiological processes. It was thanks to this approach that the works of Roulier took a leading place among the works of natural scientists in the mid-XNUMXth century. Further work on the study of instincts, which served to form zoopsychology as a science, dates back to the beginning of the XNUMXth century. It was at this time that the fundamental work of the Russian zoologist and psychologist saw the light V.A. Wagner (1849-1934, "Biological Foundations of Comparative Psychology", 1910-1913). The author, based on a huge amount of material obtained both in the field and in numerous experiments, gave a deep analysis of the problem of instinct and learning. Wagner's experiments affected both vertebrates and invertebrates, which allowed him to draw conclusions about the emergence and development of instincts in different phylogenetic groups. He came to the conclusion that the instinctive behavior of animals arose as a result of natural selection under the influence of the external environment and that instincts cannot be considered immutable. According to Wagner, instinctive activity is a developing plastic activity subject to changes under the influence of external environmental factors. As an illustration of the variability of instinct, Wagner cited his experiments with nest-building in swallows and weaving of trapping nets in spiders. Having studied these processes in detail, the scientist came to the conclusion that, although instinctive behavior is subject to change, all instinctive actions occur within clear species-type limits, it is not the instinctive actions themselves that are stable within the species, but the radius of their variability. In the following decades, many Russian scientists conducted research on the variability of the instinctive behavior of animals and its relationship with learning. For example, the Russian physiologist, student of I.P. Pavlova L.A. Orbeli (1882-1958) analyzed the plasticity of animal behavior depending on the degree of their maturity. Russian ornithologist A.N. Prompts (1898-1948), who studied the behavior of higher vertebrates (birds and mammals), singled out integral conditioned reflex components in their instinctive actions that are formed in the process of ontogenesis, i.e., the individual development of an individual. It is these components, according to Promptov, that determine the plasticity of instinctive behavior (for more details, see 2.1, p. 27). And the interaction of innate components of behavior with conditioned reflexes acquired on their basis during life gives species-typical features of behavior, which Promptov called the "species stereotype of behavior." Promptov's hypothesis was supported and developed by his colleague, a Russian ornithologist E.V. Lukina. As a result of experiments with passerine birds, she proved that young females nesting for the first time in their lives build nests characteristic of their species. But this stereotype may be violated if environmental conditions are atypical. For example, the gray flycatcher, which usually builds nests in semi-hollows, behind loose bark, in the absence of shelters of this kind can build a nest on a horizontal branch, and even on the ground. Here the modification of the nest-building instinct can be traced in relation to the location of the nest. Modifications can also be observed in the replacement of nest-building material. For example, birds living in large cities can use quite unusual materials as nest-building materials: cotton wool, tram tickets, ropes, gauze. Employees of the laboratory of the Polish zoopsychologist R.I. Voytusyaka K. Gromysh and M. Berestynskoy-Vilchek conducted research on the plasticity of the building activity of insects. The first research results were published in the 1960s. Their objects were caterpillars of the species Psyche viciella, in which the process of building a cap was studied, and of the species Autispila stachjanella, in which the plasticity of instinctive behavior was studied when making passages in leaves and cocoons. As a result of numerous experiments, scientists have discovered a huge adaptive variability of instinctive actions, especially when repairing the structures of these insects. It turned out that when repairing houses, the instinctive actions of caterpillars can differ significantly depending on changes in environmental conditions. Promptov's studies, despite their scientific significance, did not provide an objective understanding of such a complex process as the instinctive activity of animals. Promptov was certainly right when he emphasized the importance of the fusion of innate and acquired components in all forms of behavior, but he believed that the plasticity of instinct is ensured only by individual components of a behavioral act. In fact, as Wagner noted, here we are dealing with categories of instinctive behavior that are different in size and significance. In this case, there is a change in innate components, which manifests itself in individual variability of behavior typical of the species, and modification of instinctive behavior under extreme conditions. In addition, there are also acquired and, therefore, the most diverse forms of behavior, in which different forms of learning already play a dominant role, closely intertwined with innate components of behavior. Wagner described all this in detail in his writings, while Promptov's experiments only illustrated the complexity and ambiguity of the formation and development of instinctive behavior in animals. Another major Soviet zoopsychologist of the early XX century. was an academician A.N. Severtsov (1866-1936). In the works "Evolution and the Psyche" (1922) and "The Main Directions of the Evolutionary Process" (1925), he deeply analyzed the fundamental difference between the variability of instinctive and acquired behavior (for more details, see 2.1, p. 28). In the 1940-1960s. Zoopsychology, along with genetics, was declared a pseudoscience in Russia: numerous laboratories were closed, scientists were subjected to mass repression. Only since the mid-1960s. its gradual revival began. It is associated primarily with the names of such major animal psychologists as N.N. Ladygina-Cots (1889-1963) and her student K.E. Fabry (1923-1990), who developed a course of lectures on zoopsychology and ethology for the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University. The main theme of Fabry's work is related to the study of the ontogeny of the behavior and psyche of animals, the evolution of the psyche, the mental activity of primates, and the ethological and biopsychological prerequisites of anthropogenesis. Fabry is the author of the first and still practically unsurpassed textbook on zoopsychology, which has gone through three reprints since 1976. It was thanks to K. Fabry that numerous works on zoopsychology and ethology were translated into Russian, including the classical works of K. Lorenz and N. Tinbergen, the founders of modern ethology. In 1977, a small zoopsychology laboratory was organized on the basis of the Faculty of Psychology of Moscow State University. At present, several dissertations have been defended at the faculty on the orientation and research activities of animals, the study of the motivation for animal games, a comparative analysis of the manipulative activity of different mammalian species, and the ontogeny of the intelligence of anthropoids (great apes). Classical studies are being carried out on anthropogenesis and the evolution of the psyche of great apes and humans. Applied research is also being carried out, the beginning of which was laid by K. Fabry. This, for example, has already become a classic study of the psychology of fish, which for the first time made it possible to change the traditional attitude towards fish - the object of fishing. This study showed that fish are animals with a fairly high level of development of the perceptual psyche, and are able to subtly adapt to the conditions of fishing. The faculty continues teaching activities, publishing textbooks and anthologies - practically the only teaching aids on zoopsychology in Russia. 1.2. Subject, tasks, methods and significance of zoopsychology Zoopsychology is a science that studies the mental activity of animals in all its manifestations. The subject of zoopsychology can be defined as the subject of the science of the manifestations, regularities and evolution of mental reflection at the level of the animal, the origin and development in the onto- and phylogenesis of mental processes in animals and the prerequisites and prehistory of human consciousness. In addition, the subject of zoopsychology is the origin and development of mental activity in animals, and as a result of this, the prerequisites for the emergence and development of human consciousness. The object of zoopsychology is the behavior of animals. In addition to zoopsychology, animal behavior is also studied by other sciences, such as ethology, neurophysiology, physiology of higher nervous activity, and bionics. Animal behavior is understood as a set of manifestations of the external, mainly motor activity of the animal, aimed at establishing the vital connections of the organism with the environment. A zoopsychologist studies the whole complex of manifestations of the behavior and mental activity of an animal, considering the process of mental reflection as a product of its external activity. When studying this process, he is never limited only to the behavior of the animal, trying to consider the entire mental aspect of the emergence and development of this particular type of behavior. Considering the object of zoopsychological research - the behavior of animals, it should be pointed out that zoopsychology, in contrast to classical psychology, where there is only one object of research - a person, has a huge number of objects, the number of which is still not known for certain. Hundreds of new species of animals are described every year in the world. Each species has its own biological and, consequently, mental characteristics, therefore, in order to create a more or less complete database of zoopsychological data, it is necessary to carefully study at least one representative of the family, and at best, the genus. However, modern zoopsychologists are very far from this goal, since only a few dozen species of insects, fish, birds and mammals have been thoroughly and reliably studied, and there is only fragmentary information about the behavior of the vast majority of species. In modern psychology, the term "animal" can only be used in a comparative psychological sense, when it comes to low levels of organization of the psyche as a whole. It is necessary to dwell in more detail on the concepts that zoopsychologists often operate on, namely: the psyche, behavior and mental activity of animals. The psyche is born only at a certain stage in the development of the organic world and is the highest form of reflection of objective reality. The psyche is expressed in the ability of highly organized living beings to reflect the surrounding world with their state. The emergence of the psyche is directly related to the emergence of the animal form of life, since with a change in the conditions of life, there was a need for a qualitatively new reflection of objective reality. The psyche allows a living organism to correlate its activity with the components of the environment, therefore, in order to ensure normal life in changing environmental conditions, the vast majority of animals have a single center for controlling the nervous activity of the body - the brain. The psyche of animals is closely connected with behavior, which refers to all manifestations of external (motor) activity aimed at establishing connections with the environment. Mental reflection is carried out on the basis of this activity during the animal’s influence on the surrounding world. Not only the components of the environment are reflected, but also the behavior of the animal itself, as well as changes in the environment produced as a result of this influence. In the psyche of higher vertebrates, the most complete and profound reflection of surrounding objects occurs precisely as a result of their changes under the influence of the animal’s behavioral acts. As K. Fabry wrote, “it is fair to consider the psyche as a function of the animal organism, consisting in the reflection of objects and phenomena of the surrounding world in the course and result of activity directed towards this world, i.e. behavior. External activity and its reflection, behavior and psyche constitute an inseparable organic unity and can only be conditionally dissected for scientific analysis. As I.M. Sechenov showed, the psyche is born and dies with movement and behavior." [4] Behavior is the root cause of psychic reflection, but although the psyche is a derivative of behavior, it is it that, correcting itself, directs the external activity of the organism in the right direction of interaction with the environment. Adequately reflecting the surrounding world with the help of the psyche, the animal acquires the ability to navigate in it, to build its relationship with the components of the environment. The unity of psyche and behavior is usually expressed by the concept of “mental activity.” Here is what K. Fabry wrote about this: “By the mental activity of animals we understand the entire complex of manifestations of behavior and psyche, a single process of mental reflection as a product of the external activity of the animal. Such an understanding of mental activity, the inextricable unity of the psyche and behavior of animals opens the way for zoopsychology to "true knowledge of their mental processes and to a fruitful study of the paths and patterns of evolution of the psyche. Therefore, taking into account the primacy of behavior in mental reflection, when discussing certain aspects of the mental activity of animals, we will proceed primarily from the analysis of their motor activity in the specific conditions of their life." [5] It was the appearance of behavior together with the animal form of life that caused the transition from unmediated (pre-psychic) external activity to mental reflection, i.e., activity mediated by the reflection of objective activity. The field of activity of the zoopsychologist is at the junction of prepsychic and psychic reflection, at the level of the first manifestations of sensitivity expressed in the most primitive organisms. Further, investigating the mental activity of animals at different stages of evolution, the zoopsychologist reaches the boundary of human consciousness. The human psyche, in comparison with the psyche of animals, is a qualitatively different category, genetically related to the psyche of animals. Although biological factors common with animals continue to play an important role in human behavior, its essence is also significantly influenced by social and labor activity, articulate speech, and some other factors that are absent in animals. Simultaneously with the psychological study of animal behavior, its general biological foundations and regularities are being studied quite widely, especially in recent decades. The science that studies these phenomena is called ethology. Ethologists are primarily interested in the behavior of animals as a factor in their adaptation to environmental conditions in the course of individual development and in the process of evolution. In addition, ethologists are trying to identify patterns of behavior change in the course of phylogenesis and the emergence of new forms of behavior. Thus, ethologists primarily pay attention to the biological roots of behavior and its adaptive significance in the evolutionary process. Zoopsychology and ethology complement each other: the first science studies the mental aspects of animal behavior, the second - the biological ones. These two aspects cannot be separated, since the psyche of animals is a necessary component of both ontogenesis and phylogenesis, regulating the relationship of the organism with the environment. The links between zoopsychologists and neurophysiology and the physiology of higher nervous activity are very significant. Unlike the zoopsychologist, the physiologist does not study the mental reflection itself, but the processes in the body that determine its occurrence. When studying behavior, a physiologist first of all pays attention to the functions of the nervous system, in particular the brain, his main task is to study the activity of systems and organs involved in the behavior of an animal as an integral organism. Basic methods of zoopsychological research. A psychological analysis of an animal’s behavior is carried out by a zoopsychologist during a detailed study of the movements of an experimental animal in the process of solving specific problems. Tasks should be selected in such a way that the movements of the animal can be used to most accurately judge a specific mental quality. We must not forget about the physiological state of the animal, the conditions of the experiment, as well as any external factors that could distort the purity of the experiment. It is also necessary to use direct observations of animal behavior in natural conditions. In this case, it is important to trace the changes that occur in the behavior of the animal during certain changes in the environment, which allows us to judge both the external causes of mental activity and the adaptive functions of the latter. When studying animal behavior, it is also extremely important to carry out quantitative assessments of both external environmental factors and animal behavior. It is also necessary to take into account the biological adequacy of the experimental conditions and the applied methodology. As a rule, a certain technique is selected for conducting experiments with one or another type of animal. Otherwise, if the experiment is carried out without taking into account the specific features of the biology of the species under study and the natural behavior in the experimental environment, the results obtained during the work may not correspond to reality. Methods of zoopsychological research are varied, but they all boil down to setting certain tasks for animals. Most of these methods were developed at the beginning of the XNUMXth century and have since been successfully used in most zoopsychological laboratories. labyrinth method. The main task for an animal is to find a way to a goal that is not directly perceived by it. The ultimate goal can serve as a food bait, as well as a shelter, a sexual partner. In case of a noticeable deviation from the goal, punishment of the animal can be applied. The simplest maze looks like a T-shaped corridor or tube. With the correct choice of turn, the animal receives a reward, with an incorrect turn, it is punished. More complex labyrinths are made up of various combinations of T-shaped elements and dead ends, entry into which is regarded as animal errors. The results of the animal are evaluated by the number of mistakes made by him and the speed of achieving the final goal. The labyrinth method is very popular in zoopsychological research. With its help, one can study both issues related to the ability of an animal to learn, and problems of spatial orientation, in particular, the role of skin-muscular and other forms of sensitivity, memory, the formation of sensory generalizations, and many others. Another equally popular method of zoopsychological research is called the detour method. Here, in order to achieve the goal, the animal needs to bypass one or more obstacles. In contrast to the labyrinth method, the final goal is directly perceived by the object throughout the entire path. The assessment takes into account the speed and trajectory of the animal when bypassing the obstacle. The famous Russian zoopsychologist L.V. Krushinsky (1911-1984, "The Formation of Animal Behavior in Norm and Pathology", 1960; "Biological Foundations of Reasoning Activity", 1979; "Problems of Animal Behavior", 1993) slightly modernized this method and successfully used it in studying the ability of different animal species to extrapolation (see the following sections). The method of differentiation training is aimed at revealing the animal's ability to distinguish between several objects or features. The correct choice is rewarded, in case of an error, punishment is applied. Gradually reducing the differences between objects, it is possible to reveal the limits of their differentiation by one or another animal. Using this method, it is possible to obtain information characterizing the features of vision in animals of the species under study. This method is used to study the processes of formation of skills, memory, ability to communicate. In the latter case, by increasing the differences between sequentially presented objects, the ability of the animal to orientate itself by certain common features of these objects is revealed. The sample selection method is one of the varieties of the above method. The animal is invited to make a choice among various objects, focusing on a certain sample. The right choice is rewarded. The method is used to study the sensory sphere of animals. Problem box method (problem cell). During the experiment, the animal must, with the help of various devices (levers, locks, pedals, latches, etc.), leave the closed cage or, on the contrary, penetrate into it. Sometimes locked boxes are used, inside of which there is a treat: the animal is invited to extract it by unlocking the locks. The experiment can be complicated - in this case, the locks open in a strict sequence that the animal must learn. With the help of this method, complex forms of learning and motor elements of the intellectual behavior of animals are studied. Most often it is used in studying the behavior of animals with developed grasping limbs, such as rats, monkeys, raccoons. Experiments serve primarily to reveal the higher mental abilities of animals. In a number of experiments, the use of various types of tools by animals (especially monkeys) is being studied. For example, with the help of a stick, the animal must pull a delicacy towards itself, move an inaccessible valve, or activate some mechanism. In a number of experiments with great apes, boxes and other objects are used, from which they must build "pyramids" in order to reach a high-hanging fetus. And in this case, the analysis of the structure of the objective activity of the animal in the course of solving the problem is of the greatest importance. In addition, in zoopsychological research, an analysis of the usual manipulation of various objects is used, which is not supported by any reward. The study of such behavior makes it possible to draw conclusions about the play behavior of animals, orienting and research activities, abilities for analysis and synthesis, and some other factors that make it possible to shed light on the early stages of human evolution. The importance of animal psychology. Data obtained in the course of zoopsychological research are important for solving fundamental problems of psychology, in particular for identifying the roots of human psychological activity, the patterns of origin and development of his consciousness. In child psychology, animal psychological research helps to identify the biological foundations of the child’s psyche, its genetic roots. Animal psychology also makes its contribution to educational psychology, because communication between children and animals has great educational and cognitive significance. As a result of such communication, complex mental contact and interaction are established between both partners, which can be effectively used for the mental and moral education of children. In medical practice, the study of disorders of the mental activity of animals helps to study and treat nervous and mental diseases in humans. The data of zoopsychology are also used in agriculture, fur farming, and hunting. Thanks to zoopsychological research, it becomes possible to prepare these industries for the ever-increasing human impact on the natural environment. So, in fur farming, using data on animal behavior, it is possible to reduce the stress of animals when kept in cages and pens, increase productivity, and compensate for various unfavorable conditions. The data of zoopsychology are also necessary in anthropology, especially when solving the problem of the origin of man. The study of the behavior of higher primates, data on the higher mental functions of animals are extremely important for clarifying the biological prerequisites and foundations of anthropogenesis, as well as for studying the prehistory of mankind and the origin of labor activity, social life and articulate speech. Authors: Stupina S.B., Filipechev A.O. >> Forward: Instinct (The concept of instinct. Modern ideas about instinct. Instinct as the basis for the formation of animal behavior. Internal and external factors. The structure of instinctive behavior)
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