Theory of accounting. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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Theory of accounting. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

Business accounting and its types. Accounting Tasks
Management functions and their information needs
The role of accounting information in the management system and its users
Accounting financial statements
Basic accounting requirements
Interpretation of Separate Property in the Russian Economy and Legislation
Accounting rules
Methods of recognition of income in accounting. Accrual method in accounting for income and expenses
Theory of E. Schmalenbach. Principles for identifying financial results
Formation and distribution of financial result indicators
Balance method of information reflection
The essence and significance of the cost measurement of objects of accounting supervision
Fixed assets
Financial investments
Intangible assets
Capital investments, raw materials, finished products, goods
Inventory: concept and tasks
Conditions for conducting an inventory and its types
Static and dynamic accounting information
Classification of balance sheets by time of compilation
Signs of the classification of balance sheets
Structure and principles of construction of balance sheets
Analytical value of horizontal relationships of balance sheet items
The concept of an account. Account structure
Active and passive accounts. Accounts with two balances
Classification of Accounts: Part 1
Classification of Accounts: Part 2
Chart of accounts
Synthetic and analytical accounting. Types of Changes Caused by Business Transactions
Accounting on accounting accounts: fixed assets and depreciation of fixed assets
Accounting for accounts: intangible assets
Bookkeeping: depreciation of intangible assets
Accounting on accounting accounts: main production
Accounting on accounting accounts: auxiliary production
Accounting on accounting accounts: general production and general business expenses
Bookkeeping: value added tax
Accounting entries and their classification
Primary accounting documents
Classification of primary accounting documents
Errors in accounting records by intent, causes and place of occurrence, consequences, significance
Errors in accounting entries by content
Simple form of accounting
Memorial-order form of accounting
Accounting procedure. main book
International Accounting Standards Board
The process of developing international accounting standards
The concept of accounting policy
Accounting policies
The concept of the organization of accounting in the enterprise. Forms of record keeping
Organizational forms of accounting service. Rights and obligations of the chief accountant
International and national professional organizations

1. ECONOMIC ACCOUNTING AND ITS TYPES. OBJECTIVES OF ACCOUNTING

Every business entity in Russia from the moment of creation to the moment of liquidation is obliged to keep records of its activities. This approach allows to ensure the reliability, timeliness and completeness of information about its functioning. In the Russian Federation, there is a system of economic accounting, in which three interrelated types of accounting are distinguished: operational, statistical and accounting.

Operational (or operational-technical) accounting is carried out for the daily current management and management of the enterprise, sites, industries, workshops, etc. With the help of operational accounting, management personnel receive information on the movement of material resources at the enterprise, on the volume of products manufactured, their shipment and sale, on the availability of inventories, etc. e. The source of information for obtaining such information can be both documents and data received by telephone, teletype, fax, orally. Operational and technical accounting can be interrupted in time, and the need for it appears as needed.

Statistical accounting studies phenomena that have a generalizing, mass character in various areas of the economy, economics, science, education, etc. Statistics collects and summarizes information about the state of the economy, its development trends, the movement of labor, goods, securities, inventories, numbers and the composition of the population by age, sex, professions, etc. Statistics widely uses the sampling method of observation, carries out one-time registration and censuses. For these purposes, it uses information from accounting and operational and technical accounting.

Бухгалтерский учет studies the quantitative side of economic phenomena in close connection with their qualitative side. Accounting is an ordered system for collecting, registering and summarizing information in monetary terms about the property, obligations of organizations and their movement through continuous, continuous and documentary accounting of all business transactions.

Accounting Tasks formulated on the basis of Art. 1 129-FZ "On Accounting": 1) formation of complete and reliable information about the activities of the organization and its property status (information function); 2) providing users of financial statements with information to monitor compliance with the legislation of the Russian Federation in the implementation of business operations and their expediency, the presence and movement of property and obligations, the use of material, labor and financial resources in accordance with approved norms, standards and estimates (control function); 3) prevention of negative results of the economic activity of the organization and the identification of intra-economic reserves to ensure its financial stability (analytical function).

2. CONTROL FUNCTIONS AND THEIR INFORMATION NEEDS

In the management system, accounting performs a number of functions, the main of which are the following. 1. Control function. With the help of special techniques and methods of accounting, three types of control are carried out: preliminary - before a business transaction; current - during the operation; subsequent - after its completion. Control is carried out in the following areas: implementation of plans (programs) in terms of volumes of produced, shipped and sold products; ensuring the safety of the property of the enterprise; rational and efficient use of material and raw materials, fuel and energy, labor and financial resources; use of fixed assets, depreciation, repair fund; the formation of actual costs for the production of products and the calculation of the cost of production, etc. 2. Ensuring the safety of property. This function is closely related to the improvement of the accounting system and the strengthening of its control function. To implement this function, the following prerequisites are necessary: the availability of equipped storage facilities, control and measuring instruments, measuring containers, flow meters, etc. The tool for the implementation of this function is an inventory of the enterprise's property, which allows you to determine changes that have occurred in the composition of the property. 3. Information function. The information generated in accounting must be useful to interested users, for this it must be relevant, reliable and comparable. Information is relevant from the point of view of interested users if its presence or absence has or is capable of influencing the decisions of users, helping them to evaluate past, present or future events, confirming or modifying previously made assessments. Information is reliable if it does not contain material errors. To be reliable, information must objectively reflect the facts of economic activity to which it actually or presumably relates. The information generated in accounting must be complete. 4. Feedback function. Using feedback with the help of accounting information reflecting the actual values of indicators, they monitor the implementation of planned indicators, standards, norms and regulations, estimates and compliance with the economical use of all types of resources, establish various shortcomings, identify production reserves and the degree of their mobilization and use. The accounting system provides feedback management at any level. No other system is able to perform this task. 5. Analytic function. It consists in providing the analytical services of the enterprise with complete and reliable information for analyzing production and economic activities using accounting tools.

3. THE ROLE OF ACCOUNTING INFORMATION IN THE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM AND ITS USERS

Interested users of information, emerging in accounting are considered to be persons who have any need for information about the organization and have sufficient knowledge and skills to understand, evaluate and use this information, and who also have a desire to study this information. They can be real and potential investors, employees, lenders, suppliers and contractors, buyers and customers, authorities and the public in general, pursuing certain interests. 1. Investors and their representatives are interested in information about the riskiness and profitability of the investments they intend or make, about the possibility and expediency of managing investments, and about the organization's ability to pay dividends. 2. Employees and their representatives are interested in information about the stability and profitability of employers, the organization's ability to guarantee wages and job retention. 3. Lenders are interested in information that allows them to determine whether the loans they provided to the organization will be repaid in a timely manner and the corresponding interest will be paid. 4. Suppliers and contractors are interested in information that allows them to determine whether the amounts due to them will be paid on time. 5. Buyers and customers are interested in information about the continuation of the organization's activities. 6. Authorities are interested in information for the implementation of the functions assigned to them: on the distribution of resources, regulation of the national economy, the development and implementation of a national policy, and the conduct of statistical observation. 7. The public as a whole is interested in information about the role and contribution of the organization to improving the welfare of society at the local, regional and federal levels.

With regard to information for internal users the purpose of accounting is to generate information useful to management for making management decisions. This means that information for external users is formed, including on the basis of information for internal users related to the financial position of the organization, the financial results of its activities, changes in its financial position. With regard to information for external users the purpose of accounting is to generate information about the financial position, financial performance and changes in the financial position of the organization, useful to a wide range of interested users in making decisions.

To meet the general needs of interested users in accounting, information is generated on the financial position of the organization, the financial results of its activities and changes in its financial position. The financial position of the organization is determined by the resources at its disposal, the structure of the sources of these resources, the liquidity and solvency of the organization.

4. FINANCIAL ACCOUNTING STATEMENTS

Accounting statements are a unified system of data on the property and financial position of an organization and on the results of its economic activities, compiled on the basis of accounting data in accordance with established forms (according to PBU 4/99 "Accounting statements of an organization", approved by Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated 06.07.99. 43, No. XNUMXn).

The financial statements consist of a balance sheet, a profit and loss statement, annexes to them and an explanatory note, as well as an auditor's report confirming the accuracy of the organization's financial statements if it is subject to mandatory audit in accordance with federal laws. Financial statements should give a true and complete picture of the financial position of the organization, the financial results of its activities and changes in its financial position. Accounting statements formed on the basis of the rules established by regulatory acts on accounting are considered reliable and complete. When generating financial statements, an organization must ensure the neutrality of the information contained in it, that is, it excludes the unilateral satisfaction of the interests of some groups of users of financial statements over others. The financial statements of the organization should include performance indicators of all branches, representative offices and other divisions (including those allocated to separate balance sheets).

Articles of the balance sheet, income statement and other separate forms of financial statements, which, in accordance with the provisions of accounting, are subject to disclosure and for which there are no numerical values of assets, liabilities, income, expenses and other indicators, are crossed out (in standard forms) or are not given.

For the preparation of financial statements, the reporting date is the last calendar day of the reporting period. The first reporting year for newly created organizations is the period from the date of their state registration to December 31 of the corresponding year, and for organizations established after October 1, to December 31 of the next year. Each constituent part of the financial statements must contain the following data: the name of the constituent part; an indication of the reporting date or reporting period for which the financial statements are prepared; the name of the organization with an indication of its organizational and legal form; format for presenting numerical indicators of financial statements.

The financial statements should disclose data on cash flows in the reporting period, characterizing the availability, receipt and expenditure of funds in the organization. The cash flow statement should characterize changes in the financial position of the organization in the context of current, investment and financial activities.

5. BASIC ACCOUNTING REQUIREMENTS

Accounting is based on the principles specified in the legislation. Principles are divided into principles-requirements (mandatory) and principles-assumptions (conditional restrictions). In accordance with Art. 8 of Law No. 129-FZ and clause 7 PBU 1/98 when organizing accounting, the following must be observed principles-requirements. one. The requirement of a single monetary meter - accounting of property, liabilities and business operations of organizations is carried out in the currency of the Russian Federation - in rubles. 2. The requirement of property isolation - the property that is the property of the organization is accounted for separately from the property of other legal entities held by this organization. 3. Accounting continuity requirement - accounting is maintained by an organization continuously from the moment of its registration as a legal entity until reorganization or liquidation in the manner prescribed by the legislation of the Russian Federation. 4. Double Entry Requirement - An entity maintains records of property, liabilities and business transactions by double entry in related accounts included in the working chart of accounts. 5. Consistency requirement - analytical accounting data must correspond to the turnover and balances of synthetic accounting accounts. 6. Timeliness and completeness requirements - all business transactions and inventory results are subject to timely registration on accounting accounts without any omissions or exceptions. 7. The requirement for separate accounting of costs for the acquisition of current and non-current assets - in the accounting of organizations, current costs for the production of products and capital investments are accounted for separately. 8. The requirement of prudence is a greater willingness to recognize expenses and liabilities in accounting than possible income and assets, not allowing the creation of hidden reserves. 9. The requirement for the priority of content over form is the reflection in accounting of the factors of economic activity from the economic content of the facts and business conditions. 10. The requirement of rationality - rational accounting, based on the conditions of economic activity and the size of the organization. Paragraph 6 of PBU 1/98 reflects assumption principles accounting. 1. Assumption of property separation. 2. Assumption of going concern - the organization will continue its activities in the future, and it does not intend and need to liquidate or significantly reduce activities, therefore, obligations will be repaid in the prescribed manner. 3. Assumption of consistency in the application of accounting policies - the accounting policy adopted by the organization is applied consistently from one reporting year to another. 4. Assumption of temporal certainty of the facts of economic activity - the facts of the economic activity of the organization relate to the reporting period in which they took place, regardless of the actual time of receipt or payment of funds associated with these facts.

6. INTERPRETATION OF SEPARATE PROPERTY IN THE RUSSIAN ECONOMY AND LEGISLATION

Issues of property ownership are regulated by the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (Chapter 13). The owner has the right to own, use and dispose of his property. The owner has the right, at his discretion, to take any actions with respect to his property that do not contradict the law and other legal acts and do not violate the rights and legally protected interests of other persons, including alienate his property into the ownership of other persons, transfer to them, remaining the owner , the right to own, use and dispose of property, pledge property and encumber it in other ways, dispose of it in another way.

Ownership, use and disposal of land and other natural resources, to the extent that their circulation is permitted by law (Article 129 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation), is carried out by their owner freely, if this does not damage the environment and does not violate the rights and legitimate interests of other persons.

The owner can transfer his property to trust management to another person (trustee). The transfer of property for trust management does not entail the transfer of ownership to the trustee, who is obliged to manage the property in the interests of the owner or a third party specified by him.

The Russian Federation recognizes private, state, municipal and other forms of ownership. Property may be owned by citizens and legal entities, as well as the Russian Federation, subjects of the Russian Federation, municipalities.

Features of the acquisition and termination of the right of ownership to property, possession, use and disposal of it, depending on whether the property is owned by a citizen or a legal entity, owned by the Russian Federation, a constituent entity of the Russian Federation or a municipality, can only be established by law.

The law defines the types of property that can only be in state or municipal ownership. Citizens and legal entities may own any property, with the exception of certain types of property, which, in accordance with the law, cannot be owned by citizens or legal entities.

7. ACCOUNTING RULES

The methodological basis for the organization of accounting is a system of methods and certain techniques that are carried out through documentation, inventory, balance sheet, a system of synthetic and analytical accounts using the double entry method, valuation of property and liabilities, other balance sheet items, calculation and reporting of the enterprise. 1. Documentation is the primary registration of business transactions using documents at the time and place of their execution. Documentation is one of the main distinguishing features of accounting, as it allows for continuous monitoring of business processes. A prerequisite for the reflection of business transactions in system accounting is the execution of their primary documents that have certain characteristics and meet the relevant requirements for them. 2. Inventory - a way to check the compliance of the actual availability of property in kind with accounting data. The inventory is carried out in order to ensure the reliability of accounting indicators and the safety of the property of the enterprise. Fixed assets, inventory items, cash, settlements, work in progress, construction in progress, goods of trade enterprises, etc. are subject to inventory. 3. The balance sheet is a way of economic grouping and summarizing information about the property of an enterprise in terms of composition and location and sources of their formation in monetary terms on a certain date, usually on the 1st day of the month. The funds of the enterprise are reflected in the balance sheet in monetary terms in two groups: one shows what funds the enterprise has, the other - from what sources they arose. Both parts of the balance sheet are equal. 4. The system of accounts and double entry is a technique that means that the grouping of property, sources of its formation, business transactions in accounting is also carried out using a system of accounts (synthetic and analytical) using the double entry method. Account - this is an economic grouping (in the form of a table), which systematizes, accumulates current information about the state of property, sources of its formation, business transactions. double entry - a method of registering business transactions on accounting accounts. This method consists in the fact that each business transaction is recorded in two accounting accounts in equal amounts. 5. Evaluation is a way of expressing in monetary terms the property of the enterprise and its sources. Property valuation is based on real costs expressed in monetary terms. 6. Calculation - a way to group costs and determine the cost. 7. The reporting of the enterprise is a system of indicators characterizing the production, economic and financial activities of the enterprise for a certain period.

8. KEY ACCOUNTING CONCEPTS

Enterprise assets - the property of the enterprise, which has a monetary value and is reflected in the asset balance: money, accounts receivable, working capital, fixed capital and intangible assets. Liabilities of the enterprise - all official requirements in relation to the enterprise, obligations and sources of funds of the enterprise, consisting of own, borrowed and borrowed funds. Enterprise capital - equity of the enterprise plus retained earnings. Income of the organization an increase in economic benefits is recognized as a result of the receipt of assets (cash, other property) and (or) the repayment of liabilities, leading to an increase in the capital of this organization, with the exception of contributions from participants. Receipts from other legal entities and individuals are not recognized as income of the organization: 1) the amount of value added tax, excises, sales tax, export duties and other similar obligatory payments; 2) under commission agreements, agency and other similar agreements in favor of the committent, principal, etc.; 3) in the order of advance payment for products, goods, works, services; 4) advances on account of payment for products, goods, works, services; 5) deposit; 6) a pledge, if the agreement provides for the transfer of the pledged property to the pledgee; 7) repayment of a loan, a loan granted to a borrower. The income of the organization, depending on their nature, the conditions for obtaining and the activities of the organization, are divided into: a) income from ordinary activities;

b) operating income; at) non-operating income; d) emergency.

organization expenses a decrease in economic benefits as a result of the disposal of assets (cash, other property) and (or) the emergence of obligations leading to a decrease in the capital of this organization is recognized, with the exception of a decrease in contributions by decision of the participants (property owners). Disposal of assets is not recognized as an expense of the organization: 1) in connection with the acquisition (creation) of non-current assets; 2) contributions to the authorized capital of other organizations, the acquisition of shares of joint-stock companies and other securities not for the purpose of resale (sale); 3) under commission agreements, agency and other similar agreements in favor of the committent, principal, etc.; 4) in the order of advance payment for inventories and other valuables, works, services; 5) in the form of advances, a deposit in payment for inventories and other valuables, works, services; 6) in repayment of a loan, a loan received by an organization. The expenses of the organization, depending on their nature, conditions of implementation and activities of the organization, are divided into: 1) expenses for ordinary activities; 2) operating expenses; 3) non-operating expenses; 4) emergency. Financial results - the difference between income and expenses on the transaction or according to the results of the reporting period. Positive financial result - profit, negative - loss.

9. METHODS OF RECOGNITION OF INCOME IN ACCOUNTING. ACCRUED INCOME AND EXPENSE ACCOUNTING

Income for accounting and for tax purposes may be recognized on an accrual basis and on a cash basis. Under the accrual method, income is recognized in the reporting (tax) period in which it occurred, regardless of the actual receipt of funds, other property (work, services) and (or) property rights. For income relating to several reporting (tax) periods, and if the relationship between income and expenses cannot be clearly determined or is determined indirectly, income is distributed by the taxpayer independently, taking into account the principle of uniform recognition of income and expenses. For industries with a long (more than one tax period) technological cycle, if the terms of the concluded contracts do not provide for the phased delivery of works (services), the income from the sale of these works (services) is distributed by the taxpayer independently in accordance with the principle of formation of expenses for these works. Organizations have the right to determine the date of receipt of income on a cash basis in tax accounting, if, on average, over the previous 4 quarters, the amount of proceeds from the sale of goods (works, services) of these organizations, excluding value added tax, did not exceed 1 million rubles. for every quarter. In accounting, the use of the cash method is allowed for small businesses. In this case, the date of receipt of income is recognized as the day of receipt of funds to bank accounts and (or) to the cashier, receipt of other property (works, services) and (or) property rights, as well as repayment of debt to the taxpayer in another way.

Accrual method in accounting for income and expenses.

Under the accrual method, income is recognized in the reporting (tax) period in which it occurred, regardless of the actual receipt of funds, other property and (or) property rights. For income relating to several reporting periods, and if the relationship between income and expenses cannot be clearly determined or is determined indirectly, income is distributed by the taxpayer independently, taking into account the principle of uniform recognition of income and expenses. Expenses under the accrual method are recognized as such in the reporting period to which they relate, regardless of the time of actual payment of funds and (or) another form of payment. Expenses are recognized in the reporting period in which these expenses arise based on the terms of transactions. If the terms of the agreement provide for the receipt of income during more than one reporting period and do not provide for the phased delivery of goods (works, services), the expenses are distributed by the taxpayer independently, taking into account the principle of uniform recognition of income and expenses. Expenses that cannot be directly attributed to the costs of a particular type of activity are distributed in proportion to the share of the corresponding income in the total volume of all income.

10. THE THEORY OF E. SCHMALENBACH. PRINCIPLES FOR REVEALING FINANCIAL RESULTS

Eigen Schmalenbach (1873-1955) - the largest German accounting theorist of the XNUMXth century, author of the theory of dynamic balance. Schmalenbach defined an asset, other than cash, as expenses that have not yet become income, that is, the company has spent money, but has not yet disposed of it. This resulted in the following sections: 1) expenses, but not yet expenses (purchase of materials, etc.); 2) expenses, but not yet receipt of funds (accounts receivable); 3) values that will become costs (semi-finished products, etc.); 4) values that will become income (finished products, etc.); 5) money (cash, current account, etc.). Liabilities Schmalenbach defined as income that has not yet become expenses. Passive was divided into sections: 1) costs, but not yet expenses (debts to suppliers, wages, etc.); 2) receipts, but not yet expenses (loans received, loans, etc.); 3) costs that will become valuables (reserves, etc.); 4) income that will become valuables (advance payments received, etc.); 5) capital.

Accounting profit (loss) is the final financial result (profit or loss) revealed for the reporting period on the basis of accounting of all business operations of the organization and evaluation of balance sheet items. Profit or loss identified in the reporting year, but related to operations of previous years, are included in the financial results of the organization of the reporting year. Income received in the reporting period, but related to the following reporting periods, is reflected in the balance sheet as a separate item as deferred income. These incomes are subject to attribution to the financial results of a commercial organization or an increase in income of a non-profit organization upon the onset of the reporting period to which they relate.

In the event of the sale and other disposal of the organization's property (fixed assets, stocks, securities, etc.), the loss or income from these operations is attributed to the financial results of a commercial organization or an increase in expenses (income) of a non-profit organization. In the balance sheet, the financial result of the reporting period is reflected as retained earnings (uncovered loss), i.e., the final financial result revealed for the reporting period, minus taxes due from profits established in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation and other similar mandatory payments, including sanctions for non-compliance with tax rules. In tax accounting, the financial result is the tax base for income tax. It is formed according to the rules of Art. 274 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation. The tax base is the monetary expression of profit subject to taxation. Profit (loss) is determined on an accrual basis from the beginning of the tax period as the difference between income calculated taking into account Art. 249-251 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, and the costs determined in accordance with Art. 252-270 of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation.

11. FORMATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF INDICATORS OF FINANCIAL RESULTS

In accounting, the financial result is separately formed for each transaction in the sphere of ordinary activities of the organization, operational and non-operating operations, emergency situations. In the Chart of Accounts account 90 "Sales" is intended to summarize information on income and expenses associated with the ordinary activities of the organization, as well as to determine the financial result for them. Sub-account 90-9 "Profit / loss from sales" is designed to identify the financial result (profit or loss) from sales for the reporting month. At the end of the reporting year, all sub-accounts opened to account 90 "Sales" (except for sub-account 90-9 "Profit / loss from sales") are closed by internal entries to sub-account 90-9 "Profit / loss from sales". Account 91 "Other income and expenses" is intended to summarize information on other income and expenses of the reporting period, except for extraordinary income and expenses. Sub-account 91-9 "Balance of other income and expenses" is intended to identify the balance of other income and expenses for the reporting month. Entries on sub-accounts 91-1 "Other income" and 91-2 "Other expenses" are made accumulatively during the reporting year. On a monthly basis, by comparing the debit turnover on subaccount 91-2 "Other expenses" and the credit turnover on subaccount 91-1 "Other income", the balance of other income and expenses for the reporting month is determined. This balance is written off on a monthly basis from sub-account 91-9 "Balance of other income and expenses" to account 99 "Profit and loss". Thus, synthetic account 91 "Other income and expenses" has no balance as of the reporting date. At the end of the reporting year, all sub-accounts opened to account 91 "Other income and expenses" (except for sub-account 91-9 "Balance of other income and expenses") are closed by internal entries to sub-account 91-9 "Balance of other income and expenses". Account 99 "Profit and Loss" is intended to summarize information on the formation of the final financial result of the organization's activities in the reporting year. The final financial result (net profit or net loss) is made up of the financial result from ordinary activities, as well as other income and expenses, including extraordinary ones. The debit of account 99 "Profits and losses" reflects losses (losses, expenses), and the credit - profits (income) of the organization. Comparison of debit and credit turnover for the reporting period shows the final financial result of the reporting period. Account 84 "Retained earnings (uncovered loss)" is intended to summarize information on the presence and movement of amounts of retained earnings or uncovered loss of the organization. The amount of net profit of the reporting year is debited by the closing turnovers of December to the credit of account 84 "Retained earnings (uncovered loss)" in correspondence with account 99 "Profits and losses". Analytical accounting on account 84 "Retained earnings (uncovered loss)" is organized in such a way as to ensure the formation of information on the areas of use of funds.

12. BALANCE METHOD OF REFLECTION OF INFORMATION

The balance sheet is a method of economic grouping of property according to its composition and location and sources of its formation on the 1st day of the month, quarter, year. Consequently, in the balance sheet, the property of an enterprise is considered from two positions: in terms of composition and location, and in terms of sources of education.

In appearance, the balance sheet is a table: on the left side of it, property is shown by composition and location - the balance sheet asset. The right side reflects the sources of the formation of this property - the liability of the balance sheet, i.e. Amount A \uXNUMXd Amount P

Thus, the equality of the sums of the left and right sides of the balance sheet is always observed. This is explained by the fact that both the asset and the liability provide data on the property of the enterprise in terms of composition (asset) and sources of its formation (liability). The main element of the balance sheet is the balance sheet item, which corresponds to the type (name) of property, liabilities, source of formation of property. An article of the balance sheet is an indicator (line) of the asset and liability of the balance sheet, characterizing certain types of property, sources of its formation, and obligations of the enterprise. Balance sheet items are combined into groups, groups - into sections. Combining balance sheet items into groups or sections is carried out on the basis of their economic content.

The totals for the asset and liability of the balance sheet are called the balance sheet currency. Principle of Duality (two-sidedness) refers to the fundamental fundamental concepts of accounting. It is reflected by an equation that links three basic concepts: economic resources (assets of an economic entity - its property and obligations of second and third parties to the enterprise, or its receivables), the capital of the owner and the obligations of the economic entity to the second and third (individual and legal) persons (i.e. its accounts payable or liabilities). In general capital equation duality, reflecting the essence of the enterprise, can be written:

Assets - Liabilities = Equity

In modern theory and practice, the most famous is not capital, but formal equation of duality, on which the form of financial reporting "Balance sheet" (Report on the financial position of the organization) is based. The formal balance equation has the form:

Assets = Equity + Liabilities or: Assets = Total capital invested by owners and third party lenders.

13. ESSENCE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF COST MEASUREMENT OF OBJECTS OF ACCOUNTING SUPERVISION

Valuation of property, accounts payable, income and expenses is carried out using the following methods: 1) actual (initial) cost, i.e. the amount of cash or cash equivalents paid or accrued upon acquisition or production of an object (or when accounting for accounts payable); 2) current (replacement) cost, i.e. the amount of cash or their equivalents, which must be paid now if it is necessary to replace any object; 3) current market value, i.e. the amount of cash or cash equivalents that can be received as a result of the sale of the object or when it falls due for liquidation.

Valuation of property purchased for a fee is carried out by summing up the actual expenses incurred for its purchase; property received free of charge - at market value on the date of posting; property produced in the organization itself - at the cost of its manufacture. The use of other methods of assessment, including by way of reservation, is allowed in cases provided for by the legislation of the Russian Federation and regulations of the bodies responsible for regulating accounting. In the absence of another measurement basis, the present value can be used for valuation, i.e. the amount of future cash receipts or their equivalents, for which the object is supposed to be acquired in the normal course of business. Accounting for the organization's currency accounts and transactions in foreign currency is kept in rubles based on the conversion of foreign currency at the rate of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation on the date of the transaction.

For the purposes of comparability, the valuation of property and its sources for reflection in the balance sheet should be carried out uniformly at all enterprises, which is achieved by observing the established provisions and rules for valuation. For example, the current regulatory documents establish that fixed assets are shown in the balance sheet at their residual value, also indicating their initial cost and depreciation of fixed assets; intangible assets - also at residual value, indicating them at their original cost and depreciation of intangible assets; inventories are valued at the actual cost of their acquisition and procurement; finished products - at actual production cost, etc.

Realization value - the amount that can be obtained from the sale of the object. Liquidation value - the net amount that could be realized from the sale of the assets of the enterprise at the end of their useful lives (less the expected costs of liquidation) after debt repayment. Discounted value - the current amount in cash, equivalent to the size of the payment or stream of payments to be received in the future. fair value - theoretically justified minimum price.

14. FIXED ASSETS

Fixed assets as a set of material assets used as means of labor in the production of products, performance of work or provision of services, or for the management of the organization for a period exceeding 12 months, or the normal operating cycle, if it exceeds 12 months, include buildings , structures, working and power machines and equipment, measuring and control instruments and devices, computers, vehicles, tools, production and household inventory and accessories, working and productive livestock, perennial plantations, on-farm roads and other fixed assets. Fixed assets also include capital investments in fundamental land improvement (drainage, irrigation and other land reclamation works) and leased fixed assets. Capital investments in perennial plantings, radical land improvement are included in fixed assets annually in the amount of costs related to the areas accepted for operation in the reporting year, regardless of the date of completion of the entire complex of works.

Fixed assets include land plots owned by the organization, objects of nature management (water, subsoil and other natural resources). Completed capital investments in leased items of fixed assets are credited by the lessee organization to their own fixed assets in the amount of actually incurred costs, unless otherwise provided by the lease agreement. The cost of fixed assets of the organization is repaid by depreciation over their useful life. Depreciation of fixed assets is calculated regardless of the results of the economic activity of the organization in the reporting period in one of the following ways: 1) linear method; 2) method of writing off the cost in proportion to the volume of products (works, services); 3) diminishing residue method; 4) method of writing off the cost by the sum of the numbers of years of the useful life.

For fixed assets transferred by decision of the head of the organization for conservation, the duration of which cannot be less than three months, external improvement objects and other similar objects (forestry, road facilities, specialized navigation facilities, etc. objects), productive livestock , buffaloes, oxen and deer, as well as purchased publications (books, brochures, etc.) are not depreciated. Objects of fixed assets of non-profit organizations are not subject to depreciation. Fixed assets are reflected in the balance sheet at residual value, i.e., at the actual costs of their acquisition, construction and manufacture, minus the amount of accrued depreciation. Changes in the initial cost of fixed assets in cases of completion, additional equipment, reconstruction and partial liquidation, revaluation of the relevant objects are disclosed in the appendices to the balance sheet.

15. FINANCIAL INVESTMENTS

Financial investments include the organization's investments in government securities, bonds and other securities of other organizations in the authorized (share) capital of other organizations, as well as loans granted to other organizations.

Financial investments are accepted for accounting in the amount of actual costs for the investor. For debt securities, the difference between the amount of actual acquisition costs and the nominal value during the period of their circulation is allowed to be attributed evenly as the income due on them is accrued to the financial results of a commercial organization or an increase in expenses of a non-commercial organization.

Organizations acting as professional participants in the securities market may re-evaluate investments in securities acquired with the aim of obtaining income from their sale, as the quotation on the stock exchange changes.

Objects of financial investments (other than loans) that have not been paid in full are shown in the assets of the balance sheet in the full amount of the actual costs of their acquisition under the contract, with the unpaid amount attributable to the item of creditors in the liability of the balance sheet in cases where the rights to the object have been transferred to the investor. In other cases, the amounts paid on account of the objects of financial investments to be acquired are shown in the assets of the balance sheet as debtors.

Investments of the organization in shares of other organizations listed on the stock exchange, the quotation of which is regularly published, when compiling the balance sheet, are reflected at the end of the reporting year at market value, if the latter is lower than the value accepted for accounting. At the end of the reporting year, a provision for depreciation of investments in securities at the expense of financial results of a commercial organization or an increase in expenses of a non-commercial organization is made for the specified difference.

16. INTANGIBLE ASSETS

Intangible assets used in economic activities for a period exceeding 12 months and generating income include rights arising from: 1) from copyright and other agreements for works of science, literature, art and objects of related rights, for computer programs, databases, etc.; 2) from patents for inventions, industrial designs, selection achievements, from certificates for utility models, trademarks and service marks or license agreements for their use; 3) from the rights to "know-how", etc. In addition, intangible assets may include organizational expenses (expenses associated with the formation of a legal entity, recognized in accordance with the constituent documents as the contribution of participants (founders) to the authorized (reserve) capital), and as well as the reputation of the organization.

The cost of intangible assets is repaid by accruing depreciation over the established period of their useful life. For objects for which the cost is repaid, depreciation deductions are determined in one of the following ways: 1) a linear method based on the norms calculated by the organization on the basis of their useful life; 2) method of writing off the cost in proportion to the volume of products (works, services).

For intangible assets for which it is impossible to determine the useful life, depreciation rates are set for 20 years (but not more than the life of the organization). Amortization of intangible assets is charged regardless of the results of the organization's activities in the reporting period. The acquired business reputation of the organization must be adjusted within 20 years (but not more than the life of the organization).

Depreciation deductions for the positive business reputation of the organization are reflected in accounting by reducing its initial cost. The negative business reputation of the organization is evenly written off to the financial results of the organization as operating income. Intangible assets are reflected in the balance sheet at their residual value, i.e. at the actual costs of acquiring, manufacturing and the costs of bringing them to a state in which they are suitable for use for the planned purposes, minus the accrued depreciation.

17. CAPITAL INVESTMENTS, RAW MATERIALS, FINISHED PRODUCTS, GOODS

К capital investment in progress include the costs of construction and installation works, purchase of buildings, equipment, vehicles, tools, inventory, other durable material objects that are not executed by acts of acceptance and transfer of fixed assets and other documents (including documents confirming state registration of real estate in cases established by law) , other capital works and costs (design and survey, geological exploration and drilling, costs for land acquisition and resettlement in connection with construction, for training personnel for newly built organizations, etc.). Capital construction projects that are in temporary operation, before they are put into permanent operation, are reflected as capital investments in progress. Incomplete capital investments are reflected in the balance sheet at actual costs for the developer (investor).

raw material, basic and auxiliary materials, fuel, purchased semi-finished products and components, spare parts, containers used for packaging and transportation of products (goods), and other material resources are reflected in the balance sheet at their actual cost. The actual cost of material resources is determined based on the actual costs incurred for their acquisition and manufacture. It is allowed to determine the actual cost of material resources written off to production using one of the following methods for estimating reserves: 1) at the cost of a unit of inventory; 2) at average cost; 3) at cost of first-in-time acquisitions (FIFO); 4) at cost of most recent acquisitions (LIFO).

Finished products is reflected in the balance sheet at the actual or standard (planned) production cost, including the costs associated with the use of fixed assets, raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, labor resources in the production process, and other costs for production or by direct cost items.

Product in organizations engaged in trading activities are reflected in the balance sheet at the cost of their acquisition. When selling (dispensing) goods, their value may be written off using the above valuation methods. When an organization engaged in retail trade takes into account goods at sale prices, the difference between the acquisition cost and the cost at sale prices (discounts, capes) is reflected in the financial statements as a separate item. Goods shipped, works delivered and services rendered are reflected in the balance sheet at the actual (or standard (planned)) total cost, which includes, along with the production cost, the costs associated with the sale (sale) of products, works, services reimbursed by the contractual (contract) price.

18. INVENTORY: CONCEPT AND TASKS

Inventory - a way to check the compliance of the actual availability of property in kind with the accounting data reflected in the accounts. Inventory allows you to check whether all business transactions are documented and reflected in system accounting, as well as to make the necessary clarifications and corrections.

Enterprises are required to conduct an inventory of fixed assets, capital investments, capital construction in progress, overhaul, work in progress, inventory, cash, settlements and other balance sheet items. Inventories that do not belong to the enterprise are also subject to inventory, such as valuables in safe custody, received for processing, leased fixed assets, etc., as well as values not taken into account for any reason.

The main objectives inventory: 1) identification of the actual availability of fixed assets, inventory and cash, securities, as well as volumes of work in progress in kind; 2) control over the safety of inventory and cash by comparing the actual availability with accounting data; 3) identification of inventory items that have partially lost their original quality, do not meet quality standards, specifications, etc.; 4) identification of excess and unused material values for the purpose of subsequent sale; 5) verification of compliance with the rules and conditions for the storage of material assets and funds, as well as the rules for the maintenance and operation of machinery, equipment and other fixed assets; verification of the real value of inventories recorded on the balance sheet, amounts of cash on hand, on a current account, on a foreign currency account, other accounts, cash in transit, work in progress, deferred expenses, reserves for future expenses and payments, receivables (settlements with buyers, on bills received, etc.), accounts payable (to suppliers of materials, banks, on bills issued, on taxes to financial authorities, etc.) and other balance sheet items.

The procedure and terms for conducting an inventory are determined by the head of the organization, with the exception of cases when an inventory is mandatory.

An inventory is required: 1) when transferring property for rent, redemption, sale, as well as when transforming a state or municipal unitary enterprise; 2) before the preparation of annual financial statements; 3) when changing financially responsible persons; 4) upon detection of facts of theft, abuse or damage to property; 5) in case of natural disaster, fire or other emergencies caused by extreme conditions; 6) in case of reorganization or liquidation of the organization; 7) in other cases stipulated by the legislation of the Russian Federation.

19. INVENTORY CONDITIONS AND ITS TYPES

The inventory should be carried out: 1) fixed assets - at least once every 2-3 years, 2) library collections - at least once every 5 years; 3) capital investments - at least once a year before the preparation of the annual report and balance sheet, but not earlier than December 1 of the reporting year; 4) work in progress and semi-finished products of own production - before the preparation of the annual report and balance sheet, but not earlier than October 1 of the reporting year and, in addition, periodically within the time limits established by the relevant higher organizations;

5) incomplete overhaul and deferred expenses - at least once a year;

6) finished products in warehouses - at least once a year before the preparation of the annual report and balance sheet, but not earlier than October 1 of the reporting year; 7) oil and oil products - at least once a month; raw materials and other material assets - at least once a year before the preparation of the annual report and balance sheet, but not earlier than October 1 of the reporting year; 8) cash, monetary documents, valuables and strict reporting forms - at least once a month; 9) settlements with banks (on a current account, foreign currency account, other accounts, loans, credits, etc.) - as bank statements are received, and on settlement documents transferred to the bank for collection - on the 1st day of each month; 10) settlements on payments to the budget - at least once a quarter; 11) settlements with debtors and creditors - at least twice a year; 12) other balance sheet items - on the 1st day of the month following the reporting year.

Inventory, depending on the completeness of coverage by checking property, can be full и partial. With a complete inventory, all types of property are subject to verification. It must be carried out at the end of the year before the preparation of the annual report (with the exception of some types of property mentioned above). With a partial inventory, one or more types of property in certain storage areas are subject to verification. Depending on the basis of the inventory, there are planned и unscheduled. Scheduled inventories are carried out in accordance with the Regulations on Accounting and Reporting and the Basic Provisions for the Inventory of Fixed Assets, Inventories, Cash and Settlements. Unscheduled inventories are organized as needed, mostly suddenly.

The results of the inventory are drawn up by an inventory-collation list. The statement must be signed by all members of the inventory commission, otherwise it will be invalid.

20. STATIC AND DYNAMIC ACCOUNTING INFORMATION

Balance sheets are designed to reflect the financial position of an economic entity at specific points in time: at the date of the organization's establishment (registration of the Charter), the beginning and end of the reporting period (fiscal year), at the dates of preparation of interim financial reports (for a month, a quarter, half a year, nine months) , as well as in cases of reorganization, bankruptcy, liquidation, reorganization, etc.

The basis of the information accounting system of any reporting or interim period is the incoming balance sheet. Subsequent facts of economic life change the indicators of the balance sheet. The accounting department identifies, evaluates, classifies and registers these business transactions according to generally accepted principles, reflects and accumulates them in accounting systems, brings them together to compile new balance sheets (for example, at the end of a quarter or year).

When considering balance sheets, first of all, they should be classified into static and dynamic. Static balances are formed on the basis of momentary indicators calculated for a certain date. Static balances are studied in detail in the next paragraph. Dynamic balances reflect data on the property of an economic entity and the sources of its formation, not only in terms of momentary indicators, but also in motion - in the form of interval indicators (turnovers for the reporting period). Examples of dynamic balance are the chess turnover balance and the turnover sheet.

The balance sheet as an element of the accounting method crowns the procedure for processing accounting data, generalizing them into an information model of the financial condition of an economic entity. The information of this model, presented in the form of reporting indicators of the balance lines of the main form of financial statements, is an incomparable source in assessing (analyzing) the functioning of an economic unit, its production, economic and financial activities aimed at improving or developing the entire enterprise management system. Based on the data presented in the balance sheet, interested users have the opportunity to study the availability, allocation and use of resources, solvency and financial stability of organizations and thus satisfy their information needs.

In accounting, there are many types of balance sheets, which differ depending on the purpose of their preparation. It is customary to classify balance sheets according to the following criteria: 1) compilation time; 2) compilation source; 3) amount of information; 4) Nature of activity; 5) reflection object; 6) cleaning method.

21. CLASSIFICATION OF BALANCE SHEET BY TIME OF COMPILATION

Opening balances constitute at the time of the organization of enterprises (registration of the Charter). From the opening balance sheet, the accounting of this business entity begins. current balances. Unlike opening balance sheets, which are compiled only once (at the time of the organization of the enterprise), current balance sheets are developed in accordance with the principle of the accounting period periodically throughout the entire operation of the enterprise and are divided into initial (incoming), intermediate and final (outgoing). Opening and closing balances developed at the beginning and end of the financial year. Interim balances are compiled for the periods between the beginning and the end of the reporting period. Interim balances differ from the final ones, on the one hand, in the set of attached reporting forms that disclose individual balance sheet items; on the other hand, the sources of compiling the balance sheet (interim balance sheets are built according to the current (book) accounting, and the final balance sheets, in addition, are confirmed by the data of a complete inventory of all balance sheet items - fixed assets and intangible assets, inventory, cash in the calculations of the enterprise) . The indicators of the closing balance sheets most adequately reflect the objects of accounting supervision. Sanitized balances. The need for such a balance arises when the company is on the verge of bankruptcy (inability to pay debts) and it is necessary to decide: to make a decision on liquidation (cessation of business activity) by declaring bankruptcy or to try the last chance - to convince creditors of the expediency of deferring payments. liquidation balance sheets. These balance sheets are drawn up during the liquidation of the enterprise and are developed repeatedly: 1) at the beginning of the liquidation period (opening liquidation balance sheet); 2) during the period of liquidation of the enterprise (interim liquidation balance sheets; their number depends on the duration of the liquidation process, the information needs of owners and creditors); 3) at the end of the liquidation period (final liquidation balance sheet). Dividing balance sheets are compiled at the time of division of a large enterprise into several smaller enterprises (structural units) or when one or more structural units of this enterprise are transferred to another enterprise (in the latter case, the balance sheet is called a transfer balance). Unifying balances are developed when merging (merging) several enterprises into one enterprise or when one or more structural units are attached to this enterprise.

22. SIGNS OF CLASSIFICATION OF BALANCE SHEETS

Classification according to the sources of compilation.

When studying current balances, reference was made to balances drawn up according to current accounting data and according to the results recorded in inventories (inventories). On the basis of the source of compilation, inventory, book and general balance sheets are distinguished. Inventory balances are compiled only on the basis of inventories of property, funds in settlements, obligations. book balance is built on the basis of current accounting data without preliminary verification of book entries by means of an inventory. General balance is considered the most realistic, since it is based on current accounting (book) records and inventory results that precede the formation of balance sheet items. Summary (or consolidated) balance sheets. There are 2 types of consolidated balance sheets, depending on the object and the method of their compilation. 1. Consolidated balance sheets are developed by ministries and departments, calculating aggregated data for the entire industry or for subordinate individual enterprises by simply summing up indicators of the same name and excluding balances from mutual settlements between enterprises within the industry. 2. Consolidated (or consolidated) balance sheets are compiled by the Group (holding, concern) represented by the parent company and its subsidiaries. The consolidated balance sheet forms information about the Group as a single enterprise and shows what the parent company's own balance sheet would be like if it closed all subsidiaries and directly managed their activities. By nature of activity balance sheets are divided into core and non-core activities. The main activities include activities that correspond to the profile of the enterprise and are registered in its Charter. All other activities are considered non-core. Recently, this attribute of classification has not been given due attention and, as a rule, all types of activities (core and non-core) are reflected in one balance sheet (core activity). By reflection object balances are divided into independent and separate. Only economic entities endowed with the rights of a legal entity have an independent balance sheet. Separate balance sheets are subdivisions of enterprises (branches, departments, workshops, representative offices, etc.). By cleaning method Gross balances and net balances are allocated. Balance sheet items can be divided into two types: 1) the main, reflecting non-decreasing indicators of the assessment of objects of accounting supervision; 2) regulating, clarifying the value of the assessment of the main items to their residual value (residual value). Regulatory items expand the number of balance sheet items and increase the amount of information contained in the balance sheet. The balance sheet, which includes regulatory items, is called the gross balance, and without regulatory items, the net balance.

23. STRUCTURE AND PRINCIPLES OF BUILDING BALANCE SHEETS

The main element of the balance sheet (the unit of information reflected in it) is the balance sheet item (line). The balance sheet item corresponds to the indicator (at the beginning or end of the reporting period) that characterizes certain types of economic resources (assets) and sources of their formation (owner's capital and borrowed capital or liabilities).

In world practice, two forms of balance sheet are used: horizontal and vertical. With a horizontal form, assets are shown on the left side of the balance sheet, and liabilities - on the right. The vertical form of the balance sheet assumes a consistent arrangement of balance sheet items (in a column): first, the items characterizing the asset, then the liability items. In the United States, the choice of a horizontal or vertical form of balance is left to economic entities. Regardless of the option chosen, the equation applies: Assets = Liabilities + Equity. In the UK, the Companies Act 1985 provides for both forms of balance sheet building. However, when arranging balance sheet items, accountants in most cases adhere to the original duality equation described by L. Pacioli: Assets - Liabilities = Owner's Capital.

In Russian accounting, the balance is built on the basis of the formal duality equation described by I.F. Sherom (Assets = Equity + Liabilities). All indicators (balance sheet items) reflecting the objects of accounting supervision that ensure production, economic and financial activities are distributed on two opposite sides: on the left - assets, on the right - sources of equity (equity) and accounts payable (liabilities). In the current terminology of Russian accounting, the left side of the balance sheet is called "Asset", the right side - "Passive".

Balance sheet items are combined into groups, and groups into sections. Such a combination is based on the economic content of balance sheet items, and the order of their location on a particular side is determined by vertical and horizontal relationships between items and sections.

The vertical interconnections of the assets of the balance sheet imply their arrangement in order of increasing liquidity (according to Western countries, on the contrary, in descending order of liquidity). At the beginning, less liquid items are reflected (Intangible assets, Fixed assets, Capital investments, etc.), and at the end - the most liquid ones (money on hand, on settlement and foreign currency accounts, in settlement documents). The liquidity of an asset is understood as its ability to be converted into money without significant losses.

The form of the modern balance sheet is built on the principle of a net balance, in which fixed assets, intangible assets, profit are reflected in the residual value, without indicating data on the main items and their regulators. Detailed information on the initial cost, depreciation and amortization, the amount of profit received as a result of financial and economic activities and its use is presented in the notes to the balance sheet.

24. ANALYTICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF HORIZONTAL INTERRELATIONS OF BALANCE ITEMS

Horizontal relationships of balance sheet items make it possible to carry out an economic analysis of the financial condition of an economic entity directly from the balance sheet. The simplest is the analysis of the liquidity of the balance, aimed at establishing the possibility of repayment of current liabilities, which expire in the reporting year. The amount of short-term accounts payable (CP) is determined based on the results of section VI of the liability "Short-term liabilities", reduced by the amount of reserves for future expenses and payments, consumption funds and deferred income.

Initially, the instant liquidity ratio (KML) is calculated, i.e. the ability of the enterprise to repay the current debt (KP) in cash (DS):

KML = DS / KP.

Absolute liquidity ratio (CAL) explores the possibility of repaying current debt at the expense of cash and short-term financial investments (CFI):

CAL \uXNUMXd (DS + KFV) / KP.

Intermediate coverage ratio (ICR) expands the numerator of the indicator for accounts receivable (AR) and is calculated by the formula:

PKP = (DS + KFV + DZ) / KP.

At the same time, for the purposes of analysis, receivables include not only cash advances issued and the amount of expected receipts from buyers and users for goods, products and services, the ownership of which has passed to buyers or users, but also the cost of products and goods shipped, which are under control economic entity (seller) before the transfer of ownership. The latter is quite justified, since if it is necessary to sell the organization's property for current assets accounted for under this balance sheet item, there is no need to establish a sales market, it is already determined by the supply contract and supporting documents for shipment, and in the near future, with some degree of probability, the transfer of rights is expected property to the buyer and subsequent payment. When analyzing coverage, it is necessary to exclude overdue receivables from the numerator.

The listed indicators of the numerator of the PKP coefficient constitute the balance sheet items included in section II of the balance sheet asset "Current assets".

The last indicator is the overall coverage ratio - TCR. The numerator of the indicator includes all current assets accounted for in section II of the balance sheet asset (BA), with the exception of the balance sheet item "Deferred expenses" (DPR), which reflects the current low-liquid asset and overdue receivables:

OKP \uXNUMXd (OA - RBP) / KP.

25. THE CONCEPT OF ACCOUNT. STRUCTURE OF ACCOUNTS

accounting account - this is a way of grouping, current control and reflection of business transactions that are performed with property, sources of its formation, business processes. The account is also a store of information, which is then summarized and used to compile various summary reporting indicators.

In appearance, the account is a table consisting of two parts. At the beginning of the table, the name of the account is given - the name of the accounting object. The left side of the account is called debit (Dt), and the right side is called credit (Kt). Therefore, the "debit" and "credit" of the account correspond to its sides. The accounts reflect business transactions both in quantitative and in value terms. To refer to balances in accounting accounts, the term "balance" (account balance) is used.

Each transaction reflected in the accounts affects the balance sheet, depending on its type. At the beginning of the reporting period, on the basis of the final balance sheet at the end of the previous reporting period, a balance sheet is built at the beginning of a new reporting period and accounting accounts are opened that have opening balance indicators in the balance sheet. Indicators characterizing the state of objects of accounting observation (assets, capital and liabilities) at the end of the previous period are rewritten in a new balance sheet and on accounting accounts in the form of data reflecting the object of observation at the beginning of the reporting period, i.e. in the form of an opening balance. In this case, an entry is made in that part of the account (debit or credit) in which the indicator is in the balance sheet: on asset items (i.e., on the left side of the balance sheet) - the balance is indicated on the debit of the accounting account; for articles of capital and liabilities - in the balance sheet on the right, the balance on the account is recorded on the loan.

Accounting actions to select from the balance of indicators characterizing the object of observation at the beginning of the reporting period, and transfer them as an opening balance to accounting accounts are called opening an account. Income and expense accounts, as well as other accounts characterizing economic and financial processes, the accumulated turnover of which relate only to the reporting period and are closed at the end of it (the turnover collected on one side of the account is reflected on the opposite side and transferred to the corresponding accounts), are considered accounts without a clear balance. Accounts without an explicit balance are also called transit, variable or temporary. To open a transit account (in Russian accounting, transit accounts are also called non-balance accounts) means to reflect data on at least one economic fact on it. Note that a similar approach also takes place in Western accounting: a zero opening balance on accounts is not recorded, but implied.

The list of accounting accounts opened by an economic entity during the reporting period is called Main book. The set of accounting accounts is the basis of the accounting information system of the enterprise.

26. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE ACCOUNTS. ACCOUNTS WITH TWO BALANCES

All accounting accounts are divided into active and passive, based on this, there are two schemes for entries in the accounts. Active - these are accounting accounts, which take into account various types of property, their presence, composition, movement. The balance of active accounts is debit only. Passive - these are accounting accounts, which take into account the sources of formation of property, their availability, composition, movement, as well as obligations. On passive accounts, the balances are only credit.

In addition to accounts with a debit or credit (one) balance, accounting uses accounts that have two balances: on debit and credit at the same time. Such accounts are called active-passive. On active-passive accounts, two objects are taken into account: one refers to assets, the other to liabilities (liabilities). So, on the account "Settlements with the founders" the debit balance reflects the receivables of the owners (second parties) to the economic entity (first person) for contributions to the authorized capital. The balance in the credit of this account shows the debt of the economic unit to its owners (founders) for the payment of income (dividends).

On the account "Settlements with various debtors and creditors", the debit balance reflects the asset of the enterprise - funds in settlements (accounts receivable to an economic entity), and the balance in the credit of the account - the enterprise's debt to various creditors.

The balance on active-passive accounts is "deployed" (often the list of debtors and creditors consists of different agents and correspondents), and there are special rules for withdrawing balances on such accounts.

The ending debit balance (SKD) is determined by the sum of the opening debit balance (SND) and the debit turnover related to accounts receivable (DODZ), reduced by the amount of credit turnover, including business transactions reflecting the decrease in debts of debtors to an economic entity (KODZ):

SKD = SND + DODZ - KODZ.

The final credit balance on such accounts (CCM), on the contrary, increases due to the credit turnover on accounts payable (KOKZ) and decreases by the value of the debit turnover on accounts payable (DOKZ):

SKK = SNK + KOKZ - DOKZ.

27. CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS: PART 1

Basic Accounting Accounts - accounts that are used to control the presence and movement of the enterprise's property in terms of composition, location and sources of its formation. There are basic active, basic passive and basic active-passive accounts. Main active accounts - accounting accounts that are used to control and record fixed assets, intangible assets, tangible and monetary funds, as well as settlements with debtors. Basic passive accounts - accounting accounts that are used to account for changes in capital, funds, gifts received, credits, loans, company obligations and settlements with creditors. Basic active-passive accounts - accounting accounts that are designed to record settlements with third parties. These accounts keep records of settlements simultaneously with debtors and creditors. Regulatory account - an accounting account designed to clarify and regulate the valuation of individual items of property and its sources accounted for in the main account. Regulating accounts have no independent value and are used only together with the main account. According to the method of refining the assessment, there are counter, additional and counter-additional accounts.

Contra account - an account that reduces the balance of property on the main account by the amount of its balance. Distinguish between contractive and counterpassive accounts. contract account - an account that is used to clarify the balance of the main active account. A contract account reduces the balance of the main active account by the amount of its balance. Counterpassive account - an account designed to clarify the amounts of sources of property recorded on a passive account. The balance of the contra-passive account reduces the size of the source of the main account.

Additional accounts - regulating accounts, which increase by the amount of their balance of property on the main accounts. There are active and passive additional accounts. Additional active account - a regulating account, which supplements the balance of the main active account by the amount of its balance. Additional passive account - Regulatory account, which, by the amount of its balance, supplements the balance of the main passive account.

28. CLASSIFICATION OF ACCOUNTS: PART 2

Counter-additional accounts - regulatory accounts, which can increase and decrease the value of objects reflected in the main accounts. If postings are made on the main account using the additional entry method, then the contra-additional account acts as an additional regulatory account. If postings are made on the main account using the red reversal method, then the contra-additional account acts as a contra account. Budgetary distribution account - distributive account, intended for the division of expenses between separate reporting periods. With the help of these accounts, fluctuations in the cost of production for reporting periods are eliminated. Distinguish between active and passive budgetary distribution accounts. Calculation accounts - accounting accounts intended for calculating the cost of products manufactured, work performed or services rendered in the reporting period. The debit of the calculation accounts reflects the costs of production, the credit writes off the actual cost of the output. Operating and effective account - an account that records expenses and incomes from operations related to the sale of products, the performance of work, the provision of services, the disposal of fixed assets, materials, intangible assets and securities.

Distribution Account Accounting - an account that performs a control function in the formation of individual costs and the estimate established for them, as well as used for the purpose of a reasonable distribution of costs between individual types of work for the full calculation of their actual cost. There are collective-distributive and budgetary-distributive accounts. Collection and distribution account - distributive account used to account for expenses that, at the time they are made, cannot be immediately attributed to certain manufactured or sold products. At the end of the month, these costs are attributed to a specific type of product in accordance with the accounting policy. Settling accounting account - an account intended for calculating the financial result of individual business processes and the enterprise as a whole. On these accounts, the same accounting object is reflected in two different estimates: in one - on the debit, and in the other - on the credit of the account. There are operational-effective and financial-effective matching accounts. Financial performance account - an account, on the credit of which the profit from the sale of various objects of property and other operations is reflected, and on the debit - losses and other non-operating expenses. Off-balance sheet accounts are intended to summarize information on the presence and movement of values temporarily in use or at the disposal of the organization (leased fixed assets, material assets in safekeeping, etc.), conditional rights and obligations, as well as to control individual business transactions. Accounting for these objects is kept according to a simple system.

29. CHART OF ACCOUNTS

Chart of accounts of accounting - a systematic list of accounts of accounting. Section I "Non-current assets" (01-09). Includes accounts for accounting for fixed assets (01, 02), intangible assets (04, 05), equipment for installation (07), other investments in non-current assets (08), deferred tax assets (09). Section II "Inventory" (10-19). Generates data on the availability and movement of stocks (10, 11, 15), deviations in their acquisition (16). Also presented here are the accounts for accounting for reserves for depreciation of material assets (14) and for the amounts of value added tax paid by the enterprise on acquired inventories (19). Section III "Production Costs" (20-29 and 30-39). The section is represented by accounts designed to account for production costs and calculate the cost of production in the main (20), auxiliary (23), service (29) industries, general production (25) and general business (26) expenses, defects in production (28), according to accounting for semi-finished products (21). Section IV "Finished products and goods" (40-49). Includes accounts for accounting for products of labor and output: goods (41), trade margin (42), finished products (43), goods shipped (45), sales expenses (44), as well as output, works, services (40 ). Section V "Cash" (50-59). The section summarizes information on the availability and movement of funds. Accounts are used to record cash on hand (50), on settlement (51), currency (52) and other special (55) accounts in banks, transfers in transit (57), financial investments (58); allowances for depreciation of investments in securities (59) are also taken into account. Section VI "Calculations" (60-79). Includes accounts for accounting for receivables and payables - for accounting for settlements with suppliers and contractors (60), buyers and customers (62), including for advances issued and received, settlements with personnel for remuneration (70), as well as other operations (73), with the budget (68), social insurance and security (69), with accountable persons (71), founders (75), short-term and long-term loans and borrowings (66, 67), on-farm settlements (79) , deferred tax liabilities (77). Section VII "Capital" (80-89). The section contains accounts that summarize information on the state and movement of the company's own capital, presented in the form of authorized (80), additional (83) and reserve (82) capital, retained earnings (84). It also includes earmarked financing (86) and own shares (81) accounts. Section VIII "Financial results" (90-99). Section accounts are designed to record the financial result from the sale of products and goods (90), other income and expenses (91). Also presented are accounts for profit and loss (99), expenses and deferred income (97, 98), reserves for future expenses (96), shortages and losses from damage to valuables (94).

30. SYNTHETIC AND ANALYTICAL ACCOUNTING. TYPES OF CHANGE CAUSED BY BUSINESS OPERATIONS

Synthetic and analytical accounting. Accounting in the organization is conducted in two meters - monetary and natural. This makes it possible to provide users with reliable information, first of all, regardless of the conjuncture of prices for inventories.

The purpose of generalizing accounting data is the synthetic accounting toolkit, which is implemented in the systematization of accounting information on synthetic accounts. A more detailed interpretation of the data is provided with the help of analytical accounting using natural meters along with cost and sub-account systems. In this way, synthetic accounting - this is the accounting of generalized accounting data on the types of property, liabilities and business transactions for certain economic characteristics, which is maintained on synthetic accounting accounts. Analytical accounting - accounting, which is maintained in personal, material and other analytical accounts of accounting, grouping detailed information about property, liabilities and business transactions within each synthetic account.

Analytical accounts may have a contract form (for accounts that do not provide for natural meters) or a quantitative-sum form. The total turnover and balance of all analytical accounts included in the synthetic account correspond to the turnover and balance of this synthetic account.

Types of changes caused by business transactions. Each business transaction occurring at the enterprise changes either the size of the property, or the value of the sources of its formation, or at the same time both the value of the property and its sources of formation. In this case, changes can be in the direction of both increase and decrease. The currency of the balance also changes.

There are four types of business transactions taking place at the enterprise, on the basis of their impact on the value of the asset and liability of the balance sheet. Operations 1st type change the composition of the property, i.e. affect only the balance sheet asset. In this case, the balance currency does not change: + A - A. Operations 2st type change the sources of formation of the property of the enterprise, i.e. affect only the liability of the balance sheet. In this case, the balance currency does not change: + P - P. Operations 3st type simultaneously change the value of the property and the sources of its formation, while the changes occur in the direction of increase. Moreover, the balance sheet for assets and liabilities increases by an equal amount: + A + P. Operations 4st type simultaneously change the value of the property and the sources of its formation, while the changes occur in the direction of reduction. Moreover, the balance sheet for assets and liabilities is reduced by an equal amount: - A - P.

31. ACCOUNTING ON ACCOUNTS: FIXED ASSETS AND DEPOSIT OF FIXED ASSETS

Account 01 "Fixed assets" is intended to summarize information on the presence and movement of fixed assets of the organization that are in operation, stock, mothballed, leased, trust management. Fixed assets are accepted for accounting under account 01 "Fixed assets" at their original cost. An object of fixed assets owned by two or more organizations is reflected by each organization on account 01 "Fixed assets" in the appropriate share.

Acceptance of fixed assets for accounting, as well as a change in their initial cost during completion, additional equipment and reconstruction is reflected in the debit of account 01 "Fixed assets" in correspondence with account 08 "Investments in non-current assets". The change in the initial cost during the revaluation of the relevant objects is reflected in account 01 "Fixed assets" in correspondence with account 83 "Additional capital". To account for the disposal of fixed assets to account 01 "Fixed assets", a subaccount "Disposal of fixed assets" can be opened. The cost of the retiring object is transferred to the debit of this sub-account, and the amount of accumulated depreciation is transferred to the credit. At the end of the disposal procedure, the residual value of the object is written off from account 01 "Fixed assets" to account 91 "Other income and expenses". Analytical accounting on account 01 "Fixed assets" is carried out for individual inventory items of fixed assets. At the same time, the construction of analytical accounting should provide the possibility of obtaining data on the availability and movement of fixed assets necessary for the preparation of financial statements (by type, location, etc.).

Account 02 "Depreciation of fixed assets" is designed to summarize information on depreciation accumulated during the operation of fixed assets. The accrued amount of depreciation of fixed assets is reflected in accounting on the credit of account 02 "Depreciation of fixed assets" in correspondence with the accounts of production costs (sales expenses). The lessor organization reflects the accrued amount of depreciation on fixed assets leased on the credit of account 02 "Depreciation of fixed assets" and the debit of account 91 "Other income and expenses". Upon disposal of fixed assets, the amount of depreciation accrued on them is debited from account 02 "Depreciation of fixed assets" to the credit of account 01 "Fixed assets" (sub-account "Disposal of fixed assets"). A similar entry is made when writing off the amount of accrued depreciation on missing or completely damaged fixed assets. Analytical accounting on account 02 "Depreciation of fixed assets" is carried out for individual inventory items of fixed assets. At the same time, the construction of analytical accounting should provide the possibility of obtaining data on the depreciation of fixed assets necessary for managing the organization and compiling financial statements.

32. ACCOUNTING ON ACCOUNTS: INTANGIBLE ASSETS

Account 04 "Intangible assets" is intended to summarize information on the presence and movement of the organization's intangible assets, as well as on the organization's expenses for research, development and technological work. Intangible assets are accepted for accounting on account 04 "Intangible assets" at their original cost. For objects of intangible assets, for which depreciation is accounted for without using account 05 "Depreciation of intangible assets", the accrued amounts of depreciation are written off directly to the credit of account 04 "Intangible assets". Acceptance of intangible assets for accounting is reflected in the debit of account 04 "Intangible assets" in correspondence with account 08 "Investments in non-current assets". When objects of intangible assets are disposed of, their value recorded on account 04 "Intangible assets" is reduced by the amount of depreciation accrued during the period of use (from the debit of account 05 "Depreciation of intangible assets"). The residual value of retired objects is written off from account 04 "Intangible assets" to account 91 "Other income and expenses". The organization's expenses for research, development and technological work, the results of which are used for the production or management needs of the organization, are accounted for on account 04 "Intangible assets" separately. Expenses for research, development and technological work are accepted for accounting on account 04 "Intangible assets" in the amount of actual costs, while account 04 "Intangible assets" is debited in correspondence with the credit of account 08 "Investments in non-current assets".

When writing off in the prescribed manner the costs of research, development and technological work, the results of which are used for the production or management needs of the organization, account 04 "Intangible assets" is credited to expenses for ordinary activities in correspondence with the debit of cost accounting accounts (20 "Main production", 26 "General expenses", etc.). Upon termination of the use of the results of research, development and technological work in the production of products (performance of work, etc.) or for management needs, the amounts of expenses not charged to expenses for ordinary activities are written off to the debit of account 91 "Other income and expenses " in correspondence with the credit of account 04 "Intangible assets".

Analytical accounting on account 04 "Intangible assets" is carried out for individual objects of intangible assets, as well as for types of expenses for research, development and technological work. At the same time, analytical accounting should provide the possibility of obtaining data on the presence and movement of intangible assets, as well as the amounts of expenses for research, development and technological work.

33. ACCOUNTING ON ACCOUNTS: DEMORTIZATION OF INTANGIBLE ASSETS

Account 05 "Amortization of intangible assets" is intended to summarize information on depreciation accumulated during the use of objects of intangible assets of the organization (with the exception of objects for which depreciation deductions are written off directly to the credit of account 04 "Intangible assets").

The accrued amount of depreciation of intangible assets is reflected in accounting on the credit of account 05 "Amortization of intangible assets" in correspondence with the accounts of production costs (sales expenses).

Upon disposal (sale, write-off, transfer free of charge, etc.) of intangible assets, the amount of depreciation accrued on them is written off from account 05 "Depreciation of intangible assets" to the credit of account 04 "Intangible assets".

Analytical accounting on account 05 "Amortization of intangible assets" is carried out for individual objects of intangible assets. At the same time, the construction of analytical accounting should provide the possibility of obtaining data on the depreciation of intangible assets necessary for managing the organization and compiling financial statements.

In accounting, production costs are reflected in the accounts of Section III of the Chart of Accounts. The accounts of this section are intended to summarize information on expenses for the ordinary activities of the organization (except for sales expenses).

The formation of information on expenses for ordinary activities is carried out either on accounts 20-29 or on accounts 20-39. In the latter case, accounts 20-29 are used to group expenses by items, places of origin and other features, as well as calculate the cost of products (works, services); accounts 30-39 are used to record expenses by expense items. The relationship of accounting for expenses by items and elements is carried out using specially opened reflective accounts. The composition and methodology for using accounts 20-39 with this accounting option is established by the organization based on the characteristics of the activity, structure, and management organization. It is planned to develop relevant recommendations of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation.

34. ACCOUNTING ON ACCOUNTS: BASIC PRODUCTION

Account 20 "Main production" is intended for summarizing information about the costs of production, the products (works, services) of which were the purpose of creating this organization. In particular, this account is used to record costs: 1) for the production of industrial and agricultural products; 2) for the implementation of construction and installation, geological exploration and design and survey works; 3) on the provision of services of transport and communications organizations; 4) on the implementation of research and design work, if they are the subject of the main activity of the organization; 5) for the maintenance and repair of roads, etc. The debit of account 20 "Main production" reflects direct costs related directly to the production of products, the performance of work and the provision of services, as well as the costs of auxiliary industries, indirect costs associated with the management and maintenance of the main production, and waste from marriage. Direct costs directly related to the release of products, the performance of work and the provision of services are debited to account 20 "Main production" from the credit of accounts for accounting for inventories, settlements with employees for wages, etc. The costs of auxiliary production are debited to account 20 "Main production" from the credit of account 23 "Auxiliary production". Indirect costs associated with the management and maintenance of production are written off to account 20 "Main production" from accounts 25 "General production expenses" and 26 "General expenses" (if such a method of distribution of general expenses is provided for by the accounting policy of the organization). Losses from marriage are written off to account 20 "Main production" from the credit of account 28 "Marriage in production". Direct costs - are taken into account on account 20 "Main production" directly on the sub-account of the corresponding order, type of product, etc. Direct costs usually include the costs of basic materials (which are part of the finished product), components and semi-finished products, labor costs of the main production workers, accrued on work orders or other similar documents, UST and VOPS from these amounts. Information on indirect costs goes to account 20 "Main production" indirectly - in the order described. The credit of account 20 "Main production" reflects the sums of the actual cost of finished products, works and services performed. These amounts can be debited from account 20 "Main production" to the debit of accounts 43 "Finished products", 40 "Output of products (works, services)", 90 "Sales", etc.

Analytical accounting on account 20 "Main production" is carried out by types of costs and types of products. If the formation of information on expenses for ordinary activities is not carried out on accounts 20-39, then analytical accounting for account 20 "Main production" is also carried out for the divisions of the organization.

35. ACCOUNTING ON ACCOUNTS: AUXILIARY PRODUCTIONS

Account 23 "Auxiliary production" is designed to summarize information about the costs of production, which are auxiliary (auxiliary) to the main production of the organization. In particular, this account is used to record the costs of production, providing: 1) maintenance of various types of energy (electricity, steam, gas, air, etc.); 2) transport service; 3) repair of fixed assets; 4) production of tools, stamps, spare parts; construction details, structures or enrichment of building materials (mainly in construction organizations); 5) construction of (temporary) non-title structures; 6) mining of stone, gravel, sand and other non-metallic materials; 7) logging, sawmilling; 8) salting, drying and preserving agricultural products, etc.

The debit of account 23 "Auxiliary production" reflects direct costs associated directly with the release of products, the performance of work and the provision of services, as well as indirect costs associated with the management and maintenance of auxiliary production, and losses from marriage. Direct costs directly related to the production of products, the performance of work and the provision of services are written off to account 23 "Auxiliary production" from the credit of the accounts of accounting for production stocks, settlements with employees for wages, etc. Indirect costs associated with the management and maintenance of auxiliary production, debited to account 23 "Auxiliary production" from accounts 25 "General production expenses" and 26 "General expenses". If appropriate, the costs of servicing production can be taken into account directly on account 23 "Auxiliary production" (without prior accumulation on account 25 "General production costs"). Losses from marriage are written off to account 23 "Auxiliary production" from the credit of account 28 "Marriage in production".

The credit of account 23 "Auxiliary production" reflects the amount of the actual cost of completed production, work performed and services rendered. These amounts are debited from account 23 "Auxiliary production" to the debit of accounts: 1) 20 "Main production" - when selling products (works, services) to the main production; 2) 29 "Service industries and farms" - when selling products (works, services) to service industries or farms; 3) 90 "Sales" - when performing work and services for third parties; 4) 40 "Output of products (works, services)" - when using this account to account for the cost of production, etc. The balance of account 23 "Auxiliary production" at the end of the month shows the value of work in progress. Analytical accounting for account 23 "Auxiliary production" should be organized by type of production.

36. ACCOUNTING ON ACCOUNTS: GENERAL PRODUCTION AND GENERAL EXPENSES

Account 25 "General production costs" is designed to summarize information on the costs of servicing the main and auxiliary production of the organization. In particular, the following expenses may be reflected in this account: 1) maintenance and operation of machinery and equipment; 2) depreciation deductions and expenses for the repair of fixed assets and other property used in production; 3) expenses for insurance of said property; 4) expenses for heating, lighting and maintenance of premises; 5) rent for premises, machines, equipment, etc. used in production; remuneration of workers engaged in maintenance of production; other similar expenses. Analytical accounting on account 25 "General production costs" is carried out for individual divisions of the organization and items of expenditure.

Account 26 "General business expenses" is designed to summarize information on costs for management needs not directly related to the production process. In particular, the following expenses may be reflected in this account: 1) administrative and management expenses; 2) maintenance of general economic personnel not related to the production process; 3) depreciation deductions and expenses for the repair of fixed assets for management and general business purposes; 4) rent for general purpose premises; 5) expenses for payment of information, audit, consulting, etc. services; 6) other similar administrative expenses. General business expenses are reflected on account 26 "General business expenses" from the credit of accounts for recording production inventories, settlements with employees for wages, settlements with other organizations (persons), etc. The expenses recorded on account 26 "General business expenses" are written off, in particular, to the debit of accounts 20 "Main production", 23 "Auxiliary production" (if auxiliary production produced goods and work and provided services to the side), 29 "Service production and farms" (if service production and farms performed work and services to the side). The indicated expenses as conditionally fixed can be debited directly to the debit of account 90 "Sales", if such an order is provided for by the accounting policy of the organization.

Organizations whose activities are not related to the production process (commission agents, agents, brokers, dealers, etc., except for organizations engaged in trading activities) use account 26 "General business expenses" to summarize information on the costs of conducting this activity. These organizations write off the amounts accumulated on account 26 "General business expenses" to the debit of account 90 "Sales". Analytical accounting on account 26 "General business expenses" is carried out for each item of the relevant estimates, the place of incurrence of costs, etc.

37. ACCOUNTING ON ACCOUNTS: VALUE ADDED TAX

Value added tax (VAT) is reflected in two accounting accounts - on account 19 "Value added tax on acquired valuables" and on account 68 "Calculations on taxes and fees" - in terms of the tax presented to buyers (according to accounts 90 and 91) reduced by the amount of tax deductions. The interaction of these accounts is as follows. Account 19 "Value added tax on acquired valuables" is intended to summarize information on the amounts of value added tax paid (payable) by the organization on acquired valuables, as well as works and services.

To account 19 "Value added tax on acquired values" sub-accounts can be opened: 1) 19-1 "Value added tax on the acquisition of fixed assets"; 2) 19-2 "Value added tax on acquired intangible assets"; 3) 19-3 "Value added tax on acquired inventories", etc.

On sub-account 19-1 "Value added tax on the acquisition of fixed assets" the amount of value added tax paid (due to be paid) by the organization relating to the construction and acquisition of fixed assets (including individual fixed assets, land plots and nature use objects) is taken into account . On sub-account 19-2 "Value added tax on acquired intangible assets" the amounts of value added tax paid (due to payment) related to the acquisition of intangible assets are taken into account. Subaccount 19-3 "Value added tax on acquired inventories" takes into account the amounts of value added tax paid (due to be paid) by the organization related to the acquisition of raw materials, materials, semi-finished products and other types of inventories, as well as goods.

The debit of account 19 "Value added tax on acquired valuables" reflects the amounts of tax paid (due to be paid) by the organization on acquired inventories, intangible assets and fixed assets in correspondence with settlement accounts.

The write-off of the amounts of value added tax accumulated on account 19 "Value added tax on acquired valuables" is reflected in the credit of account 19 "Value added tax on acquired valuables" in correspondence, as a rule, with account 68 "Calculations on taxes and fees".

38. ACCOUNTING ENTRIES AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION

External links between accounts (their correspondence) and the amount of change are called accounting entry. Accounting entries according to the nature of the data they reflect are divided into real and conditional. Real postings reflect changes in the objects of accounting as a result of the facts of economic life that actually took place. In contrast, conditional (methodological) entries are a product of accounting methodology: the correspondence of accounts recorded in them is based not on the facts of economic activity that took place in real economic activity, but on the need to perform accounting techniques, namely, the transfer of indicators from one account to another (or several accounts) or refinements of individual indicators.

Real accounting entries are divided into direct and relative. Real direct wiring characterize data on the economic resources of the economic unit and their movement. Therefore, it is assumed that in the correspondence describing such a transaction, there is at least one asset account containing information about tangible, intangible or monetary resources with which real changes occur. Real relative postings - fixation of economic facts related to upcoming changes in the composition of economic resources or ongoing changes in these resources that cannot be reflected by direct postings. So, a real direct entry describing the payment from the payroll has a previous economic fact associated with its accrual. In this case, the necessary conditions are prepared for claiming payments caused by an increase in wage arrears.

Conditional or methodological accounting entries are divided into key figure transfer postings and key figure refinement postings. Conditional key figure refinement postings - a methodological method of accounting that allows you to clarify the assessment or composition of the indicator. Postings that refine indicators include corrective entries: additional posting and reversal. Additional posting is given when, by mistake, this or that operation was registered in a smaller amount (and the correspondence of the accounts is indicated correctly), reversal - completely or partially removes the previously registered erroneous posting. Conditional key figure transfer postings - a methodological method of accounting that allows you to select the necessary accounting object on an independent account, on which this object receives additional reflection or grouping. Thus, the financial result revealed in the sales accounts is transferred to the Profit and Loss account. The rule for transferring indicators is that on the new account the transferred indicator is reflected in the part in which it was on the account from which this transfer was carried out.

39. PRIMARY ACCOUNTING DOCUMENTS

All entries in accounting are made only on the basis of relevant supporting documents.

Document (documented information) is information fixed on a material carrier with details that allow it to be identified. Accounting documents are mainly drawn up according to unified forms, which is due to the need to streamline information flows in the national economy, ensure comparability of accounting and reporting data of various organizations (or one organization for different periods), their completeness and reliability, and avoid duplication of information.

Accounting documentation is part of the organization's management documentation system in accordance with the All-Russian Classifier of Management Documentation (OKUD), approved by the Decree of the State Standard of Russia dated December 30, 1993 No. 299.

In general, accounting documents can be divided into three levels: primary accounting documentation, accounting registers and reporting accounting documentation. This gradation is fully consistent with the definition of workflow in accounting, the sequence and logic of documenting the economic activities of the organization.

Primary accounting documents on the basis of which accounting is maintained, serve as documents that record the facts of a business transaction.

By composition, it is customary to divide documents into incoming, outgoing и internal. The first group represents the documents received by the organization. The second group includes official documents provided by the organization to external respondents. Internal documents are a group of official documents that do not go beyond the organization that prepared them.

The document gets a status official, if it is created by a legal or natural person, executed and certified in the prescribed manner.

40. CLASSIFICATION OF PRIMARY ACCOUNTING DOCUMENTS

Classification of documents in terms of composition and analysis of their structure on this basis, they allow us to evaluate the ratio of the volumes of internal and external document circulation in the organization, analyze the degree of autonomy of the enterprise, evaluate the activity of the organization's circulation in the external environment (by the share of outgoing documents).

By appointment, documents are divided into administrative, executive, combined and accounting documents. managerial - these are documents that contain orders, instructions on the production, performance of certain business operations. Such documents include orders of the head of the enterprise and persons authorized by him to carry out business operations. Executive documents certify the fact of business transactions. These include: receipt orders (acts of acceptance) of materials; acts of acceptance and disposal of fixed assets; documents on acceptance from workers of finished products, etc. Executive documents are signed by persons responsible for the implementation of business operations and for the correctness of their execution in documents, for example, heads of workshops, warehouse managers (storekeepers), foremen, etc. Combined These are documents that are both administrative and executive. These include: incoming and outgoing cash orders; payroll statements for the issuance of wages to employees of the enterprise; advance reports of accountable (seconded) persons, etc.

Accounting documents are compiled when there are no other documents for records of business transactions, or when summarizing and processing executive and administrative documents. These include references, distribution statements, reserve calculations, financial statements, etc.

The documents used in accounting are also divided into one-time and accumulative. One-time primary documents draw up each business transaction and are compiled in one step. Cumulative documents are drawn up over a certain period by the gradual accumulation of homogeneous business transactions. At the end of the period, the results for the relevant indicators are calculated in these documents.

Accounting documents are divided into primary and summary. Primary documents are drawn up for each transaction at the time of its completion. These include documents on the receipt of materials by the enterprise and their release from the warehouses of the enterprise to the workshops; on the shipment of products to customers; on the calculation of wages for employees for manufactured products, work performed or services provided, etc. Summary documents summarize indicators by grouping them appropriately, systematizing them from primary documents. Consolidated documents differ from accumulative documents in that they are compiled on the basis of primary documents and are their summary, and an accumulative document is a primary document compiled gradually.

41. ERRORS OF ACCOUNTING RECORDS BY INTENTION, CAUSES AND PLACE OF OCCURRENCE, CONSEQUENCES, SIGNIFICANCE

All errors that occur in accounting can be classified on five grounds: 1) by intent (free, intentional, and involuntary, unintentional); 2) due to causes (fatigue, negligence, equipment malfunction); 3) by consequences (local and transit); 4) by significance (significant and insignificant); 5) by place of occurrence (in text, in numbers, in posting); 6) by content (by completeness of reliability, periodization, correspondence, evaluation, presentation).

by design emit freestyle (deliberate), i.e., intentional "mistakes" arising from the evil will of workers, free errors should be attributed to abuse; and involuntary, i.e. the actual errors that occur without malicious intent.

For reasons of occurrence mistakes have 3 sources: fatigue - a person cannot but make mistakes; the more he gets tired, the more he makes mistakes; negligence - it is quite obvious that the degree of accuracy is different for different people, and the one who has less of it is more prone to negligence and, accordingly, makes more mistakes in work; malfunction of equipment is a consequence of sometimes excessive trust of an employee in a computer.

By consequences allocate local ones, i.e. an error made does not automatically entail subsequent errors; and transit, when one mistake made entails subsequent ones (for example, if an error was made in the cost of goods when writing in a commodity report, it can automatically be repeated in all documents in which this cost should appear). Transit errors are more dangerous, since they distort accounting data to a greater extent than local (local) ones.

By importance 2 groups of errors should be distinguished: significant, i.e., those that can affect decision-making, and insignificant, i.e., those that cannot affect decisions. If a significant error is found, the document may be invalidated.

By place of origin Distinguish between: errors in the text - these errors are corrected by crossing out the incorrect text and writing the correct one - a proofreading method, while the persons who signed the document must also sign the corrections; errors in numbers - errors are more common in accounting documents, and there are special rules for finding such errors; errors in posting - omission or repetition when rewriting.

42. ERRORS OF ACCOUNTING RECORDS BY CONTENT

According to the content - one of the most important classifications. On this basis, errors are divided as follows. Errors in completeness This is more of a negligence than an abuse. Their essence boils down to the fact that some of the facts were not reflected and, in general, the situation is now inadequately reflected in the accounting. Reliability errors take place in the case when the accounting records what is missing in real life. For example, an accountant receives documents for the supply of goods, reflects them in accounting registers, but in fact these goods did not arrive; an order is issued for work that has not been carried out; an invoice is issued for services that were not provided, etc. Errors in periodization arise as a result of a violation of the principle of identification, that is, they represent a reflection of the facts of economic life in the wrong reporting period to which they should have been attributed. Errors in accounting correspondence means that the facts of economic life are recorded by the accountant not on those accounts that are predetermined by the adopted chart of accounts, but on another account (accounts). Such an error can distort the financial result, the structure of funds and sources, but cannot, under any circumstances, distort the accounting objects themselves. Errors in estimation very common. They are associated with the choice of valuation, pricing, depreciation, reserves, incorrect choice of revaluation factors, calculation of exchange differences, etc. These errors allow you to manipulate the value of funds and sources, but do not affect the funds in their physical terms. Such errors are established by expert evaluation. View errors by type, they are close to errors in accounting correspondence, but they mean incorrect presentation of data due to violation of the conditions of this presentation. It is not the facts themselves that are distorted here, but their presentation. If errors are found in primary documents, accounting registers or financial statements, it becomes necessary to correct incorrect data. However, primary documents containing a description of business transactions involving the movement of cash or non-cash funds - cash and bank documents - are not subject to correction. Reflection of the corrections made on the accounting accounts is carried out in one of the following ways: 1) an entry incorrectly made in the previous period is reversed and a correct entry is made; 2) an additional entry is made for the amount not reflected in the accounts; 3) a generalized posting is made, which brings the accounting accounts into the state that it would be if the transaction was initially correctly reflected.

Correction of primary accounting documents and account entries must be accompanied by an accounting statement. Accounting reports and balance sheets should not contain any erasures or blots. In case of correction of errors, appropriate reservations are made, which are certified by the persons who signed the report and the balance sheet.

43. SIMPLE FORM OF ACCOUNTING

Simple form of accounting applicable to small enterprises that perform a small number of business transactions (as a rule, no more than 30 per month), do not carry out the production of products and work associated with large expenditures of material resources. In this case, accounting for all transactions is carried out by registering them only in the Book (journal) of accounting for the facts of economic activity in the form No. K-1 (this and other registers listed in relation to the simplified form of accounting were approved by order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated December 21, 1998 No. 64n, which also reveals the order in which they are filled).

Along with the Book, in order to account for settlements on wages with employees and on income tax with the budget, a small enterprise must also maintain a payroll record in Form No. B-8.

The book is a register of analytical and synthetic accounting, on the basis of which it is possible to determine the availability of property and funds, as well as their sources from a small enterprise on a certain date and draw up financial statements. The book is a combined accounting register that contains all the accounting accounts used by a small business and allows you to keep records of business transactions on each of them. At the same time, it should be detailed enough to justify the content of the relevant balance sheet items.

A small business can keep the Book in the form of a statement, opening it for a month (if necessary, using slip sheets to record transactions on accounts), or in the form of a book in which transactions are recorded for the entire reporting year. In this case, the Book must be laced and numbered. The last page records the number of pages contained in it, which is certified by the signatures of the head of the small enterprise and the person responsible for maintaining accounting records in the small enterprise, as well as an imprint of the seal of the small enterprise.

The book allows you to display the balance of each account on the 1st of the next month. Directly on the basis of these results, the financial statements of a small enterprise are compiled.

44. MEMORIAL-ORDER FORM OF ACCOUNTING

Seems more difficult memorial order form accounting. It is used in several versions, depending on industry characteristics and type of enterprise. It combines book and card development and grouping accounting registers. Synthetic accounting is carried out in books or multi-graph statements, and books, statements and cards are used for analytical accounting. Checked and accepted for accounting documents are systematized by the dates of the transactions (in chronological order) and are issued by memorial orders - accumulative statements, which are assigned permanent numbers. Separate memorial orders are drawn up for transactions that cannot be systematized and for reversal transactions, which are numbered separately for each month.

In organizations in which the volume of transactions does not require the compilation of accumulative statements, the correspondence of the accounts is indicated on separate memorial orders or on stamp impressions affixed directly to the primary documents with the assignment of appropriate numbers. The stamp must contain the same mandatory details as the memorial order - number, date of compilation, invoice correspondence, amount, signature of the responsible person - and a number of additional ones (if necessary). Separate memorial orders are drawn up as transactions are completed, but no later than the next day upon receipt of the primary document, both on the basis of individual documents and on the basis of a group of homogeneous documents. Correspondence of accounts in a memorial order is recorded depending on the nature of operations on the debit of one account and the credit of another account, or the debit of one account and the credit of several accounts, or, conversely, the credit of one account and the debit of several accounts.

Memorial orders are signed by the chief accountant or his deputy and the executor, and with the centralization of accounting, in addition, by the head of the accounting group. Compiled memorial warrants are recorded in chronological order in the registration journal. The data of the memorial orders are transferred to the General Ledger, in which each reversal corresponds to a separate account. In this case, on the left side of the account, data on business transactions are reflected on the debit, and on the right side - on the credit of this account. The totals for the debit and credit of the accounts of the General Ledger are recorded in the turnover sheet, built using synthetic accounts, on the basis of which the balance sheet is drawn up. Benefits The memorial-order form of accounting is the simplicity and clarity of its accounting registers. At the same time, with predominantly manual filling of accounting registers, the volume of routine work on filling in memorial orders is extremely large. As a result, a more advanced journal-order form of accounting was developed.

45. ACCOUNTING PROCEDURE. MAIN BOOK

The first part of the accounting procedure - analysis of the content of business transactions in order to determine which accounts will be debited, which will be credited and for what amounts, in order to reflect the facts of economic life in accounting registers. At the stage of the procedure "Analysis of the content of information about the financial and economic life according to primary documents", the reconstruction of data on financial and business processes is carried out in an accounting entry, when the value content of the indicator reflecting the impact of the fact of economic life on the objects of accounting supervision is assigned information about the corresponding accounts, which take into account the specified objects that have undergone changes under the influence of FHJ.

The next stage of the procedure is the transfer to the journal of entries from primary documents that serve as the justification for the registration of accounting data. All facts of economic life are recorded in the journal as they arise in chronological order. At the end of the reporting period, for all entries registered in the journal, the total turnover is calculated in the "Total amount" column, which is an important control value when collating the results of processing accounting data for the reporting period.

main book - a set of accounting accounts opened in the organization during the reporting period, the main part of the accounting information system, which reflects all objects of accounting supervision, both providing production, economic and financial activities (assets, capital and liabilities), and the objects that make it up ( economic and financial processes and their results), as well as the consequences of the fait accompli of economic life. The general ledger as a stage of the accounting procedure also refers to the mechanical stages - this is the transfer of business facts from the registration journal to the accounts of the General Ledger. The purpose of the stage is to systematize accounting records (reflect systematically), previously registered in chronological order. Records reflected in the system of accounting accounts are called systematic.

The economic facts registered in the chronological record are reflected in the accounts twice (on the debit of one and the credit of the other account) in equal amounts. If the posting is complex, then the total amount is posted to one debit account and the partial amounts are posted several times to the credited accounts, and vice versa: the total amount is written to the credited account and several partial amounts are posted to the debited accounts. At the same time, the sums of turnovers for all debited and all credited accounts are necessarily equal. At the end of the reporting period, all accounts in the General Ledger are calculated turnovers (the sum of all key figures on the debit or credit side) and a preliminary closing balance figure is displayed. Non-balance accounts (temporary, variable or transit) are closed, their debit and credit turnovers are necessarily equal, there is no balance.

46. BOARD ON INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS

International Accounting Standards Board is an independent organization whose members are approved by the Nominating Committee. Members of the Committee are in turn nominated for positions through a process of extensive discussion by the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) with companies and academia. IFAC has 156 accounting associations, which include 2 million members, including from Russia. The activities of the International Standards Board are supported and funded on a voluntary basis by audit firms, associations and commercial organizations.

The Council consults on all its projects. Auditing firms, companies, academia and anyone else can submit a commentary letter in support of or criticism of the future standard. With insufficient support for the new standard from future users and after the analysis of constructive criticism, the new standard may undergo significant changes or not be adopted at all. The votes of 8 out of 14 members of the Board are required to approve a decision to adopt, amend or retire an IFRS. IFRS are not binding, and the International Standards Board cannot require companies to follow IFRS when reporting. Moreover, each country has national accounting and financial reporting standards that companies resident in those countries must follow.

The most well-known national standards are the US Generally Accepted Accounting Principles - US GAAP.

It is believed that International Financial Reporting Standards are the most developed accounting standards. That is why in many countries, for example, in Australia, Germany and the UK, foreign issuers can submit their reports to the stock exchanges in accordance not with the national standards of these countries, but with international standards. In other states, such as Canada, Japan and the United States, this is also allowed, however, companies preparing financial statements in accordance with IFRS must additionally provide a list of its differences from financial statements that would be prepared in accordance with the national standards of these countries. In some countries (for example, the Czech Republic, the Baltic countries), all large enterprises must prepare IFRS statements.

International standards are based on the basic principles of financial reporting: accrual, materiality, priority of substance over form, going concern, etc. Unlike IFRS, the national standards of many countries, as a rule, are a set of detailed rules that describe in detail the procedure for accounting for business transactions and exceptions to these rules. However, it should be noted that Russian standards are becoming closer to IFRS, and current PBUs almost fully comply with international standards, although some differences still remain.

47. PROCESS FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING STANDARDS

The traditional process of developing International Accounting Standards includes the following steps. Stage I: formation of the Editorial Commission. It is headed by an authorized representative of the Board. It usually includes members of the accounting profession from at least three different countries, but may include members of other organizations on the Board or Advisory Group, as well as experts in certain areas. Stage II: development of a draft international standard. The editorial committee considers emerging issues of preparation and presentation of financial statements, and also discusses the IASB's work plan on these issues. In addition, the Drafting Committee studies accounting requirements and practices at the national and regional levels, including different accounting systems in different economic conditions. As a result of the discussion of these issues, the Editorial Committee submits to the Board for consideration the "General Plan for the Development of a Draft International Financial Reporting Standard". Stage III: preparation of a working draft of the provisions of the standard. The editorial committee is preparing a "Working Draft of the Regulations". Its purpose is to establish the principles that will be used in the preparation of the Draft International Financial Reporting Standard. It also contains a description of the alternative solutions considered and the reasons for recommending their acceptance or rejection. All interested parties can make their suggestions and comments at the stage of consideration of the project, which usually lasts 4 months. IV stage: approval by the Board of the working draft of the provisions of the standard. The drafting committee reviews the list of comments on the "Working Draft Regulations" and agrees on its final version, after which this draft is submitted for Board approval and is used as the basis for the preparation of the "Draft International Financial Reporting Standard". The final version of the "Working Draft Regulations" is not published, but may be presented at the request of the public. Stage V: drawing up a plan for the development of an international standard. The drafting committee develops an outline of the Draft International Financial Reporting Standard, which is subsequently reviewed and published if adopted. All interested parties can submit their suggestions and comments during the review stage of the project, which usually lasts from one to six months. VI stage: preparation of a draft international standard. The editorial committee considers all suggestions and comments and prepares a "Draft International Financial Reporting Standard" for consideration by the Board. After the approval of the project, which requires at least ²/₃ votes of the Board members, a new accounting standard is published.

48. CONCEPT OF ACCOUNTING POLICIES

Under accounting policy organization is understood as the set of accounting methods adopted by it - primary observation, cost measurement, current grouping and final generalization of the facts of economic activity (clause 2 of section I PBU 1/98). Accounting methods include, according to the same source, methods of grouping and evaluating the facts of economic activity, paying off the value of assets, organizing document management, inventory, methods of using accounting accounts, systems of accounting registers, information processing and other relevant methods and techniques.

In modern conditions, depending on the goals set by the managers of the company, the value of the generated financial result can vary in the direction of both increase and decrease. Thus, the timing of including costs in the cost price, approaches to determining the value of individual cost items, the formation of funds and reserves from sources included in the cost price, etc., can significantly underestimate the potential financial result to be distributed among the owners. This can serve the purpose of replenishing funds for the development of the enterprise. At the same time, acting in a similar situation, but choosing a different accounting policy option, you can achieve the opposite effect if, for example, attracting investors, obtaining loans, etc. is a priority in this period.

Thus, a skillfully drawn up accounting policy is one of the most important tools for managing the company's activities and achieving the goals of management. In addition, a well-designed accounting policy should help accountants, economists, company analysts who, for some reason, cannot quickly contact their managers directly (for example, they work in remote branches), understand the overall strategy for organizing and maintaining accounting as in a company. in general, and in its areas of work in particular. The provisions of the accounting policy should help them to avoid errors and contradictions in the reflection of accounting and reporting data, to unite all levels of management of the organization with the corporate spirit.

When forming the accounting policy of an organization in a specific direction of maintaining and organizing accounting, one of the several methods allowed by the legislation and regulations on accounting is selected. If, on a specific issue, the regulatory documents do not establish accounting methods, then when forming an accounting policy, the organization develops an appropriate method (clause 8 of section II PBU 1/98), based on the provisions on accounting (PBU), as well as documents, clarifying and supplementing them.

49. PRINCIPLES OF ACCOUNTING POLICIES

The accounting policy of any organization should be based on the fundamental principles and assumptions of accounting. These basic economic principles include:

1. The principle of integrity, according to which the credentials constitute a single system that provides management of business processes. 2. The principle of property isolation, which implies that property owned by an organization is accounted for separately from the property of other legal entities owned by this organization. 3. The principle of continuity - accounting is kept by the organization continuously from the moment of its registration as a legal entity until reorganization or liquidation in the manner prescribed by the legislation of the Russian Federation. The Organization will continue as a going concern for the foreseeable future as it has no intention or need to liquidate or substantially reduce operations and hence liabilities will be discharged in due course. 4. The principle of continuous registration (completeness requirement) - all business transactions and inventory results are subject to timely registration on accounting accounts without any omissions or exceptions. 5. The principle of documentation, according to which the facts are reflected in the accounting on the basis of relevant primary documents. 6. The principle of temporal certainty of the facts of economic activity (the accrual principle), which implies that the facts of economic activity are recorded in the reporting period when they took place, regardless of the time of cash flow associated with these facts. 7. The principle of quantitative measurement and calculation of the facts of economic activity. 8. The principle of verifiability - information control. 9. The principle of consistency, which implies the identity of analytical accounting data to turnovers and balances of synthetic accounting accounts on the last calendar day of each month. 10. The principle of separation of current and capital costs - in the accounting of organizations, current costs for the production of products and capital investments are accounted for separately. 11. The principle of interpretability - accounting information must be clear and subject to interpretation and analysis. 12. The principle of prudence is a greater willingness to recognize expenses and liabilities in accounting than possible income and assets, avoiding the creation of hidden reserves. 13. The principle of priority of content over form is the reflection in accounting of factors of economic activity based not so much on their legal form, but on the economic content of the facts and business conditions. 14. The principle of rationality - rational accounting, based on the conditions of economic activity and the size of the organization.

Some of these principles are given in paragraph 7 of section II PBU 1/98, others follow from the theory and centuries-old practice of accounting and are enshrined in various conceptual documents in the field of accounting.

50. THE CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATION OF ACCOUNTING AT THE ENTERPRISE. FORMS OF RECORDING

The concept of the organization of accounting in the enterprise. Responsibility for the organization of accounting in organizations, compliance with the law in the performance of business operations is borne by the heads of organizations. Heads of organizations can, depending on the volume of accounting work: a) establish an accounting service as a structural unit headed by a chief accountant; b) hire an accountant; at) to transfer, on a contractual basis, bookkeeping to a centralized accounting department, a specialized organization or a specialist accountant; d) do the bookkeeping in person.

Forms of accounting. In modern conditions, keeping records without the use of a computer is almost impossible. This is due to the constant growth in the volume of accounting data and the complication of accounting procedures. The use of computers makes it possible to speed up the processing and systematization of data, their analysis, the preparation of standard and specific reports, and free the accountant and auditor from the lion's share of routine work.

Banking systems "client - bank" using the capabilities of computer networks are becoming more and more widespread. In general, software products that automate accounting in an enterprise can be divided into 3 main groups according to the degree of coverage - a "boxed" product, a software package and an integrated software package. The 1st group includes standard software products that do not require implementation costs - they are practically not adaptable to the specifics of the user's business activities. The software package allows you to automate specific accounting objects, and also provides the ability to customize to the needs of a particular enterprise. Finally, the integrated software package ensures the automation of all enterprise activities, the construction of an information model that is as close to reality as possible. When selecting software products, one should be guided primarily by the principle of expediency.

The market is replete with accounting automation programs that meet the diverse needs of organizations. Among the market leaders of the program are "1C: Accounting", "INFIN", "Info-Accountant", "Sail". Each of them is focused on a certain range of consumers and has several modifications depending on the number of employees of the organization and the diversity of its activities.

51. ORGANIZATIONAL FORMS OF ACCOUNTING SERVICE. RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF THE CHIEF ACCOUNTANT

Organizational forms of accounting service. An accounting service is understood as a structural unit of an enterprise that performs the functions of collecting, processing and grouping information in the form of consolidated accounting documents, making entries on accounting accounts. Depending on the organizational structure, the accounting service can be not only accounting, but also other divisions (tax accounting group, summary reporting group, debtor management group, economic, financial departments, etc.). If the accounting department is separated into a separate service in the organization, then its structural structure must be reflected in the accounting policy. With a centralized form, all aspects of accounting are concentrated in the main (centralized) accounting, which is a single unit of the organization. Such its construction makes it possible to organize a clear division of labor of employees of the accounting department and ensure control by this accounting service of all production, commercial and other processes in the organization.

However, many organizations have in their structure a network of divisions that differ both in terms of volume of activity (for example, a chain of department stores) and in terms of their production profile (for example, a catering organization sells products through its store). In this case, a decision can be made to decentralize accounting with the creation of accounting services in each division of the organization.

Rights and obligations of the chief accountant. Chief accountant (accountant in the absence of the position of chief accountant in the state) in accordance with Art. 7 of the Law "On Accounting" is appointed to the position and dismissed by the head of the organization. The chief accountant reports directly to the head of the organization and is responsible for the formation of accounting policies, accounting, timely submission of complete and reliable financial statements. The chief accountant ensures the compliance of ongoing business operations with the legislation of the Russian Federation, control over the movement of property and the fulfillment of obligations.

The requirements of the chief accountant for documenting business transactions and submitting the necessary documents and information to the accounting department are mandatory for all employees of the organization. Without the signature of the chief accountant, monetary and settlement documents, financial and credit obligations are considered invalid and should not be accepted for execution. In case of disagreement between the head of the organization and the chief accountant on the implementation of certain business transactions, documents on them can be accepted for execution from a written order of the head of the organization, who bears full responsibility for the consequences of such operations.

52. INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

The International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) brings together national and regional professional accounting organizations representing accountants in public practice in industry and commerce, the public sector, and education. IFAC currently has 155 members from 113 countries representing over 2,4 million accountants.

IFAC is committed to developing the profession and harmonizing its standards around the world to help accountants deliver high-quality professional services for the benefit of society as a whole. IFAC works closely with the International Accounting Standards Board (IASC).

IFAC includes the International Auditing Standards Board and Quality Assurance Board (IAASB), the Approvals Committee, the Education Committee, the Ethics Committee, the Financial and Management Accounting Committee (FMAC), the Public Sector Committee (PSC), the International Audit Committee ( TAC). The Institute of Professional Accountants of Russia in November 2001 became the first Russian organization to become a full member of IFAC.

To assist the CIS countries in reforming the accounting profession based on world experience, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) supported the creation and activities of the International Council of Certified Accountants and Auditors (ICACA). IACBA was founded in 2001 to unite accounting and audit associations of the CIS countries, certify professional accountants, establish educational and professional requirements based on the standards, principles, practices and ethics of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC). Currently, the ICCBA has 12 members in its ranks - organizations representing professional accounting and auditing associations from Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Ukraine and Uzbekistan. The Institute of Professional Accountants of Russia (IPB of Russia) is a full member of the IACBA.

To conduct international professional certification, MSSBA created the first two-level internationally recognized system of professional certification in Russian: I level - CAP - Certified International Practicing Accountant, Level II - CIPA - Certified International Professional Accountant.

The European Accounting Association is a professional organization for professionals in the financial sector. Members of the Association are both individuals and organizations. The headquarters of the Association is located in Brussels (Belgium).

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