Economics and sociology of labor. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Economics and sociology of labor. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

The subject of the sociology of labor
The subject of labor economics
Relationship of the sociology of labor with the labor sciences
The essence and role of labor in society
Types of labor and their characteristics
The essence of labor organization
Organization and maintenance of workplaces
The concept of working conditions, their assessment
The essence of labor rationing
Discipline and stimulation of labor
The essence of labor productivity
Factors and conditions for changes in labor productivity
Labor intensity and productivity
Reserves for increasing labor productivity
Indicators and methods of labor productivity
The essence of wages and its formation
Functions and principles of organization of remuneration
The essence and elements of the tariff system of remuneration
Time wage systems
Piecework wage systems
Employee bonus system
Salary supplements and allowances
The labor market and its essence
Main components of the labor market
Labor market conditions
Types of labor market
Segments of the labor market
Labor Market Models
State regulation of demand and supply for labor
State policy in the labor market
The essence and directions of activity of trade unions in the labor market
Models of behavior of trade unions in the labor market
Socio-economic essence of employment
Types of employment
Unemployment: essence, causes
Types of unemployment
State employment policy
Labor mobility: concept, factors
Territorial and intercompany mobility
Population migration
Composition and structure of income
Principles of formation of incomes of the population
Nominal and real incomes
Differentiation of incomes of the population
Concept of poverty
Cost of living
The concept and elements of quality of life
Standard of living: essence and factors
Efficiency, ability to work and legal capacity of the employee
Basic social characteristics of labor
Human capital
Labor potential
Composition of the personnel of the enterprise
Professional selection system
Personnel movement in the enterprise
Labor organization and labor collective
The concept and elements of the working environment
The social structure of the labor organization
Social organization and its structure
Cohesion of the workforce
The concept of labor activity
The concept of labor behavior
The structure of labor behavior
Types of labor behavior
Social control in the sphere of work
Motivation theories
Needs and interests in the context of work behavior
Values and value orientations
The structure of labor behavior motives
The concept of "attitude to work"
Typology of attitude to work
The social essence of job satisfaction
The concept and stages of labor adaptation
Factors of labor adaptation
Career guidance and professional development of employees at the enterprise
The essence of the social and labor conflict
Causes of social and labor conflicts
Functions and consequences of labor conflicts
Resolution of social and labor conflicts
Methods, types and forms of resolving social and labor conflicts
Social politics
The concept of social protection
Minimum social standards and regulations
Social transfers and benefits
Social insurance
Labor management in the organization
Levels, forms and methods of labor management
Personnel management in an organization
The essence of social partnership
The essence and structure of social and labor relations
Subjects and levels of social and labor relations
Sociological research in the sphere of labor

1. The subject of the sociology of labor

Labor is the basis of the life of society and each of its members, enterprises, organizations: Labor is a multifaceted phenomenon. Traditionally, the concept of "labor" is defined as the expedient activity of people aimed at creating material and cultural values.

Labor is not only an economic, but also a social category, since in the process of labor, workers and their groups enter into certain social relations, interacting with each other. In the process of such interaction, the states of these social groups and individual workers change.

Objects and means of labor do not function as such if they are not included in the process of living labor, which is the unity of people's relations to nature and relations between the participants in the process, that is, social relations. Therefore, the labor process is not just a mechanical combination of its three main components, but an organic unity, the decisive factors of which are the person himself and his labor activity.

Social relations- this is the relationship between members of social communities and these communities about their social status, image and way of life, and, ultimately, about the conditions for the formation and development of the individual, and a variety of social communities.

Social relations are determined by labor relations, since employees are included in labor activity, regardless of who they will work next to. Later, however, the employee manifests himself in his own way in relationships with other members of the workforce. Thus, social relations are formed in the working environment.

Social and labor relations exist in inextricable connection and interaction, mutually enrich and complement each other. Social and labor relations make it possible to determine the social significance, role, place, social position of an individual and a group. Not a single group of workers, not a single member of a labor organization can function outside of social and labor relations, outside of mutual obligations in relation to each other, outside of interactions.

In the process of labor, the goals of the subjects of labor relations are realized. An employee is included in the labor process in order to receive income in the form of wages for the performance of specific types of work. For many workers, work is a means of self-expression and self-realization of their labor and human potential, a means of achieving a certain social status in the workforce and in society.

The owners of the means of production (employers), organizing and carrying out the labor process, realize their entrepreneurial potential in order to receive income in the form of profit. Therefore, the stumbling block is income from labor activity, the share of this income attributable to each subject of social and labor relations. This determines the contradictory nature of social labor.

Sociology of labor is a study of the functioning and social aspects of the labor market. The sociology of labor is the behavior of employers and employees in response to economic and social incentives to work.

Therefore, the subject of the sociology of labor is the structure and mechanism of social and labor relations, social processes and phenomena in the sphere of labor. The sociology of labor studies the problems of regulating social processes, motivating labor activity, labor adaptation of workers, stimulating labor, social control in the sphere of labor, uniting the labor collective, managing the labor collective and democratizing labor relations, labor movements, planning and social regulation in the sphere of labor.

2. The subject of labor economics

The subject of labor economics is a system of socio-economic relations that develop in the process of labor activity between the employer, employee and the state regarding the organization of labor.

Market economy principles are actively implemented in the field of attracting and using labor force, social and labor relations, organization and remuneration of labor, as well as the formation and use of workers' incomes and improving the standard of living of the population. Labor economics studies the socio-economic problems of labor, the problems of ensuring the efficiency and productivity of labor on the basis of its scientific organization. The most important aspect is also the study of a person's attitude to work, the formation of job satisfaction in the system of social and labor relations that take shape at various levels of the economy.

Work experience a person is characterized by many qualitative parameters. When organizing the labor process, it is necessary to take into account not only the economic interests of the subjects of labor relations, but also psycho-physiological, biological, moral and social factors and characteristics of the working person. Ultimately, all this necessitates the development and formation of scientific foundations for the organization of both individual and social labor, the development of general rules, norms and standards of labor activity.

Currently, labor economics is studying the problems of the formation and effective use of the labor potential of society based on the rational application of economic laws for the development of production, distribution, exchange and consumption.

The main problems of studying labor economics are:

1) study of the scientific foundations of labor organization;

2) analysis of the formation and use of human capital and labor resources in the organization and in society as a whole, the reproduction of the labor force;

3) study of the essence and content of the labor market, problems of employment and unemployment;

4) disclosure of the main theories of labor motivation, the essence of needs, interests, motives and incentives to ensure high labor activity of employees;

5) consideration of the organization of remuneration, its forms and systems, differentiation of wages due to both the qualitative characteristics of the labor force and differences in working conditions;

6) determination of the essence of the concepts of efficiency and labor productivity, factors of their dynamics and growth reserves; consideration of indicators and methods for measuring labor productivity;

7) disclosure of the essence and content of the organization of labor at the enterprise, analysis of its main constituent elements: division and cooperation of labor, organization and maintenance of jobs, working conditions and work regimes, rest, labor discipline, labor rationing;

8) determination of the main groups of labor indicators at the enterprise;

9) study of the essence, types and content of social and labor relations and their regulation by the state.

Labor economics includes theoretical and practical issues of labor relations, considered from the point of view of the nature of their occurrence, valuation and impact on performance. The management of labor relations in society is aimed at regulating the price of labor by establishing labor legislation, influencing employment, ensuring social partnership relations, normalizing working conditions, and increasing labor productivity.

Thus, labor economics as a science studies the socio-economic relations that develop in the process of production, distribution, exchange and consumption of labor, the provision of conditions for productive labor and its protection.

3. Relationship between the sociology of labor and the labor sciences

The system of labor sciences includes many diverse and relatively independent disciplines.

Sociology of labor studies "the behavior of employers and employees in response to the action of economic and social incentives to work", the relationship of social groups in the labor process, focuses on the demographic differences of people, on differences in their education and qualifications, on the peculiarities of upbringing and political views, religion and social position.

The variety of labor sciences is due to the specifics of those labor problems that are the object of study of each of them.

The subject labor economics is a system of socio-economic relations that develop in the process of labor activity between the employer, employee and the state regarding the organization of labor. Labor economics studies the socio-economic problems of labor, the problems of ensuring the efficiency and productivity of labor on the basis of its scientific organization.

Physiology of labor how science studies the influence and mechanism of the impact of the labor process on the physiological characteristics of a person, is the scientific basis for the development of labor standards, work and rest regimes, workplace planning, and ensuring favorable working conditions.

Labor psychology studies the psychological characteristics of a person in the labor process, the attitude of a person to his work activity, it is the basis of professional training, the development of systems for motivating and stimulating the work of workers, and is a tool for managing labor conflicts.

Ergonomics is the basis for the rationalization of labor processes, since it studies human activity in its connection with technology, machines, means of production. Ergonomics optimizes human interaction with machine systems.

Occupational hygiene, industrial sanitation and safety measures ensure the creation of healthy and safe working conditions at the workplace.

Demography - is the science of population, it studies the processes of reproduction of the population, its age and sex structure, the resettlement of the population in the regions of the country, which allows you to effectively meet the needs of enterprises in the necessary labor resources.

Human Resource Management makes it possible to realize the labor potential (by selecting, training and fair remuneration of the personnel of the organization of employees), and allows you to effectively manage the organization's personnel (provided by choosing the optimal management style, developing a personnel policy, conducting personnel marketing).

Sociology of professions studies the social division of labor, the prestige of various types of labor activity, the professional suitability of a person, etc.

Labour Organization studies the formation of an orderly system of interaction between workers, their groups and divisions to achieve their goals, which makes it possible to ensure the effective connection of the labor force with the means of production in specific conditions, the realization of the labor potential of workers and satisfies the needs of all subjects of social and labor relations.

Labor law is the legal basis of labor relations. It establishes the legal norms of labor, regulates the rights and obligations of the subjects of social and labor relations, determines the differentiation in wages, and serves as the basis for social policy and social protection of workers.

labor statistics makes it possible to analyze labor efficiency on the basis of quantitative indicators of labor productivity, the number and dynamics of personnel, payroll, etc.

4. The essence and role of labor in society

The history of mankind testifies to the decisive importance of labor in the formation and development of man and society. Labor is the first, basic condition of all human life. "Labor created man himself." Labor is a socio-economic category.

Man, seeking to improve the conditions of existence, transforms the environment. He strives to reliably and permanently secure his life. Wanting to get food for himself, build housing or sew clothes, a person uses the materials of nature, which allow him to create more comfortable living conditions. He transforms these materials to his advantage. This activity is labor intensive. However, in a developed society, a person also needs efforts to maintain his health and education, to protect his legal rights and to provide assistance in case of disability.

Labor in the process of human development became more and more diverse, perfect, multilateral: hunting, cattle breeding, agriculture, spinning and weaving, metal processing, pottery, shipping and trade. Art, science, law, politics and other forms of labor activity gradually appeared and developed. So, in general terms, F. Engels presented the genesis of the types of labor that are becoming more and more complicated in their development.

The gradual improvement of the tools of labor led to the emergence of a division of labor by place, by sex, by age, by the functions performed. And then the primary cooperation of labor as an association of workers for the joint production of products. As a result of the division of labor, the professional structure of society began to form, the division of labor into mental and physical, the beginnings of which took place in the slave system. There was a need for a rational organization of the labor of slaves.

Feudal society gave impetus to the development of handicraft labor, the separation and enlargement of trade, and its allocation to a separate sphere of labor activity. The deepening division of labor led to the emergence of manufactories. Capitalism has led to an excessive division of labor, but also to its largest cooperation (syndicates, trusts, concerns, large monopolies). The evolution of labor led to the fact that, using more and more advanced tools of labor, people began to create goods, the price of which far exceeded the sum of the cost of life's goods used to restore human labor costs, which led to a sharp differentiation in people's incomes.

Influencing the environment and changing it, people, prompted by ever-increasing needs, are constantly improving, increasing the possibilities of using accumulated knowledge, expanding the scope of labor activity, and improving the labor process itself.

The decisive factor in the labor process is the person himself and his labor activity. It is a person who learns ways of interacting with nature, finds more advanced forms of labor organization, in order to increase the efficiency of his labor activity. Changing and improving the means of labor, technology, a person also changes and improves, enriching himself with knowledge and satisfying an ever wider range of needs.

The products created in the process of labor satisfy a different range of needs: these are the needs of the worker himself; production needs (industrial products) and the needs of society as a whole.

In the process of labor, a person enters into certain relationships with other people and social groups, as a result of which there is a change in the state of a person, social groups and society as a whole. Labor is the basis of life and activity not only of an individual, but of society as a whole.

5. Types of labor and their characteristics

There are various types of labor, all their diversity is classified according to the following criteria: by the content of labor, by the nature of labor, by the results of labor, by methods of attracting people to work.

Depending on the content of labor, the following types of labor are distinguished:

1) mental and physical labor;

2) simple and complex work. Simple labor is the work of an employee who does not have professional training and qualifications. Complex labor is the work of a skilled worker with a certain profession;

3) functional and professional work. Functional labor is characterized by a certain set of labor functions characteristic of a particular type of labor activity. Professional labor is a concretization of functional labor, forming a broad professional structure;

4) reproductive and creative labor. Reproductive labor is distinguished by the standardity of reproducible labor functions, its result is known in advance and does not carry anything new. Creative work is not characteristic of every worker, it is determined both by the level of education and qualifications of the worker, and the ability to innovate.

Depending on the nature of the work, there are:

1) concrete and abstract labor. Concrete labor is the labor of a specific worker who transforms an object of nature in order to give it a certain utility and create use value. Abstract labor is commensurate concrete labor, it abstracts from the qualitative heterogeneity of various functional types of labor, and creates the value of the commodity;

2) individual and collective work. Individual labor is the labor of a single worker or independent producer. Collective labor is the labor of a team, a subdivision of an enterprise; it characterizes the form of cooperation of labor of workers;

3) private and public labor. Private labor is always a part of social labor, since it is social in nature and its results are equal to each other in value;

4) hired labor and self-employment. Wage labor occurs when a person is hired under an employment contract to the owner of the means of production to perform a certain set of labor functions in exchange for wages. Self-employment involves a situation where the owner of the means of production himself creates a job for himself.

Depending on the results of labor, the following types are distinguished:

1) living and past work. Living labor is the work of the worker, which is expended by him at a given moment in time. Past labor is embodied in such elements of the labor process as objects of labor and means of labor;

2) productive and unproductive labor. The result of productive labor is in-kind goods, and the result of unproductive labor is social and spiritual goods that are no less valuable and useful to society.

According to working conditions with varying degrees of regulation, there are:

1) stationary and mobile work;

2) light, moderate and hard work;

3) free and regulated labor.

According to the methods of attracting people to work, there are:

1) labor under non-economic coercion, when a person is included in the labor process under direct compulsion (slavery);

2) labor under economic compulsion, namely, to earn the necessary means of subsistence;

3) voluntary, free labor is a person's need to realize their own labor potential for the benefit of society, regardless of remuneration.

The means of labor also predetermine the division of labor into various types: manual, mechanized, automated, machine labor.

6. The essence of the organization of labor

Currently, the organization of labor at the enterprise is considered both in the narrow and in the broad sense. In a narrow sense, the structure of labor organization in an enterprise is characterized by its specific content, that is, by those elements that directly form it. In a broad sense, the organization of labor also includes those elements that are not mandatory, but due to various circumstances may be part of the organization of labor.

Therefore, the system of organizing ore at an enterprise in its narrow sense includes the following, mandatory for all manifestations, elements of labor organization:

1) the division of labor, which is the separation and establishment of specific duties, functions and scope for each employee, group of employees and divisions of the enterprise;

2) labor cooperation, which consists in the formation and establishment of a certain system of production interconnection and interaction between workers, groups of workers and departments;

3) the organization of workplaces in a broad sense includes: the organization of the working meta and the organization of the maintenance of workplaces. The organization of the workplace involves equipping it with all the necessary means of production and the rational layout of all items of equipment in the workplace, based on the principle of ease of use. The organization of workplace services includes a system of interaction between the main and auxiliary workers, in which the main function of the auxiliary workers is to timely provide the workplace with everything necessary for the continuous fruitful work of the main workers;

4) techniques and methods of work are defined as ways of performing various types of work. Techniques and methods of work should ensure the performance of operations and functions with the least cost of all types of resources, including human effort. The progressiveness of techniques and methods of labor is also determined by the technology of production and the level of introduction of the achievements of science and technology into production;

5) establishment of labor standards. Labor standards are set for specific working conditions, and as these conditions change, they must be constantly reviewed in order to optimize the ratio of labor costs to its results. In addition, labor standards are the basis for an effective organization of production planning;

6) planning and accounting of labor are carried out to establish the necessary total labor costs, the optimal number of personnel and its dynamics, the calculation of the wage fund, and ultimately, to establish the correct proportions in labor costs;

7) creation of favorable working conditions, that is, a combination of factors of the working environment and the labor process that have a beneficial effect on the worker's performance and health (or at least do not worsen them).

The listed elements are mandatory for the effective organization of the ore. This is the minimum of elements that is the basis of the organization of labor in any enterprise.

The organization of labor in a broad interpretation, along with the listed elements, includes other elements, which include:

1) selection, training and advanced training of personnel of the enterprise includes: professional selection, vocational training, retraining of personnel;

2) establishment of forms, systems and amount of remuneration, development of incentive systems and responsibility for the results of work;

3) maintaining high labor discipline, labor activity and creative initiative.

7. Organization and maintenance of workplaces

A prerequisite for efficient, high-performance work of performers in any form of division and cooperation of labor is the organization and maintenance of workplaces. The workplace serves as the primary link, the cell of any production and labor process, it is at the workplace that three elements of the production process are combined and interact: objects, means of labor and the living labor of the worker-executor, and as a result of this interaction, new use values, products of labor are created. . Therefore, much attention is paid to the organization of workplaces.

The scientific organization of labor has developed the main directions for organizing jobs, including: equipping jobs; workplace planning; organization of workplace services.

The workplace must be equipped with modern, serviceable and safe equipment. The equipping of the workplace is the provision of the workplace with everything necessary for the effective performance by the employee of his professional duties stipulated by the employment contract. The specificity of production technology implies a variety of equipment for workplaces. However, the following types of workplace equipment are typical: basic technological equipment; auxiliary equipment; technological and organizational equipment; security and lighting equipment; means of communication and signaling; working container; means for maintaining a normal microclimate at the workplace; objects of aesthetization of industrial interior and economic means.

All types of equipment should be used in accordance with their functions by both main and auxiliary workers, which creates conditions at the workplace for productive, comfortable and safe work.

Rationality of placement of all items of workplace equipment is provided by the layout of the workplace. The layout of the workplace is a technically expedient and economically justified placement of equipment at the workplace and the workplace itself in the space of the enterprise's production areas. Therefore, a distinction is made between external and internal layout of the workplace.

External layout workplace is to establish the location of a particular workplace in relation to adjacent workplaces, to the workplace of the head, aisles and entrances. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the requirements: ensuring the interconnection of workplaces, economical use of production areas, ensuring labor safety.

Internal layout the workplace is the placement of all items of equipment on the area of the workplace, their rational arrangement in relation to the employee and to each other. The internal layout of the workplace is also designed to reduce the cost of human energy, optimize its movements, reduce production fatigue, etc. In general, the following service functions are distinguished: production and preparation; instrumental; commissioning; energy; repair; control; transport; warehouse; repair and construction and household function.

At present, the organization of workplace maintenance is the establishment of a system of interaction between the workplace and the employee working on it, as well as with other employees, ensuring its continuous and high-quality work. The structure of servicing jobs at the enterprise consists of servicing the means of labor, objects of labor and the employee himself.

8. The concept of working conditions, their assessment

Working conditions - this is a combination of factors of the working environment and the labor process that affect the performance and health of the employee.

These factors have a significant impact on the human body, its physiological and mental functions during labor activity, and therefore on working capacity and labor productivity; conditionally they are combined into the following groups:

1) socio-economic factors, including the legislative and regulatory framework;

2) technical and organizational factors due to the design, features of the means and objects of labor, applied technologies, means of protection, as well as organizational forms of production, labor and management;

3) natural factors - geographical, climatic, geological, biological;

4) socio-psychological factors are determined by the nature and characteristics of the relationship between people and their groups in work, personal and group values in the field of work, the system of information and communications in the organization.

In the process of work, the worker is influenced by harmful and dangerous environmental factors. Their distinction is due to the peculiarities of the impact on the human body. Harmful factors of working conditions are those, the impact of which can lead to the development of an occupational disease (chemical, biological, physical, psychophysiological). Hazardous factors of the working environment are factors, the impact of which can lead to injury, a sharp deterioration in health, or even death.

Under certain conditions (for example, with a certain combination or duration of exposure), harmful factors in the working environment (even if they comply with standards) can become dangerous to humans.

Among the hazardous factors of the working environment are: moving machines and mechanisms or their unprotected moving parts, transported goods, flying parts during the processing of objects of labor, electric current, elevated temperature, etc.

The following groups of working conditions are distinguished:

1) sanitary and hygienic, which determine the external object environment (noise, lighting, microclimate), as well as sanitary and household services at work;

2) psychophysiological, due to the specific content of labor activity, the size of the load on the motor apparatus, nervous system, and psyche of the worker;

3) labor safety conditions, due to the state of safety and the likelihood of injury;

4) aesthetic conditions, the impact of which determines the emotional mood and attitude to work from the standpoint of artistic perception of reality;

5) socio-psychological conditions that characterize the relationship in the workforce, leadership style.

The cumulative impact of all elements of working conditions on a person's working capacity, his health, vital activity, mental abilities, and the restoration of the labor force characterizes the severity of labor.

Unfavorable working conditions form the professional risk of the employee. Occupational Risk - this is the probability of damage (loss) of health or death associated with the performance of labor duties stipulated by the employment contract. Occupational risk consists of three components: the risk of damage to health, the risk of occupational diseases and the hidden risk of damage to health.

A person and his performance are influenced by factors that, on the one hand, must be taken into account, and on the other hand, they must be formed or changed to create the most favorable environment that ensures highly productive work.

9. The essence of labor rationing

The establishment of reasonable correlations between the measure of labor and the measure of the cost of it contributes to the rationing of labor. The essence of labor rationing lies in the process of establishing a measure of labor, that is, reasonable norms for the expenditure of working time for the performance of various works. Labor rationing allows you to determine the complexity of the planned output; calculate expected production costs; establish the required number and professional qualification structure of the personnel of the enterprise. The regulation of labor covers the main and auxiliary production, live and total labor and is applied to all categories of workers.

Requirements for labor rationing: the maximum possible expansion of the scope of labor rationing for all types of activities and works; high quality of established labor standards, their maximum approximation to the socially necessary labor costs; scientific validity of labor standards based on full consideration of organizational, technical, economic, psycho-physiological and social factors; humanization of labor standards.

Stages of labor rationing: identification of the availability of normative materials on labor for all categories of personnel of the enterprise; development of labor standards for those categories of workers for whom they are not established, but can be established; checking the progressivity of previously established labor standards; identification and replacement of obsolete and erroneously established labor standards; conducting a systematic analysis of the state of labor standards at the enterprise; improvement of labor regulation.

Labor rationing at the enterprise should be established on the basis of the following principles:

1) efficiency, that is, the need to establish labor standards under which the necessary production results are achieved with a minimum total cost of labor, material, energy and information resources;

2) complexity, expresses the need to take into account the relationship of technical, economic, psychological, social and legal factors affecting the norms of ore;

3) consistency, means that the organization and labor standards must comply with the final results of production and take into account the dependencies between resource costs at all stages of the production process;

4) objectivity, that is, the need to create equal opportunities for all employees of the enterprise to comply with the standards;

5) specificity, means that the organization and labor standards must comply with the parameters of manufactured products, objects and means of labor, its conditions, type of production and other objective characteristics that, with a given accuracy of calculations, affect the amount of necessary labor costs and other resources;

6) dynamism, expresses the objective need to change the organization and labor standards with a significant change in production conditions for a given accuracy of calculations;

7) legitimacy, expresses the need for strict observance of laws and other legal acts in the regulation of labor;

8) the principle of a positive attitude of employees towards the enterprise means the need to create such a system of organization, regulation and remuneration, which ensures a general positive attitude of employees towards the functions performed, the social environment and the enterprise as a whole.

Labor rationing at the enterprise serves to establish standard time for the performance of various types of work; for optimization of technological labor processes. Labor rationing should have a sufficient degree of differentiation, logical construction, simplicity and ease of use, both in manual and automated calculations.

10. Discipline and stimulation of work

Labor discipline is obligatory for all employees to comply with the rules of conduct defined by the Labor Code, the collective agreement, the employment contract and local regulations of the enterprise.

Currently, labor discipline combines three qualities, three forms of implementation: coercive discipline - as the impact of authoritarian power (with non-economic and economic methods of coercion); voluntary discipline (conscious) - awareness by employees of the need to comply with the norms and rules of conduct; self-discipline as self-persuasion, presenting demands to oneself that must be fulfilled.

High labor discipline is one of the factors in the growth of labor productivity, and often a reserve for the growth of labor productivity.

Ways and measures to strengthen labor discipline:

1) encouragement for work (declaration of gratitude, issuance of a bonus, awarding a valuable gift, awarding a certificate of honor, presentation to the title "Best in Profession");

2) measures of disciplinary and public influence. For the commission of a disciplinary offense, that is, non-performance or improper performance by an employee through his fault of the labor duties assigned to him, the employer has the right to apply the following disciplinary sanctions: reprimand, reprimand, dismissal on appropriate grounds. It is not allowed to apply disciplinary sanctions that are not provided for by the Labor Code, charters and regulations on labor discipline;

3) persuasion - associated with the widespread use of educational measures and incentives for work, the use of the power of example.

Stimulation of labor - this is a targeted or non-targeted impact on a person or a group of people in order to maintain certain characteristics of their labor behavior, primarily measures of labor activity.

Stimulation of labor is the impact on a person's labor behavior through external motivating forces. An incentive is an incentive, an interest in doing something, it must have the following qualities: accessibility, gradualness, involves increasing the size of incentives, timeliness; awareness.

Depending on the needs that are satisfied through certain incentives, there are: material and non-material incentives to work. Material incentives to work can come in two forms: monetary and non-monetary. Monetary incentives for work traditionally include: progressive wages, bonuses, additional payments and allowances, etc. Non-monetary incentives can be associated with the provision of employee vouchers, interest-free or soft loans, official transport, additional meals, etc., as well as those related to the organization of labor (comfortable working conditions, etc.). It is important in the process of stimulation to reasonably combine all types of incentives to work.

The organization of labor stimulation at the enterprise should be based on the following basic principles:

1) complexity, implies the unity of all types of incentives;

2) differentiation means an individual approach to stimulating workers of different categories, different social status, different living standards, etc.;

3) publicity, allows you to give a public assessment of the work of employees, disseminate best practices, strengthen the power of example, unites the team;

4) flexibility implies a constant variety of incentives used, due to both changing working conditions and the dynamics of the relevance of the incentive for the employee.

5) promptness requires that the reward or punishment follow the act as quickly as possible.

11. The essence of labor productivity

Productivity characterizes the ratio between the results and labor costs to achieve it. Problems of labor productivity have been studied by many scientists. A. Smith and D. Ricardo laid the foundations of the doctrine of productivity.

In the process of labor, such factors as objects of labor, means of labor, labor force are used. The result of any process of labor is a good, that is, goods or services. That is, both living and materialized (past) labor are used in the labor process. Therefore, labor productivity is an indicator that characterizes its effectiveness, the return of each labor resource used.

Productivity It is also an indicator of the economic efficiency of the labor activity of workers, reflecting the ability of workers to create more or less products per unit of time. Therefore, labor productivity is a function of living labor and expresses its productivity.

In modern economic conditions, the basis of labor productivity is the productive power of labor. The productive power of labor should be understood as the ability of an employee in certain conditions to ensure the achievement of a certain result. Labor productivity characterizes the degree of efficiency of living labor. It is expressed in economy and expedient use not only of living labor, but also of materialized labor. The higher the productivity of living labor, the more means of production are consumed. Consequently, the growth of labor productivity, manifesting itself in a decrease in the mass of living labor in relation to the mass of the means of production set in motion, is naturally reflected in a decrease in the value of a unit of goods. The commodity is the embodiment of living and materialized labor. Hence, the growth of labor productivity, being in inverse relation to the value of the commodity, is accompanied by savings in total labor costs.

The concept of labor efficiency includes, along with the economic justification, also psychophysiological and social. The psychophysiological nature of labor efficiency lies in determining the degree and direction of the impact of the labor process on the human body. The social aspect involves ensuring the possibility of development, self-improvement of a person in the labor process.

Labor intensity can change not only under the influence of external factors, but also depending on the desire of a person and his objective physiological capabilities. Therefore, physiological, average and maximum intensity of labor are distinguished. The physiological intensity of labor in its economic essence is akin to favorable working conditions, when the employee in the process of labor activity not only does not get tired, but also improves himself, and does not cause any harm to his health. The maximum possible intensity of labor is such an intensity that is generally possible at least for a short time.

Introduction of new technology and progressive technologies objectively establish a certain degree of labor intensity of the employee. With an increase in the intensity of labor, the quantity of goods produced or services rendered also increases, that is, the time for producing a unit of output is reduced and labor productivity increases.

The intensity of labor can be different with its equal intensity. This is due to the fact that different workers can work with the same intensity, due to the technique and technology of production, but due to lack of experience, skill, and skills, work is more intense for some than for other workers.

12. Factors and conditions for changes in labor productivity

Labor productivity constantly changes under the influence of many factors and causes. Some contribute to an increase in labor productivity, others can cause a decrease. Therefore, the main task of the organization of labor is to ensure the growth of labor productivity. The essence of labor productivity growth lies in the fact that any changes in the labor process should reduce the working time for the production of a given commodity, increasing the amount of use-values produced.

Labor productivity factors - these are the reasons of objective and subjective properties that influence and determine the dynamics of labor productivity. The factors that increase labor productivity include everything related to the improvement of the organization of labor and production, the social conditions of workers; to the reducing ones - the unfavorable influence of natural conditions, shortcomings in the organization of production and labor, the negative influence of negative elements of the social situation.

Depending on the direction of action, two groups of factors are distinguished:

1) increasing labor productivity, these include: improving the organization of labor, saving working time, the integrated use of raw materials, motivating workers, etc.;

2) lowering labor productivity, which include: shortcomings in the organization of labor, interruptions in the material and technical support of the ore process, unfavorable natural and climatic conditions, poor labor discipline, etc.

According to the level of influence, external and internal factors of labor productivity are distinguished. External factors are associated with a change in the range of products in accordance with changing market demand, changing socio-economic conditions in society, the level of cooperation with other enterprises, etc. Internal factors are associated with the level of technical equipment of the labor process, with the effectiveness of labor incentive systems, that is, these are those factors that are determined by the quality of business organization.

According to the internal content, all factors are usually combined into the following main groups:

1) material and technical factors: mechanization and automation of production; development and application of advanced technologies; reducing the cost of living labor; saving all kinds of resources; deepening the specialization of equipment, etc.;

2) organizational factors. Among them, we single out the main ones: the organization of material and technical supply; organizational and technical preparation of production; rational division and cooperation of labor; improvement of working conditions; rational placement and effective use of personnel of the enterprise, etc.;

3) socio-economic factors: the level of qualification of employees, their motivation for active work; the attitude of workers to work and labor discipline; change in the forms of ownership of the means of production; development of industrial democracy at the enterprise;

4) economic, legal and regulatory factors that are designed to regulate the system of social and labor relations and be the methodological basis for increasing labor productivity.

Two more important factors that require special attention affect labor productivity. This is the intensity and intensity of labor.

Labor intensity represents the rate of expenditure of human energy, and is measured by the cost of the nervous and muscular energy of a person per unit of working time.

The intensity of labor is the degree of intensity of labor in relation to its maximum value, taken as a unit (as the boundaries of the maximum allowable human capabilities).

13. Labor intensity and productivity

An important place in the theory of labor productivity is occupied by the question of the relationship and correlation of productivity and labor intensity. On the one hand, these are two organic categories related to each other, on the other hand, there are differences between them.

Productivity - an indicator of the economic efficiency of the labor activity of employees. The development of society and the level of well-being of all its members depend on the level and dynamics of ore productivity. Moreover, the level of productivity there determines the method of production.

Labor intensity - this is the amount of energy consumed by the human body per unit of time in the labor process. It is characterized by the consumption of calories per hour or day.

The relationship between the categories of productivity and the intensity of labor is manifested primarily in the fact that labor productivity always implies a certain intensity and intensity of labor, since any labor, regardless of its specific form, requires the expenditure of a person’s physical, mental and nervous energy. To perform any work, it is necessary to make certain efforts, therefore, in the production process, productivity and intensity are inextricably linked.

The difference between these categories is as follows. Labor productivity shows the fruitfulness, efficiency of labor, and labor intensity is the energy expended by a person in the labor process per unit of time. An increase in labor productivity means that the same mass of labor is embodied in a large number of use values, and an increase in the intensity of labor indicates an increase in the expenditure of human energy per unit of working time and, consequently, an increase in the mass of labor expended at a certain time.

Productivity and intensity of labor have different effects on the value of the product. An increase in labor productivity increases the number of products produced and, accordingly, reduces the cost of one product, but does not change their total newly created value, while an increase in the intensity of labor increases the number of products produced and the total newly created value, but does not change the value of a unit of output. In the process of labor, with an increase in its intensity, energy costs per unit of time increase and, accordingly, the amount of output increases. Since there is as much labor per unit of production as before its intensification, since the cost of a unit of production remains unchanged. The total value of newly created products increases, as the quantity of products increases, i.e., it grows in direct proportion to the increase in the intensity of labor. In the case when the quantity of manufactured products is increased without increasing the intensity of labor, but only by reducing labor costs per unit of output, the cost of one product decreases, but the total cost of production remains unchanged.

Labor productivity can increase indefinitely. The growth of labor productivity is due to the improvement of technology, the improvement of the organization of production and labor, the improvement of the qualifications of the worker, the development of science and the application of its achievements in production, i.e., there are practically no restrictions on the growth of labor productivity. As for the growth of the intensity of labor, it has its limit - certain physiological and social boundaries, beyond which all the normal conditions for the reproduction and functioning of the labor force are destroyed.

14. Reserves for increasing labor productivity

Labor productivity growth reserves - this is the possibility of a more complete use of the productive power of labor, all factors of increasing its productivity by improving equipment, technology, improving the organization of production, labor and management. Reserves are closely related to the factors of labor productivity growth. If one or another factor is considered as an opportunity, then the use of the reserve associated with it is a process of turning possibilities into reality.

Combine labor productivity growth reserves into the following groups:

1) reserves formed as a result of the influence of material and technical factors (incomplete use of the means of labor in time and production capacity, underutilization of the possibilities of technology and progressive types of raw materials, etc.);

2) reserves associated with the influence of organizational factors of production (deficiencies in the management and organization of labor and production);

3) social reserves (inefficient use of the employee's ability to work, his creative abilities, low motivation and labor discipline).

Depending on the elements of the labor process, two groups of reserves are distinguished:

1) reserves for improving the use of human labor - these are all types of reserves associated with the organization of labor, working conditions, personnel policy, labor motivation;

2) reserves for more efficient use of the means of labor and objects of labor, which are the main and circulating assets of the enterprise. This group includes reserves for the better use of fixed assets, both in terms of time and capacity; as well as reserves for the integrated use and savings of working capital.

On the basis of the possibility of use, all reserves are divided into reserve reserves and loss reserves.

Stock reserves in their economic nature are most similar to the concept of a reserve in general, since they represent unused opportunities for a more efficient organization of labor. Reserve reserves include, for example, underutilization of equipment over time, which may be due to interruptions in the load of the equipment, power outages, unproductive use of the time of work on this equipment, insufficient qualifications of the employee, etc.

Loss reserves include loss of working time, marriage, overspending of all types of energy, raw materials and materials. Therefore, this group of reserves is associated with the economical and efficient use of material factors of production.

Losses of working time include more productive losses of working time due to downtime, absenteeism, absenteeism; as well as unproductive labor costs due to the need to correct the marriage or exceeding the planned labor costs (due to violations of technology).

According to the place of discovery and use, all reserves are divided into:

1) nationwide (rational use of the employed population, integrated use of natural resources);

2) regional (opportunities for better use of the production potential of the region);

3) sectoral and intersectoral (improving the use of links between industries, combining and concentrating production);

4) intra-production (reserves for reducing labor intensity and reserves for better use of total working time).

According to the time of use, all reserves are divided into current and prospective, the basis for the implementation of which are large-scale capital investments for technical re-equipment, reconstruction or modernization of an existing enterprise. Implementation of prospective reserves is a rather lengthy process that requires a lot of preparatory work.

15. Indicators and methods of labor productivity

Productivity of living (individual) labor expressed through the cost of working time for the production of a unit of output, and is calculated by the formula:

The productivity of labor, calculated taking into account the total cost of labor, is called the social productivity of labor. The social productivity of ore is calculated by the formula:

Labor efficiency ensures that the quality of labor and the need for its economical use are taken into account. To calculate the overall indicator of labor efficiency, you can use the formula:

Labor efficiency will be the higher, the higher labor productivity and the lower labor costs with a constant amount of work.

Measurement methods labor productivity are qualitatively isolated systems of its measurement.

The most simple and clear method of measuring labor productivity is the natural method. The volume of manufactured products is determined in physical units (pieces, tons, meters, etc.) The level of work performed in physical terms is the most objective and reliable indicator of labor productivity. Using this method, it is possible to measure and compare the productivity of individual workers and teams, plan their number, determine the professional and qualification composition, and compare the productivity of different enterprises.

natural method measurement of labor productivity is simple and clear calculations. However, it cannot be used in areas where dissimilar products are produced, such as machines and tools. In addition, it does not take into account changes in inventories of work in progress.

Conditionally natural method calculation of labor productivity is convenient for use, since the production (sale) of many different goods (services) can be expressed in terms of cost conversion factors and brought into a comparable form. This method is also convenient, clear and easy to calculate.

Labor (normative) method measuring labor productivity lies in the fact that the volume of production or work, the output of an employee is determined in terms of labor, that is, in constant standard hours. To do this, the volume of work is multiplied by the corresponding time standards, and the results are summarized. The advantage of the labor method is the possibility of its application to all types of work and services. The disadvantage of this method is the need to develop and constantly revise the time standards depending on the expansion of the range of products or changes in production conditions.

With the cost method of measuring labor productivity, the volume of work is given in monetary terms by multiplying the volume indicators of production by the wholesale prices of the corresponding types of products. The cost method allows you to compare the productivity of workers of different professions and qualifications. The advantage of this method is the simplicity of calculation, the possibility of comparing the levels of labor productivity of different industries, as well as determining its dynamics in different periods of time. The disadvantage of the method is the influence of price factors: market conditions, inflation, material consumption of work.

16. The essence of wages and its formation

Wages - this is remuneration for work, depending on the qualifications of the employee, the complexity, quantity and conditions of the work performed, as well as compensation and incentive payments.

In the socio-economic life of society, wages play an important role: as a personal income, it serves as the main material source of livelihood for workers and their families, and as an aggregate payment demand, it is one of the factors in maintaining and developing production. In a market economy, wages are influenced by a number of market and non-market factors. As a result, a certain level of wages is formed. The determining factors influencing the amount of wages are the interaction of demand for labor and its supply, as well as the level of technology, technology and organization of production, the effectiveness of state policy in this area, the degree of influence of trade unions, etc.

Wages are an element of the employee's income, a form of economic realization of the right of ownership to the labor resource belonging to him. At the same time, for an employer who buys a labor resource to use it as one of the factors of production, the remuneration of employees is one of the elements of production costs.

The main element of wages - wage rate. However, it does not take into account individual differences in the abilities of workers, their physical strength and endurance, speed of reaction, diligence, etc. Therefore, a variable part is also distinguished in the wage structure, reflecting differences in individual results of labor activity (bonuses, allowances, piecework earnings ). In addition, there are various types of income that an employee can receive due to the fact that he works in this organization (material assistance, food, travel and treatment, valuable gifts, additional medical and pension insurance). Together, wages and these types of income can be considered as the labor income of an employee of this organization.

The main market factors affecting the wage rate include:

1) changes in supply and demand in the market of goods and services in the production of which this labor is used. A decrease in demand in the market for goods and services leads to a reduction in output, and consequently to a drop in demand for the resource used and vice versa;

2) the usefulness of the resource for the entrepreneur (the ratio of the marginal income from the use of the labor factor and the marginal cost of this factor). It characterizes the ratio of the marginal income from the use of the labor factor and the marginal costs for this factor;

3) elasticity of demand for labor. An increase in the price of a resource, an increase in the costs of an entrepreneur, lead to a decrease in the demand for labor, and hence the conditions of employment. At the same time, the price elasticity of demand for labor is not always the same and depends on the nature of the dynamics of marginal income, the share of resource costs in costs, and the elasticity of demand for goods;

4) interchangeability of resources. The employer's ability to reduce labor costs with the same technical base is limited. The main opportunities for reducing labor costs are associated with a reduction in the variable part of earnings, however, the conditions of collective labor agreements act as a deterrent;

5) change in prices for consumer goods and services. The rise in prices for goods and services causes an increase in the cost of living, i.e., an increase in the reproduction minimum in the structure of the wage rate.

17. Functions and principles of the organization of remuneration

Wage as an economic category performs the following functions.

1. Reproductive, providing the employee with a volume of consumption of material goods and services sufficient for expanded reproduction of the labor force. Wages must be sufficient to meet the physical and spiritual needs of the employee, as well as his family, including an element of material support for the development of the workforce, advanced training of the employee.

2. Stimulating, encouraging efficient and profitable use of labor. With its help, the material conditions for the functioning of the economy are formed. Wages should be closely linked to the results of the employee's work and the main tasks that the employer solves in the course of his activities. The main principle of the implementation of the stimulating function is the differentiation of the level of remuneration according to the criteria of productivity and labor efficiency.

3. Regulatory, influencing market conditions (the magnitude of supply and demand for manufactured products, as well as employment and labor migration). It is used as the most important tool for regulating socio-economic processes in the economy.

Principles of organization of wages these are objective, scientifically substantiated provisions that reflect the operation of economic laws and are aimed at a more complete implementation of the functions of wages.

Currently, the organization of remuneration is based on the following principles.

1. An increase in real wages as the efficiency of production and labor grows. This principle is connected with the operation of the objective economic law of the rise of needs, according to which their fuller satisfaction is real only with the expansion of opportunities to receive more material goods and services for one's work. But such an opportunity should be linked to the results of production activities, to labor efficiency.

2. Ensuring outstripping growth rates of labor productivity over the growth rates of average wages. The essence of this principle is the maximization of labor income through the development and improvement of production efficiency. Violation of this principle leads to the payment of money unsecured by goods, to inflation, the development of stagnation in the country's economy.

3. Differentiation of wages depending on the labor contribution of the employee to the results of the enterprise, the content and working conditions, the area of location, its industry affiliation. This principle is based on the need to strengthen the material interest of workers in the qualification of their work, ensuring high quality products.

4. Equal pay for equal work. In market conditions, the principle under consideration should be understood as the prevention of discrimination in wages by sex, age, nationality, the observance of the principle of fairness in distribution within the enterprise, which implies an adequate assessment of the same work through its payment.

5. Accounting for the impact of the labor market. The labor market presents a range of wages both in public and private companies, and in the unorganized sector, where the labor force is not covered by unions, and wages are completely determined by the administration. The labor market is the area where, ultimately, the evaluation of types of work is formed.

6. Simplicity, consistency and availability of forms and systems of remuneration. This principle ensures broad awareness of the essence of wage systems. An incentive becomes such only when the employee has clear and detailed information about it.

18. The essence and elements of the tariff system of remuneration

Tariff wage system - this is a set of various regulatory materials, with the help of which the level of wages of employees at an enterprise is established, depending on the qualifications of employees, working conditions, geographical location of enterprises and other industry specifics. It is designed to guarantee the state provision of the reproduction of the labor force; to differentiate the remuneration of employees depending on the qualifications, complexity, responsibility of the work performed, to create benefits in remuneration for employees who contribute to scientific and technological progress, the development of entrepreneurship, and the introduction of progressive forms of organization of labor and production.

The main elements of the tariff system include: tariff scales, tariff rates, tariff-qualification directories, official salaries, tariff directories for positions of employees, allowances for tariff rates, regional wage coefficients.

Tariff grid - a scale of categories, each of which is assigned its own tariff coefficient, showing how many times the tariff rate of any category is greater than the first. The tariff coefficient of the first category is equal to one. The number of categories and the value of the tariff coefficients corresponding to them are determined by the collective agreement concluded at the enterprise.

The tariff rate is the absolute amount of wages per unit of time expressed in monetary terms. On the basis of the tariff scale and the tariff rate of the first category, the tariff rates of each subsequent category are calculated. The tariff rate of the first category is determined by the collective agreement of the enterprise and depends, on the one hand, on financial capabilities, and on the other hand, on the conditions of remuneration reflected in the industry agreement. At the same time, it should not be legally lower than the established level of the minimum wage.

Tariff and qualification guides - these are regulatory documents with the help of which the category of work and worker is established. They contain information about what a worker of each category of each specialty should know theoretically and be able to do practically. These reference books consist of three sections: "Characteristics of work", "Must know", and "Examples of work". Currently, tariff-qualification guides are advisory in nature and are normative only for the enterprise using them.

For budgetary organizations, the Unified Tariff Scale (UTS) has been introduced. The UTS is built on the principle of pay scales to differentiate the wage rates of workers. It is a bitwise system of payment, both for workers and all categories of employees, with the establishment of fixed tariff rates and official salaries within the range of the category. The grid contains 18 bits. Differentiation of pay rates by categories is carried out in the UTS on the basis of the complexity of the work performed and the qualifications of employees. All professions and positions in the UTS are grouped according to the commonality of the work performed. The first eight digits of the grid are intended for billing workers. Highly skilled workers are paid salaries based on 9-12 pay grades. The rest of the employees - employees, specialists, managers - are charged from the 2nd to the 18th category.

The regional coefficient is a standard indicator of the degree of increase in wages, depending on the location of the enterprise, organization. It is set directly to the wages to which it is extended. District coefficients can range from 1,0 to 2,0.

19. Time-based wage systems

Time wage - this is its form in which the amount of payment for the work of an employee depends on the time of work, assuming the proper performance of his official functions. According to this system, the amount of remuneration for a certain period of time depends only on the type of requirements for the employee in this workplace. Time wages focus only on the degree of complexity of labor, determined by calculating the value of labor or in some other way.

Time wages are used, especially where the costs of determining the planned and accounting for the produced quantity of products are relatively high; work is heterogeneous in nature and irregular in load; the quality of labor is more important than its quantity, etc.

When using time wages, it is necessary to comply with a number of requirements: strict accounting and control over the time actually worked by each employee; the correct assignment of wage categories to workers in strict accordance with their qualifications and the complexity of the work performed, as well as the assignment of salaries to specialists and employees in strict accordance with the official duties they actually perform.

On the basis of this form, the following types of time wages are distinguished: simple time wages, time-based bonuses, and time wages with a normalized task.

With a simple time wage, the employee receives only the official salary for the hours worked. The system is considered acceptable for those types of work where it is difficult to quantify the quality criteria of work. According to the method of calculating wages, this system is divided into three types: hourly, daily, monthly.

With a time-based bonus system, a simple time-based system is supplemented by bonuses for the performance of certain quantitative and qualitative performance indicators, which are set in advance. This form of remuneration is currently considered the most common. The use of the time-bonus system is possible only if the choice of bonus indicators is correct. In addition, an economic justification of the developed bonus provisions is necessary, otherwise the use of the chosen remuneration system may be unprofitable for the enterprise. Bonus indicators are developed taking into account the specifics of work or workers. These indicators may include: the quality of products, the quality of work. The bonus position indicates the source of the bonus: savings from cost reduction, additional income from the sale of better and more competitive products, etc.

The time-bonus wage system with a normalized task is used when the functions of workers are clearly regulated and the time rate for each operation can be calculated. This system combines elements of both piecework and time wages. The use of this system is advisable if it is necessary to ensure the fulfillment of the normalized task for jobs and the unit as a whole; the task was set to achieve savings in material resources; it is planned to combine professions and multi-machine service in order to improve the organization of labor.

Currently, almost 80% of workers in economically developed countries are on time wages with an established production rate.

The disadvantage of the time-based form of remuneration is that the official salary (tariff rate) is not able to take into account differences in the amount of work performed by employees of the same profession and qualifications.

20. Piecework wage systems

piece wages - this is a form of remuneration in which the work of an employee is paid for the volume of services performed at established rates.

A piecework form of remuneration is used, where there is a quantitative result of labor, and it can be measured; there is a need to increase the volume of products or work performed, services. And these are usually workers of mass professions (workers). So, the number of parts produced per shift depends on the turner, the volume of the transported cargo, taking into account the distance, depends on the driver, the turnover per day of work depends on the seller.

When using individual wages, the following requirements must be met: well-established accounting of the quantitative results of labor; the employee's ability to increase output in comparison with the established norms; strict control over the quality of products, works and services.

Piecework pay is based on time wages, although it has the appearance of independence. With it, one gets the impression that the price of labor is determined by the worker himself: he worked more - he received more. However, in fact, even here the price of labor depends on tariff rates or official salaries, which are determined by labor agreements and contracts. On the basis of the official salary (tariff rate) and the labor norm, a piece rate is calculated, which is defined as the ratio of the official salary (tariff rate) to the labor norm. On the basis of the piece rate, piecework earnings are calculated - this is the ratio of the actual amount of work performed by the employee to the piece rate.

With piecework wages, an important role is given to norms that take into account the normal intensity of labor, as well as control over their use.

There are several forms of standard systems of piece-rate wages: direct piece-rate, piece-bonus, piece-progressive, indirect piece-work, individually piece-rate, chord, etc.

With a direct piecework form, wages are calculated at a constant rate in direct proportion to the change in the volume of work. This form of remuneration is effective in enterprises with unlimited reserves for increasing the volume of activities.

Piecework-bonus wages involve the payment of piecework wages and the accrual of bonuses for achieving certain quantitative and qualitative performance indicators.

With a piece-progressive wage system, it is envisaged to accrue earnings on a certain scale: for the amount of work within the norm - at a fixed rate and for the volume exceeding the production rate - at an increased rate.

The use of such a wage system is effective when it is necessary to stimulate the growth of the volume of work. However, it is necessary to monitor the ratio of wage growth and labor productivity growth, since if labor standards are overfulfilled, the logic of this ratio may be lost.

The indirect piecework system is used for auxiliary workers, wages calculated as a percentage of the earnings of the main workers of the serviced area.

The chord system provides for the determination of total earnings for the performance of a certain work. It is used mainly in the case when it is necessary to reduce the period of work. The total amount of remuneration is established according to the chord along with the types of work, their volume, prices. Wages are charged to the entire team of workers for the implementation of a piece of work. The total amount of earnings is known in advance, before the start of work. For a more complete account of the labor contribution of each worker to the results of the work of the brigade, labor participation coefficients are used.

21. Employee bonus system

In modern economic conditions, enterprises independently develop and apply bonus provisions, which are included in the collective agreement. When compiling bonus provisions, the following conditions must be observed: bonus indicators must correspond to the production objectives of the enterprise; the number of indicators and bonus conditions should be no more than two or three; there should be no contradictions between the indicators and conditions of bonuses; include in the circle of bonus workers only those who have a direct impact on bonus indicators; ensure that the premium is guaranteed by the appropriate source of its payment, etc.

Particular attention should be paid to the calculation of the bonus rate separately for the implementation of the plan, overfulfillment of the plan, growth in labor productivity, and cost reduction. The main direction in the simulation of managers, specialists and employees should be bonuses for the actual improvement in performance. Stimulation of profit growth is becoming an obligatory direction in the organization of bonuses for managers, specialists and employees of enterprise departments.

The main indicators of bonus payment to the divisions of the administrative apparatus are the fulfillment (overfulfillment) of the plan for profit and the growth (growth) of profit compared to the corresponding period of the previous year. The procedure for accruing bonuses provides for: the basis for accruing bonuses (accounting data, operational accounting, statistical reporting); assessment of work performed or services rendered; establishing the amount of bonuses for workers to wages at tariff rates and individual rates, and for managers, specialists, employees - to wages at official salaries or in absolute form. If certain indicators are not met, employees may lose bonuses.

The collective agreement should reflect that if certain indicators are not met, employees may lose bonuses. The management of the enterprise has the right to de-bonuse an employee for omissions in work or increase his bonus for achieving certain performance indicators. In practice, one-time bonuses and rewards are also used. They can be individual and collective. Regardless of the accepted forms and systems of wages, the following types of one-time bonuses are used at enterprises: remuneration based on the results of work for the year; one-time incentives for the performance of especially important tasks, urgent and unforeseen work; awards based on the results of reviews and competitions, on holidays and solemn dates.

The performance-based remuneration for the year takes into account the performance of the entire enterprise. The amount of payments is linked to the amount of continuous work experience at a given enterprise on a scale. Enterprises develop special provisions on the payment of one-time incentives for the performance of incentives for the performance of certain tasks of types of work. Depending on the specifics of the achieved production indicators, such incentives can be determined in rubles, as a percentage of the employee's earnings, as a percentage of the effect obtained as a result of the performance of this work. The enterprise can replace cash bonuses with natural rewards - valuable gifts, durable goods, benefits for the purchase of a car, an apartment, etc.

At the enterprise, it is advisable to calculate the economic efficiency of wage and bonus systems. In the economic justification of the effectiveness of the bonus system, its impact on the cost price is clarified.

22. Additional payments and allowances to wages

Currently, the variable part of the salary includes such elements as additional payments and allowances calculated on the basis of the tariff rates (salaries) established by him. Additional payments and allowances are associated with special working conditions. A number of additional payments and allowances are mandatory for enterprises of all forms of ownership, their payment is guaranteed by the state and established in the Labor Code. All current surcharges and allowances are divided into two groups. The first group includes such additional payments as for overtime work; for work on weekends and holidays; minors due to the reduction of their working hours. The second group of surcharges and allowances is divided into three subgroups. The first subgroup provides additional payments for combining professions (positions); for fulfilling the duties of an absent employee, to specialists for high achievements in work and a high level of qualification; foremen from among the workers who are not released from their main work for record keeping, accounting. The second subgroup includes additional payments related to the special nature of the work performed (seasonality, remoteness, etc.) and paid for multi-shift work, for rest days provided for work in excess of normal working hours with a rotational work organization method, as well as allowances for wages for the traveling nature of work, etc. The third subgroup includes additional payments for the intensity of labor to workers on conveyors, production and automatic lines; for work at night, for work with difficult (harmful) and especially difficult working conditions for workers, foremen, heads of sections, shops, other specialists and employees - if they are employed for at least 50% of the time at sites, in shops and in production, where more than half of workers receive additional payments for unfavorable working conditions.

Incentive bonuses are due to the fact that many enterprises use them to try to retain or attract employees. Their sizes are set at the discretion of the company's management. When determining the amount of additional payments and bonuses of a stimulating nature, specific working conditions are taken into account, for example, how many people perform additional functions, what load the employee carries to his main job, what is the financial condition of the enterprise. When establishing incentive payments and allowances, the enterprise focuses on taking into account the individual qualities of employees that ensure its highly productive work.

Enterprises may apply other forms, types and amounts of additional payments and allowances based on the characteristics of their activities. So, if the task of retaining personnel is considered relevant at an enterprise, then it can introduce an additional payment for work experience or length of service. But at the same time, it is unacceptable that the amount of wages is significantly separated from the results of labor activity. When establishing incentive payments and allowances, the enterprise focuses on taking into account the individual qualities of the employee, ensuring his highly productive work.

It is advisable to establish additional payments and allowances for a certain period, since changes in the employee's attitude to work or sources of funds for remuneration are possible. The amount of surcharges and allowances is most often determined as a percentage, i.e., relative to the official salary or the tariff rate for hours worked. However, an enterprise can set them in absolute amounts - either in an equal amount for all employees, or differentially. The amount of additional payments and allowances should be adjusted when salaries or rates change, taking into account inflation.

23. The labor market and its essence

Labor market is a system of social relations in coordinating the interests of employers and hired labor. As world experience shows, the labor market is the foundation of market relations. Without it, it is impossible to build an equilibrium economy, since economic management involves, first of all, the management of labor activity. Phenomena in the labor market must be considered from two sides: on the one hand, as a manifestation of the general patterns inherent in a market economy; on the other hand, taking into account the Russian specifics of the formation of the market environment.

The labor market has a number of important features that leave an imprint on its functioning: the inseparability of property rights to a product (labor) from its owner, labor is a process of spending labor from its carrier, special relations arise in the process of buying and selling labor; the long duration of the contact between the seller and the buyer, a transaction made in the labor market implies the beginning of a long-term relationship between the seller and the buyer; the presence and operation of non-monetary aspects of the transaction, these are, first of all, working conditions, the microclimate in the team, prospects for career advancement and professional growth; the presence of a large number of institutional structures of a special kind. These include: the labor law system; various institutions and services for the regulation of employment, government programs in the field of labor and employment, etc.; a high degree of individualization of transactions.

The labor market is an organic component of any market economy, performing the functions of a mechanism for the distribution and redistribution of the social product in the spheres and sectors of the national economy, types and forms of activity, according to the criterion of labor and production efficiency in accordance with the structure of social needs and forms of ownership. In its most general form, the labor market is understood as a system of social relations associated with the hiring and supply of labor or its purchase and sale.

In a narrow sense, the labor market is a system of economic relations in the field of labor force use (reproduction, functioning, social protection) at various levels of management. In a market economy, the system of production (economic) relations is based on the free purchase and sale of labor power, which is why these relations are called "market relations".

The labor market is characterized by the following elements: the demand for labor; labor cost; labor supply, labor market capacity; labor market conditions; labor reserves; competition in the labor market. Unlike conventional markets for goods and services, there are special regulators in the labor market. The structure of demand and supply of labor depends on objective and subjective factors that are formed outside the labor market: scientific and technological progress, the state of the economic situation, demographic processes, the needs of the individual in work, the development of labor market infrastructure, the activities of the government, business unions, trade unions in the labor market and etc.

The labor market exists not only in the environment external to the organization - it extends to the sphere of production, since the sale and purchase relationship does not stop with the acceptance of an employee into the organization. The hired worker can look for other work both inside and outside the organization, and the entrepreneur selects personnel from both employed and unemployed workers.

Unlike the market for ordinary goods, when selling labor power, the worker does not lose ownership of it - he sells only the right to use this labor power.

24. Main components of the labor market

Depending on the objectives of the analysis, the structure of the labor market is determined by different features. Allocate a minimum number of components necessary for the emergence and functioning of the modern civilized labor market in the broadest sense. Currently, the system of relations in the labor market consists of three main components: relations between employees and employers; relations between labor market actors and representatives (trade unions, employers' associations, employment services); relations between the subjects of the labor market and the state.

An employer is an employer, which can be represented by different "figures" depending on the legalized structure of property relations. It can be: state enterprises, joint-stock companies, public organizations, collective farms, private enterprises, economic associations, cooperatives, individual employers, etc.

Wage-earners - these are free able-bodied citizens for whom employment is the main source of livelihood and individual reproduction. For employers, they represent different values depending on gender. Age, qualifications, social status and a number of socially acquired qualities (responsibility, diligence, discipline, enterprise).

Employment Service - This is an employment development service designed to promote the recruitment, training and retraining of personnel, and assistance to the unemployed.

Unions - an organization acting on behalf of employees, expressing and protecting their interests. In most countries, they are created, as a rule, on the basis of common socio-economic interests.

The main components of the labor market are supply and demand for it.

The presence and interaction of all components of the labor market is necessary for its functioning. The labor market is a market of free supply and demand. There is no explicit or implicit coercion to labor relations in it. The labor market has a system of self-regulation of employment, migration, and choice of profession. In addition, external and internal regulators of its functioning may be present here, allowing the state to accelerate progressive trends and restrain socially dangerous ones. For the normal functioning of the market, legislative acts, norms, rules are needed that would regulate the relationship between market entities, clearly define their rights, create equal opportunities for the realization of the ability to work of all participants in market relations, and provide for social insurance in case of job loss. Such norms are provided for in the Constitution of the Russian Federation, in the Law "On Employment of the Population of the Russian Federation" and other laws. These norms are specified in the Decrees of the President, government decisions in the annually adopted General, regional, sectoral agreements, in collective agreements concluded at enterprises.

The successful functioning of the labor market is impossible without the creation of appropriate economic conditions (taxes, benefits), an active employment policy, the development and implementation of federal and regional programs to promote employment of the population, training and retraining programs.

All components of the labor market are called upon to ensure a balance between the demand and supply of labor, the realization of the right of people to work and free choice of the type of activity, to certain social protection. Ultimately, the interaction of all components is aimed at creating and maintaining a balance of interests of all subjects of the labor market.

25. Labor market conditions

Market conditions for ore - this is the ratio of supply and demand in the context of all components of the market structure. It develops depending on the state of the economy (up or down); sectoral structure of the economy; the level of development of the technical basis; welfare and income level of the population (including per capita); development of the market for goods, services, housing, securities; the state of social and industrial infrastructure; the degree of development of the multistructural economy; measures for the development of integration ties (sectoral and territorial). In addition, it is influenced by demographic, ethno-social, political, environmental and other factors.

The object of the labor market is labor. The subjects are employers, the unemployed, employees, self-employed workers.

The most important elements characterizing the conjuncture of the labor market are: the ratio of supply and demand in quantitative (unemployment or shortage of personnel) and qualitative (structural, primarily vocational) aspect, wages, profits, price, etc. In market conditions, the basic needs of a person, families can be satisfied through labor, receiving wages or income in cash and exchanging them for means of subsistence and services, and on the other hand, first of all, by the mechanism of demand and supply of labor as a competitive form of realization of certain needs and interests . On the part of employers, the demand for labor is formed. On the part of employees - the supply of labor, depending on the level of wages, working conditions, compliance with the professional and qualification structure of the labor force and jobs, the tax system, general culture, etc.

Depending on the relationship between supply and demand, the labor market situation can be of three types. The first type is labor shortage, when the labor market experiences a shortage of labor supply. The second type is labor surplus, when there are a large number of unemployed in the labor market and, accordingly, an excess of labor supply. The third type is equilibrium, when the demand for labor corresponds to its supply.

The current situation in the Russian labor market is characterized by imbalances in the ratio of labor supply and demand, which are stagnant, which hinders the movement of workers between enterprises, industries and sectors of the economy.

The main part of the aggregate supply and demand for labor is satisfied at any given moment, which ensures the functioning of social production (satisfied demand). A smaller part of it, due to the natural and mechanical movement of the labor force and jobs - the departure of people from working age and entry into working age, layoffs and transfers to a new job, the retirement of old and the introduction of new jobs - turns out to be free (vacant) and needs combination of supply and demand. This part of the total labor market corresponds to the concept of the current labor market, the capacity of which is determined by the number of vacancies and the number of job seekers. In their unity, aggregate demand and aggregate supply determine the capacity of the aggregate labor market.

Legislative norms and economic programs create the basis for a more complete and civilized interaction and interconnection of supply and demand as a reaction to information on the market price of labor and competition.

Thus, the conjuncture of the labor market is the ratio of labor supply and demand, which determines wage rates for specific types of labor activity and the level of employment.

26. Types of labor market

In any market there are sellers and buyers, and in this respect the labor market is no exception, that is, it consists of all those who sell and buy labor. According to the foreign classification, there are types of labor market: external (professional) and internal, the main distinguishing features of which are the system of vocational training, methods for improving the professional and qualification level, the practice of promoting employees and filling vacancies, and the features of regulation based on a collective agreement.

External (professional) labor market focused on completed training, which is evidenced by a diploma and a certificate of education from the employee; the main form of vocational training - the apprenticeship system; mobility of the labor force between firms and enterprises due to the fact that the employee has professions that can be used by different organizations; regulation of industrial relations on the basis of a strict classification of jobs, clear boundaries of the content of each job in order to preserve the professional mobility of personnel, the organization of trade unions according to sectoral and professional characteristics.

The external labor market is aimed at: training employees to perform work specific to a particular company; the movement of personnel within the enterprise either horizontally (the employee moves to a new position, the functions and nature of which are similar to the previous one), or vertically (moving to higher positions and ranks); limiting professional mobility and staff turnover, which allows entrepreneurs to focus on a longer period of professional training and advanced training of workers, investing heavily in "systems of continuing education"; regulation of industrial relations (employment guarantees and incentives for long-term work experience at the enterprise, classification of work based on the relationship of jobs, work experience at the enterprise and improving the professional and qualification level of employees); organization of trade unions within companies.

In modern conditions, there is a weakening of the internal labor market of large companies in traditional industries. Firms are increasingly looking to sources of staffing that are external to them. Many experts in the field of labor market development believe. That the external (professional) labor market corresponds to the needs of the cyclical development of production, and the internal labor market - to structural changes in the economy.

Labor markets are differentiated according to the following types:

1) spatial extent and administrative-territorial dependence - national, regional, local (local) and international;

2) degree of maturity - a fragmented (partial) labor market, shadow (unregulated) and regulated;

3) demographic characteristics - labor markets of youth, women, older workers;

4) professional features - labor markets for engineers, teachers, doctors, economists, managers, etc.;

5) manageability - liberal, socially oriented, flexible;

6) the nature of social and labor relations - professionally open and internal closed (limited to the framework of one enterprise, within which the setting of the price of labor and its placement are determined by administrative rules and procedures)

Thus, we can conclude that the labor market occupies an important place in the development of the economic system. Here, not only are the interests of workers and employers intertwined in determining the price of labor and working conditions, but practically all the socio-economic phenomena that occur in society are reflected.

27. Segments of the labor market

Segmentation of the labor market - this is the division of workers and jobs into stable closed sectors, zones that limit the mobility of labor to their borders. The segments of the labor market are the primary and secondary labor markets.

Primary labor market is a market characterized by a stable level of employment and a high level of wages, the possibility of professional advancement, advanced technology, and a management scheme.

The secondary labor market is a market characterized by staff turnover, unstable employment, low wages, lack of professional advancement, skill growth, backward equipment and technology, and the absence of trade unions.

Reasons for the division of the labor market into segments: difference in the level of economic efficiency of production; difference in the level of social efficiency of labor; difference in the level of social efficiency of production.

Segmentation of the labor market provides for the division of the labor market into internal and external. The internal labor market is a system of social and labor relations limited by the framework of one enterprise, within which the appointment of the price of labor and its placement are determined by administrative rules and procedures. This market is determined by the presence and composition of workers in the enterprise, their movement within it, the reasons for the movement, the level of employment, the degree of use of equipment, the availability of free, newly created and liquidated jobs. The external labor market is a system of social and labor relations between employers and employees on a country, region, and industry scale. It involves the primary distribution of workers by areas of application of labor and their movement between enterprises. The external labor market is largely implemented through staff turnover, it ensures the movement of workers from one enterprise to another and generates unemployment.

In the field of employment, there is a segmentation of the labor market according to the form of ownership and employment status, the development of the informal sector, and small business. All persons employed in the economy are divided into three groups: those employed in the formal state, formal non-state, and informal sectors. The last of these includes economic activities that are not registered in accordance with the law, and those employed in which do not pay taxes. Within the informal sector, several types of employment are distinguished: according to the professional and qualification level of income, skilled, fairly well-paid work and work that does not require qualifications are distinguished. According to the status of those employed in the informal sector, persons employed only in the informal sector and persons employed in both the informal and formal sectors are distinguished. Individually employed workers, workers and owners of small unregistered production units, officially unregistered employees of registered organizations, unrecorded, tax-hidden activities of formal sector enterprises that bring unrecorded income to their employees, unrecorded activities of employees carried out on workplace.

An important characteristic of the labor market is its flexibility, which increases mobility in it. Flexibility can be of different types: quantitative - expressed in a change in the number of employees, the level of wages in response to changes in individual factors; functional - assuming flexible modes of work and employment, changes in wage systems.

28. Labor market models

Labor market models can be different. Depending on the degree of competition in the labor market, a model of a purely competitive market, a monopsony model, a model taking into account the actions of trade unions, and a bilateral monopoly are distinguished.

A purely competitive market is characterized by the following features: a large number of firms compete with each other in hiring a particular type of labor; numerous skilled workers with the same qualifications independently offer this type of labor service; neither firms nor workers exercise control over the market wage rate.

The monopsony model, i.e., the monopoly of one buyer, reflects a situation where the employer has monopolistic power to buy (hire).

A model of the labor market taking into account the action of trade unions, i.e., in the labor market, trade unions represent the interests of workers and, on their behalf, negotiate with employers.

The model of bilateral monopoly is typical for the conditions of a monopsony market, in which strong branch trade unions operate. In other words, when the monopsony model and the trade union action model are combined, there is a bilateral monopoly. The union is a monopolistic seller of labor and controls the supply of labor and can influence wage rates. He opposes the monopsony employer of labor, who can also influence wages by changing employment.

The American model of the labor market is based on maintaining the competitive state of the economy, preventing its high centralization, encouraging the active role of entrepreneurs, the attitude of workers to individual success, to earning money. American employment policy is characterized by a focus on high territorial mobility of workers between enterprises, on completed vocational training in educational institutions, on the recognition of the professional and qualification level of workers when changing firms, and on the desire to reduce enterprise costs for industrial training to a minimum. Wages at such enterprises are set by contracts, collective agreements, taking into account the demand and supply of labor, the classification of work by complexity. The organization of trade unions is built on a professional basis. Unemployment insurance is provided on a federal basis. Businesses and employees pay separate contributions to state unemployment insurance funds and to the Federal Fund.

Japanese model. A distinctive feature of the Japanese labor market model is the "lifetime employment system", which provides guarantees for the entire period of employment of workers. These guarantees are the result of the established practice of relations between employees and entrepreneurs, owners of capital. They are not legally formalized, but are supported by trade unions. The Japanese model is characterized by a paternalistic attitude of company leaders towards personnel, attention to the non-productive side of the life of employees and the interest of the latter in all aspects of the enterprise.

The Swedish model is based on an active employment policy pursued by the state. The state pays great attention to increasing the competitiveness of the labor force through vocational training, creating jobs in the public sector and in private companies through subsidies. Employment policy is closely linked to general economic measures, in particular, restrictive tax policy, "solidarity policy" in wages, support for weak groups of the population, industries and regions.

29. State regulation of demand and supply for labor

In market conditions, the basic needs of a person, families can be satisfied through labor, wages or income in cash, on the other hand, the mechanism of labor supply and demand as a competitive form of realization of certain needs and interests. On the part of employers, the demand for labor is formed. The demand for labor reflects the need of the economy for a certain number of workers at any given time.

Labor supply - this is the need of various groups of the able-bodied population in obtaining work for hire and, on this basis, a source of livelihood.

The most common measures of state regulation of the demand for labor include: public works programs; employment subsidies; financial and credit impact on the labor market.

The main goal of public works is the use of the unemployed population for the implementation of socially significant projects; while simultaneously taking into account the interests of society and the unemployed. Even with a fairly high level of unemployment, there are vacancies in areas where low-paid and unprestigious work is necessary for the state. Usually this is work in the social sphere or hard unskilled labor.

Employment subsidies include activities related to the promotion of self-employment and the provision of subsidies to entrepreneurs who hire certain categories of citizens. Encouraging self-employment usually includes the payment of subsidies, as well as legal and organizational assistance from the authorities, which makes it easier for the former unemployed to start their own business.

Financial and credit policy the state manifests itself in the provision of investment tax incentives in the field of capital investments, which, in turn, contribute to the creation of new jobs and increase employment.

The main mechanism of state regulation of labor supply is taxation. The impact of personal income tax on labor supply depends on the level and type (proportional, progressive) of income tax. A proportional tax reduces the wage rate and causes a substitution effect. Stimulating - increase leisure hours.

The supply of labor is also influenced by various social payments, the general purpose of which is to maintain income levels.

An important way of state regulation of labor supply is the use of non-standard forms of employment organization. It opens up the possibility of limiting the supply of labor in the open labor market, allows you to limit the large-scale release of employees and prevent a surge in unemployment.

In modern conditions, the state influences the formation of the structure of labor supply through the implementation of vocational guidance and training programs, especially for young people. Such vocational training programs for the unemployed cover the following areas:

1) elimination of lack of skill;

2) labor adaptation for the unemployed for a long period of time;

3) return to work, that is, special programs for women who want to return to work after a break associated with the birth and upbringing of a child;

4) training of citizens from socially vulnerable groups of the population.

Of particular importance in the system of state regulation of the labor market are the types and forms of material support for the unemployed. By paying unemployment benefits, the state regulates the scale of labor supply.

30. State policy in the labor market

State policy in the labor market is a set of measures of direct and indirect impact on the socio-economic development of society and each of its members. The state in the market can implement an active and passive policy.

Active labor market policy - this is a set of legal, organizational, economic measures carried out by the state in order to regulate relations between participants in labor relations. An active policy is aimed at increasing the competitiveness of an individual in the struggle for market places through training, retraining, promoting self-employment, promoting self-employment, assistance in finding employment, vocational counseling, etc. According to this policy, every healthy person should independently earn money to provide for his family and the state is only an intermediary providing him with employment opportunities.

The main objectives of the state policy in the labor market: the most rapid involvement of the unemployed in working life; providing work to anyone who is looking for it; stimulating structural adjustment and accelerating the redistribution of redundant workers.

The main directions of state policy in the labor market: social support for the population; development of a flexible labor market, legal support; employment, training and retraining of personnel.

The development and implementation of an active labor market policy is influenced by:

1) international labor standards that establish such basic rights as freely chosen employment, equality of opportunity and treatment, freedom of association, etc.;

2) the prevailing type of social and labor relations (in Russia it is tripartism, i.e., the participants in these relations are representatives of the state, trade unions and entrepreneurs), since any policy. Including active labor market policies are more likely to succeed if they are recognized and supported by entrepreneurs, workers and other interest groups;

3) a variety of conditions characteristic of the labor markets of various countries and individual regions within the country.

When pursuing an active policy in the labor market, it is necessary to take into account the age and sex structure of the employed, the unemployed, the unemployed; age of entry into the labor force and its impact on skill levels; family income from employment, government benefits, self-employment, rent, real estate interest, etc.; the degree of urbanization and the scale of formal and informal employment in cities, the level of agricultural and non-agricultural employment; distribution of enterprises according to their sizes and forms of ownership; the openness of the economy to international competition, in particular the share of trade in national income, the importance of foreign investment; development and effectiveness of labor institutions, including organizations of entrepreneurs and workers; the scope, coverage and extent of use of labor laws.

The implementation of an active policy in the labor market is closely related to the structural transformation of the economy in the regions and the formation of effective methods for its regulation.

The passive policy of the state in the labor market is limited to the registration of people looking for work, the definition of unemployment benefits and the organization of the system for its provision, the implementation of non-monetary forms of support for the unemployed and their families. The tactics of passively waiting for an economic recovery can justify itself only if the labor market and the labor force as a whole are highly flexible, and if economic prospects are positive, with a high possibility of self-employment.

31. Essence and activities of trade unions in the labor market

Unions - a mass self-governing public association of workers in a particular industry or related industries, a professional group to protect and represent their social interests. Trade unions as an organization of workers have a number of features:

1) this is the most mass association of workers, accessible to all. There are no preconditions for joining a trade union. Only recognition of the need for unification and the comradely discipline associated with it, regardless of the level of qualification, education, political views, gender, age, nationality;

2) it is an organization that, in terms of its goals and interests, is closer than other public organizations to the economy, to production, that is, to the decisive sphere for the application of human creative forces, where the fundamental interests of the working people are realized.

Trade unions, in addition to their protective role, serve as an indicator of public opinion, serve as an element of the feedback system for the state, allowing it to calibrate and adjust its socio-economic policy. To ignore the trade unions means to mine the social field and wait for social explosions.

The process of reforming trade unions takes place in the conditions of social transformations and transformations of enterprises. This is a change in ownership. The corporatization of enterprises is often used to eliminate or limit the sphere of activity of trade unions. The decline in production, the bankruptcy of enterprises, the conversion lead to a reduction in the number of employees, and after this, to a reduction in trade union membership. There is a process of reduction or loss of the material and financial base, without which the trade unions cannot have any power and influence. An outflow of professional personnel began, a decrease in the intellectual potential of trade union bodies and the level of their knowledge.

The main activities of trade unions are:

Negotiating wages. The most important methods by which unions try to raise wages are:

1) trade unions can limit the supply of labor, for example, by introducing high immigration barriers or limiting the workload, etc.;

2) the unions seek to increase contractual wage rates by helping to raise wages above the equilibrium point;

3) Unions can cause an upward shift in the labor demand curve, for example, by promoting high import tariffs that protect a national industry.

Negotiating other monetary and non-monetary terms of employment: holiday pay, health insurance, pensions, job security and working conditions.

Regulation of the minimum wage.

Regulation of the level of voluntary layoffs, staff turnover.

Encouraging employers to improve the professional level of employees, participation in professional retraining.

In the Russian trade union movement, the following most important components are distinguished:

1) traditional (official) trade unions;

2) alternative trade unions of democratic orientation (Independent trade union of miners);

3) local trade unions - not numerous, organizationally isolated on the scale of a single city;

4) trade unions of workers in the non-state sector.

Thus, the trade union is the most stable organized form of social and economic connection of employees, as a rule, of one or related professions, based on the principles of unity, solidarity, justice and aimed at performing the functions of representing their economic interests in the labor market and ensuring their social protection.

32. Models of behavior of trade unions in the labor market

In modern economic conditions, the degree of participation of workers in the trade union is considered by a simple model of participation in the trade union. This model assumes that there is a demand of workers for the services of the union and a supply of these services from the union. Workers' demand for union services is seen as a decreasing function of the "price" of joining a union. The "price" of membership in a trade union is the cost that an employee bears by joining a trade union: entry fee, ongoing fees, the opportunity cost of time given to work in a trade union organization, etc. The offer of trade union services is an increasing function of the price of membership in a trade union: the greater the costs of workers, the less the union offers them its services. The number of trade union members is determined by the achievement of equilibrium in the market for trade union services and the demand for them. This value will change depending on changes in supply and demand for union services.

Demand for union services will be influenced by factors that affect workers' net benefits from union membership:

1) differences in wages and the likelihood of finding and losing a job between union members and other workers;

2) personal preferences;

3) the demographic structure of the labor force, which affects the profile and duration of labor activity, etc.

The supply of union services will be influenced by factors affecting the costs of union membership and trade union activity:

1) legislation;

2) the degree of opposition of employers to trade union activities;

3) sectoral and technological structure of the economy;

4) the degree of competition, etc.

When analyzing the economic activities of trade unions in economic theory, it is assumed that they seek to improve the level of wages and employment for their members.

In the “right to manage” model, the wage level is determined first as a result of negotiations between the employer and the union, and then the employer, using his right to manage, unilaterally chooses the number of employees to hire so as to maximize profit.

In general, the results of the activities of trade unions may vary. With a negative assessment of the influence of trade unions on economic efficiency, the following negative consequences stand out: the costs of strikes; mobility restrictions that increase search costs; restrictions on mobility and wage rigidity, contributing to rising unemployment; a decrease in the level of profits, a reduction in investment, limiting economic growth; output losses from the impact on resource allocation, etc.

The positive results of the activities of trade unions are realized in the following:

1) reducing employee turnover, reducing turnover costs;

2) fixing the rules that ensure the promotion of workers with experience, which eliminates competition in the domestic labor markets and creates incentives for older workers to share their work experience with younger ones;

3) generalization of experience and rationalization proposals;

4) improving discipline and reducing costs from the opportunistic behavior of employees;

5) reduction of transaction costs of concluding labor contracts, replacement of individual labor contracts with collective agreements.

In the field of social protection of workers outside production, trade unions direct their work towards ensuring a decent standard and quality of life. Therefore, the trade unions pay great attention to the pricing policy of the state.

33. Socio-economic essence of employment

Employment is the most important characteristic of the economy, the well-being of the people; the level of employment is an important macroeconomic indicator. But employment is not only an economic phenomenon, it depends on demographic processes, it is part of social policy, that is, it has a demographic social content.

As an economic category employment - this is a set of relations regarding the participation of the population in labor activity; expresses the measure of its inclusion in labor, the degree of satisfaction of social needs for workers and personal needs, in paid jobs, in generating income. From these positions, employment is the most important characteristic of the labor market.

The employment of the population is a necessary condition for its reproduction, since the standard of living of people, the costs of society for the selection, training, retraining and advanced training of personnel, their employment, and material support for the unemployed depend on it. Employment reveals one of the most important aspects of a person's social development associated with the satisfaction of his needs in the sphere of work and in connection with work.

Employment has a pronounced social character. It reflects the need of people not only for income. But also in self-realization through socially useful activities, as well as the degree of satisfaction of this need at a certain level of socio-economic development of society.

The basic principles of employment, giving employment relations a market character.

The first principle is to ensure freedom in labor and employment, the prohibition of forced, compulsory labor. A person has the priority right to choose: to participate or not to participate in social work.

The second principle is the creation by the state of conditions for ensuring the right to work, protection from unemployment, assistance in finding employment and material support in case of unemployment in accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation.

Employed citizens are: those working under an employment contract, having other paid work (service), including temporary, seasonal work; independently providing themselves with work, including individual labor activity (including farmers, writers, etc.), entrepreneurs, as well as members of production cooperatives; elected, approved or appointed to a paid position; military personnel of any kind of military service serving in the bodies of internal troops; able-bodied students of any full-time educational institutions, including training in the direction of the employment service; temporarily absent from work (vacation, illness, retraining, etc.); performing work under civil law contracts (contracts).

It is important to determine the employment status of the economically active population, including the unemployed. There are five employment statuses:

1) hired workers are persons working under a concluded written contract (agreement) or an oral agreement with the employer on the conditions of labor activity, for which they receive the payment agreed upon when hiring;

2) self-employed - these are persons who independently carry out activities that bring them income;

3) employers - owners of enterprises providing jobs;

4) unpaid employees of family enterprises persons who work without pay in a family enterprise owned by their relative;

5) persons who cannot be classified by employment status are unemployed who have not previously been engaged in labor activity that brought them income (this also includes persons who are difficult to attribute to one or another employment status).

34. Types of employment

The diversity of socio-economic processes occurring within the labor market gives rise to the existence of various forms of employment. Currently, there are various forms of employment. Together, they form a model of employment relations that exists in the labor market. This model reflects both new forms of employment, the expansion of the boundaries of employment, and the filling of certain forms of employment with content that corresponds to today's realities.

Full employment - this is a state of society when all those who have expressed a desire to get a paid job receive it, taking into account any level of involvement in social production, if it satisfies the needs of the employee in an economically expedient (productive) workplace. With full employment, there is no cyclical unemployment, but its natural rate remains. Full employment is determined by the ratio of the number of people employed in social production (production of material goods and services) to the total number of economically active population.

productive employment - this is a state of society when not any work is considered socially acceptable. And only one that meets the two most important requirements. First, employment should bring income to workers, providing decent human living conditions. This implies a direct connection between employment policy and income policy, anti-inflationary actions, etc. Secondly, productive employment is opposed to formal employment. A special case of the latter - the maintenance of surplus workers or the creation of formal jobs in order to avoid unemployment - state policy should help ensure that the work of each person is economically feasible, as productive as possible for society. Productive employment is expressed as the ratio of the number of people employed in professional work in material production to the total number of labor resources (as a percentage).

Efficient employment - employment, when the use of labor is carried out without loss, at which the greatest material result is obtained. Efficient employment makes it possible to assess at what level of labor productivity the population's need for work is satisfied, and in what ways full employment is achieved. This definition of effective employment aims at the full development of the person and is quite acceptable, but it is rather broad and cannot be measured with a single indicator.

Socially useful employment is determined by the number of able-bodied people - employed in social production, in military service, in the bodies of the Ministry of Internal Affairs or studying full-time in educational institutions that run a household (caring for children, the elderly, sick relatives).

Freely chosen employment assumes that the right to dispose of one's own ability to work (labor force) belongs exclusively to the owner, i.e., the worker himself. This principle guarantees the right of every worker to choose between employment and unemployment, prohibiting any administrative involvement in work.

The above forms of employment reflect the state of quantitative and qualitative balancing between the population's need for work and jobs, which creates favorable conditions for the socio-economic progress of society. As the efficiency of labor increases, the level of professional employment will decrease in the country as a whole. This is due to the fact that a highly efficient economy will need a relatively smaller number of workers, as well as a decrease in the population's need for jobs due to the switching of interests to other areas of activity.

35. Unemployment: essence, causes

Unemployment - this is a situation in the economy, when a part of people who are able and willing to work for hire cannot find a job in their specialty or find a job at all. This discrepancy in the labor market, when the supply of labor exceeds demand, and this discrepancy can be both in quantitative and qualitative terms.

Unemployment is one of the main social problems of a market society. It means that, firstly, public resources are underused, and secondly, part of the population has very low monetary incomes. Unemployment is economically considered a natural phenomenon, since it is associated with the normal operation of the market mechanism: the supply of labor should not exceed the demand for labor. However, from a social point of view, unemployment is seen as a negative phenomenon in society, as it leads to an aggravation of social problems and social tension, and causes an increase in crime. A person without work, without benefiting society, lives on funds from the state, which allow him to maintain his existence at a minimum level. Therefore, unemployment is a complex and serious problem even for economically developed countries.

There are several concepts that interpret the phenomenon of unemployment. Marxist theory usually associates unemployment with the process of capital accumulation, in which the need for living labor (variable capital) grows more slowly than the need for machinery and equipment (constant capital). In Western economics, unemployment reflects the economic feasibility of using resources. This is evidenced by the so-called natural rate of unemployment, which reflects structural imbalances in the labor market.

The unemployed, according to the methodology of the International Labor Organization, is considered to be one who currently does not have a job, is looking for it, is ready to start it and has no other sources of income other than wages in paid employment. Under Russian law, the unemployed are able-bodied citizens who do not have work and earnings, registered with the employment service in order to find a suitable job, are looking for work and are ready to start it. It should be noted that the adopted system of accounting for unemployment in Russia does not reflect the actual trends in the development of the labor market, since the majority of the unemployed are not registered at labor exchanges, preferring to look for work on their own or resorting to the services of non-state intermediary structures.

Citizens under the age of 16 are not classified as unemployed; receiving old-age pensions; persons who, within 10 days from the date of applying to the employment service, have refused two options for a suitable job, and those who are looking for a job for the first time - from two offers of vocational training or a job, including temporary ones. A citizen cannot be offered the same job twice.

To analyze the state of unemployment, its level is calculated, which is determined by the ratio of the number of unemployed to the number of economically active population, expressed as a percentage.

The duration of unemployment is defined as the average duration of being unemployed by all the unemployed or their individual categories or the unemployed in individual territories.

Modern economists view unemployment as a natural and integral part of a market economy. The objective basis and determining factor for the inevitability of the emergence and development of unemployment are property relations, the availability of the necessary means of production from entrepreneurs and their absence from workers, the existence of a system of hired labor.

36. Types of unemployment

There are several types of unemployment: structural, frictional, cyclical, hidden, voluntary, forced, prolonged, stagnant.

Structural unemployment - characterizes the impossibility of employment due to differences in the structure of demand and supply of labor. Its cause is the economic processes of the functioning of the market, when in some periods there is a demand for certain professions of various qualifications in certain regions in the absence of an appropriate labor supply there, and vice versa.

Frictional unemployment - associated with the natural constant movement of the population. Since a person is given the freedom to choose the type of activity and place of work, he uses this right. Some voluntarily change jobs, others are looking for a new job due to dismissal. Some people lose their temporary jobs, seasonal jobs, etc. Some people from this category find jobs, while others continue to look for work. Frictional unemployment is considered inevitable and desirable, since the initiative to dismiss comes from the individual himself, and many workers, upon dismissal, move from low-paid, low-paying jobs to higher-paying and meaningful jobs.

Cyclical unemployment - associated with the phases of reproduction cycles. It is caused by a decline in production, a decrease in investment in the economy. Employers due to a decrease in demand for their products are forced to reduce the number of employees.

Hidden unemployment - is characterized by a situation in society when an employee is forced to agree to work under conditions of part-time employment (part-time, week or month). This type of unemployment is also associated with the presence of an unemployed population in society due to economic instability, when the demand for labor is less than supply. Hidden unemployment is divided into official and unofficial. Official hidden unemployment includes persons registered by statistics who are on administrative leave at the initiative of the administration, as well as persons forced to work part-time. Informal hidden unemployment should include the excess number of internal workers and those who are looking for work on their own.

Voluntary unemployment - means that the employee does not want to work for the wages offered to him or in the proposed specialty at the enterprise, expecting a more suitable job.

involuntary unemployment - means, in fact, any kind of unemployment, except for voluntary. This type of unemployment characterizes a situation where the enterprise, in accordance with the collective agreement, has fixed wages for a certain period of time, which does not suit the employee. In anticipation of wage revisions, involuntary unemployment may occur.

Long term unemployment observed in the absence of work for 4-8 months. Such unemployment is characterized by the beginning of dequalification of the worker, the appearance of self-doubt, unwillingness to look for work on their own.

long Unemployment is considered to last 8-18 months. Under these conditions, the employee begins a general dequalification, loss of labor skills and the ability to work intensively for the required time.

Long-term unemployment lasts over 18 months. Under these conditions, the degradation of human labor potential occurs. To restore a person's former attitude to work, an individual approach is needed.

In addition to these, unemployment is distinguished among the most vulnerable segments of the population, for example, women, youth, older people, the disabled, migrants, as well as seasonal unemployment.

37. State employment policy

State employment policy - a set of measures to influence the socio-economic development of society and each of its members. It has several levels: national, regional and local. There are European, Scandinavian and American models of employment policy.

The European model assumes a reduction in the number of employees with an increase in labor productivity and, as a result, an increase in the income of workers; such a policy involves a costly benefit system for a large number of the unemployed.

The Scandinavian model is based on providing employment to almost all workers through the creation of jobs in the public sector with average wages. Such a policy is designed mainly for public funds, the deficit of which leads to a decline in production, which entails dismissal.

The American model focuses on creating jobs that do not require high productivity for a large part of the economically active population. At the same time, unemployment formally decreases, but the number of people with low incomes increases.

The use of one or another model affects the employment policy at the macro and micro levels. At the macro level, new approaches to employment policy contribute to increasing the flexibility of the labor market, reducing labor costs, and leading to the curtailment of social programs. However, the systems of training and retraining of personnel are expanding, additional jobs are being created, and the conditions for issuing benefits are being tightened. Measures are being taken to strengthen the role of the private sector in solving employment problems. other social problems. At the micro level, a policy is being pursued to curb wage growth and lengthen the working week. Various forms of part-time employment are more widely used. As a result, crises are intensifying.

The state policy in the field of promoting employment of the population is aimed at:

1) development of human resources for labor;

2) ensuring equal opportunities for all citizens, regardless of factors (gender, age, etc.) in exercising the right to voluntary work and free choice of employment;

3) creation of conditions that ensure a decent life and free development of a person;

4) support for labor and entrepreneurial initiatives of citizens, carried out within the framework of the law, as well as promoting the development of abilities for productive, creative work;

5) ensuring social protection in the field of employment of the population, carrying out special events that contribute to the employment of citizens who are in particular need of social protection and who experience difficulties in finding work;

6) prevention of mass and reduction of long-term unemployment;

7) encouragement of employers who maintain existing and create new jobs, primarily for citizens who are in special need of social protection and who experience difficulties in finding a job;

8) a combination of independence of the authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, local governments in ensuring employment of the population;

9) coordination of activities in the field of employment of the population with activities in other areas of economic and social policy;

10) coordination of the activities of state bodies, trade unions, other representative bodies of employees and employers in the development and implementation of measures to ensure employment of the population;

An active government policy in the field of employment is carried out through the development and implementation of federal and regional employment programs, which are formed based on the situation on the labor market and the forecast of its development.

38. Labor mobility: concept, factors

The most important factor reflecting the state of employment of all socio-demographic groups of the population is its mobility, which reflects the willingness and ability of the population to change social status, professional affiliation and place of residence. Labor mobility is determined by the needs of the economy for labor of a certain content and place of application, as well as the ability and readiness of the individual to change in the essential characteristics of labor. Labor mobility of the labor force is characterized by certain factors that can be divided into four groups:

1) providing for the urgency of changes in labor mobility (current situation, opportunities for improving working conditions, living conditions, investments made);

2) reflecting the desirability of mobility due to a number of socio-economic circumstances (the position of an employee in a new place, the possibility of promotion in a new place, the preservation of investments);

3) assessing the ease of mobility through a system of characteristics that can contribute to or hinder it (objective and subjective characteristics, the degree of change, travel costs);

4) reflecting a person's awareness of possible mobility options, which is extremely important in the conditions of the formation and development of market relations (availability of information about vacancies, the cost of information, the reliability of information).

The history of economic development knows various ways of managing labor mobility, which are significantly differentiated depending on the conditions under which they can be implemented. The degree of state intervention in economic management is manifested in the extent to which it regulates labor relations and the mechanism of influencing labor migration. Under the conditions of the planned economy, there was a fairly coherent system for managing labor mobility: (distribution of graduates of secondary specialized and higher educational institutions; organized recruitment of workers; agricultural resettlement of families; public appeals; employment with the help of employment agencies; self-recruitment of workers by organizations). Labor mobility in the conditions of the administrative-command control of the economy was strongly influenced by the state policy in the field of labor. The policy in this area was developed and implemented in terms of global political objectives. Their decision was often subject to the expediency of certain socio-economic projects. The practice of severe state pressure on citizens when deciding to change their place of residence led to a large volume of irrational migrations, low survival rate of new settlers, instability of the majority of labor collectives in areas of new development, etc. State funds were irrationally spent on organizing labor movements of labor in across the country. The practice of countries with market economies demonstrates different approaches to the regulation of migration processes, including labor mobility.

The impact of the economic subsystem of the social order on population dynamics and labor mobility is complex and multifaceted. No matter how independent a person is in making his decision to change his place of residence, work, he must take into account the economic reality surrounding him. Therefore, the real possibility of employment in a particular locality is largely determined by the economic situation and the investment climate in the city or region. These factors may depend on the federal government, local authorities.

39. Territorial and intercompany mobility

Territorial mobility - this is migration, which is understood precisely as the spatial movement of the able-bodied population, caused by changes in the development and location of production, the conditions for the existence of the labor force.

The territorial redistribution of the labor force is formed under the influence of many factors, the degree of influence of which varies depending on the specific historical conditions for the development of the country or its individual regions. The vast majority of migrations can be attributed to labor movements. Since, regardless of the reason for the change of residence, a person leaves a job at the point of departure and takes a new job at the point of resettlement. This statement is true, first of all, for able-bodied citizens. Territorial mobility is strongly influenced by economic reasons. Economic migration is closely related to the territorial redistribution of labor both within individual countries and between them.

The developed social infrastructure in most of the largest cities of the country activates the migration of young people to them. This is due to the desire to get a professional education and improve their own social status. In the structure of the causes of economic migration, there are significant differences in the standard of living between the regions of the country and individual cities. Traditionally in Russia such cities are Moscow and St. Petersburg. This pushes a significant number of citizens (not only Russians) to make the decision to move. If such a decision is not supported by job prospects, then spontaneous migration to capital cities leads to an aggravation of the social and criminal situation in the city.

Intercompany mobility - this is the movement of workers between industries, enterprises and within the enterprise, due to the development and distribution of productive forces, labor demand and supply.

In a perfectly competitive industry, the demand for labor is not simply the sum of the demand for individual firms. Included in this industry. An increase in the scale of employment with a decrease in the level of wages leads to an increase in total output. The latter circumstance entails a decrease in the level of output prices, which was initially assumed by firms to be constant (fixed). The result will be. That employment will be excessive, the increase in employment ceases to be a profitable business, as it was presented above. Therefore, part of the workforce will be laid off.

The supply of labor for an industry that employs a labor force in occupations widely represented in the country will not significantly depend on the level of wages. Such industries can hire so many workers. As much as she needs, without increasing wages. This also applies to industries that are not major employers. Many industries are major employers. Showing a high demand for labor, not specific trained personnel (gas, oil industry, metallurgy). For this reason, the supply of labor in the short term will tend to increase. Therefore, the greater the supply of labor in a particular industry. The higher will be the level of wages relative to the level of wages in other industries. Higher wages attract more and more workers to these industries.

The main factors of intercompany mobility are the amount of wages, working conditions, labor content, working hours, the likelihood of promotion in a new place, the difference in functions, the cost of developing new activities, and the ease of adaptation to a new place.

40. Population migration

Population migration - this is the spatial movement of the able-bodied population, caused by changes in the development and location of production, the living conditions of the population.

From the point of view of population movement between administrative-territorial entities, two types of migration are distinguished: external and internal.

External migration occurs when crossing the state border. I distinguish two streams in it: emigration and immigration. Emigration is the outflow of the population from a given state. Immigration is an influx into the territory of a given state.

Internal migration is migration within a country. Depending on the action of various factors and conditions, migration of the population can be of the following types:

1) if the migration of the labor force occurs within a certain region and between regions of different ranks, then it is divided into intra-district and inter-district, intra-regional and inter-regional;

2) depending on the time for which the labor force moves, they distinguish irrevocable (permanent) and return (temporary) migration of the population;

3) migration of the population for the reasons that caused it is divided into voluntary and forced, the latter occurs for reasons beyond the control of migrants (military actions, environmental disasters, political and ethnic conflicts);

4) according to the nature of the current mobility of the labor force, migration is divided into seasonal and pendulum. Seasonal is associated with the expansion of the front of work, and the pendulum - includes the regular movement of labor from one locality to another to work and back;

5) from the point of view of compliance with the norms of the legislation in force in the country, the migration of the population can be legal (without violation of legislative norms) and illegal (with violation of the law);

6) according to the method of implementation, migration is divided into independent, which is carried out by the forces and means of the migrants themselves and organized with the help of state or public bodies, enterprises;

7) population migration due to labor activity is called labor migration;

8) the study of population migration according to selected migration flows (this is the total number of migrants with common areas of arrival and departure during a given period of time) allows us to systematically, comprehensively and in interconnection consider this phenomenon in the economy of a particular region and the country as a whole.

The above structure of population migration is not exhaustive and can be expanded by using other assessment criteria and factors that determine it. The study of population migration according to the selected migration flows allows us to systematically, comprehensively and in interconnection consider this phenomenon in the economy of a particular region and the country as a whole.

The reasons for migration are: natural and climatic, demographic, socio-economic phenomena.

Natural and climatic - include environmental conditions and environmental disasters. Socio-economic - characterize the location of production in the territory of a particular region; level of economic development; the size of investments, the level of infrastructure development, the possibility of obtaining education and housing, etc.

Demographic reasons are related to the number and composition of inhabitants in a particular settlement.

Migration has an impact on the socio-economic development of the country. This refers to the situation of migrants, whose unemployment rate is higher than that of the native inhabitants of a given area. The influx of migrants is accompanied by an increase in the burden on social infrastructure.

41. Composition and structure of income

Under Income means the sum of all types of receipts in cash or in the form of material goods or services received as payment for labor, as a result of various types of economic activity or the use of property, as well as free of charge in the form of social assistance, benefits and benefits. The size and composition of income is one of the most important characteristics of the standard of living of the population.

Incomes can be formed according to labor, property, abilities, needs, etc. In the civilized world, the basis for the distribution of public goods is the principle according to work. In a market economy, it is modified into the principle of distribution according to the marginal productivity of labor, which is determined taking into account the situation on the labor market.

According to the main types of employment, the labor income of the population is classified as follows: income from employment at the place of the main job; income from secondary employment; income from self-employment. These types of income can be received separately or in any combination.

The main sources of personal income are the labor activity of the population working for hire; labor activity of persons of a free profession; entrepreneurial activity; own; funds of the state and enterprises, distributed in accordance with belonging to a certain social group and category of personnel; personal farms.

The classification of income provides for their distribution and association into groups and subgroups depending on various characteristics.

According to the economic nature, labor and non-labor incomes are distinguished.

labor income, the basis for the formation of which is labor activity, include: income received in the form of wages at enterprises of various organizational and legal forms of ownership; from individual activity; from personal subsidiary farming; from entrepreneurial activity; from the sale of paid household services, etc.

unearned income, received through state official channels and from businesses that do not contradict the legal norms of morality, include: social transfers (pensions, allowances, scholarships); property income; share dividends; interest on bonds and other securities; return on invested capital, and the manufacturing sector and other sectors of the economy.

According to the economic content, cash and in-kind incomes are distinguished.

Cash income includes: wages, pensions, scholarships, allowances, business income, dividends, property income, income from the sale of securities; income from the sale of products of personal subsidiary plots; increase in cash deposits in a savings bank, etc.

In-kind income includes: the value of in-kind receipts from personal subsidiary plots used for personal consumption; the cost of in-kind services of a therapeutic, preventive, cultural, community and social nature, paid for at the expense of the federal, municipal budgets and enterprise funds.

According to the degree of use, general, disposable and real incomes are distinguished.

General income - this is the amount of income received from all sources, including funds, enterprises for paying taxes and mandatory payments.

Disposable income (net income) - this is the amount of funds remaining after paying taxes and mandatory payments, which the family can spend to the maximum extent on the final consumption of goods and services without using savings and other sources.

Real income - this is the cost of acquired material and cultural and household goods in the amount of disposable income, taking into account the prices of goods and services.

42. Principles of formation of incomes of the population

Throughout the civilized world, the principle of distribution according to work is considered the basis for the distribution of social wealth.

For a long time, the principle of distribution according to the quantity and quality of labor in the domestic literature was interpreted from the standpoint of distribution according to labor costs. Recently, such a concept has been rejected by the majority of authors who prove the necessity of distribution according to work.

In a market economy, the principle of distribution according to work is implemented on the basis of the marginal productivity of a particular employee at a particular workplace, i.e., the income of an employee, other things being equal, increases in accordance with the growth of the enterprise's income from this type of labor.

The marginal productivity of a worker depends on supply and demand in the relevant labor market. In a rationally organized economy, the price of highly skilled creative labor is much higher than that of low-skilled labor. This reflects the higher productivity of skilled labor. However, in the context of a sharp change in social relations and technological patterns, the structure of demand for labor changes significantly and the price of some types of highly skilled labor can significantly decrease. This situation is typical of the Russian labor market in the 90s, when the incomes of many scientists and engineers turned out to be lower than those of salespeople, cashiers and security guards. In such situations, in which the market mechanism does not provide an adequate response, government regulatory measures should be taken to preserve the intellectual and spiritual potential of the country. These measures are effectively implemented if there are sufficient funds in the state budget. If this condition is not met, the degradation of science, education, and culture is inevitable, with obvious consequences for the future of the country. The considered situation is a consequence of differences in the short-term and long-term aspects of the ratio of supply and demand in the labor market. Thus, in a market economy, the principle of distribution according to work is modified into the principle of distribution according to the marginal productivity of labor.

In a market economy, along with income from labor, income from property plays a significant role. In Russia, the distribution by property for a long time officially did not have significant significance and was practically not discussed in the scientific literature. However, with the issuance of shares and other securities, distribution by ownership becomes a reality and, under certain conditions, can become quite significant. At present, the problem of the optimal combination of the principles of distribution according to labor and property is becoming more and more urgent, while taking into account the socio-psychological and economic aspects.

In a theoretical aspect, it is possible to discuss the principle of distribution according to abilities. However, in practice this principle can be realized only through distribution according to work. Abilities significantly affect the results of labor, and hence the corresponding share of social wealth. This circumstance is difficult to take into account by any economic methods, except for progressive taxation.

For our country, distribution by position is essential. For a long time it was believed that the position held determines the contribution of a person to social wealth, the quantity and quality of his work. However, the known facts make one doubt this statement. This makes a very urgent problem of such a distribution of income, in which their level would depend not only on the position, but on the economic and social effect of the activities of a particular person holding this position.

43. Nominal and real incomes

Nominal income is the number of rubles. Which a person receives in the form of wages, rent or profit.

Real income is determined by the amount of goods and services that can be bought with the amount of nominal income. Real income is calculated as the ratio of nominal income to the price index.

It should be clear that the very fact of inflation, leading to a decrease in the purchasing power of the ruble, is not accompanied by a mandatory decrease in the real income of a particular person. A decline in real income will occur only if personal nominal income lags behind the rate of inflation.

A particularly strong negative impact of high inflation affects citizens who receive fixed nominal incomes. However, individual citizens who receive non-fixed incomes can raise their standard of living as a result of inflation. Workers in emerging industries. Which increases the demand for labor. Can achieve with the help of trade unions. To ensure that nominal wages do not lag behind the growth of consumer prices or even outpace them.

As consumer prices rise, citizens' savings also depreciate. Moreover, the real value of monetary savings is reduced not only at home, but also in commercial banks. If inflation exceeds the interest rate in a commercial bank, then the real value of the deposit will decrease along with bank interest accruals.

Thus, with a constant gross domestic product, inflation redistributes income, reducing it for recipients of fixed incomes and increasing it for other groups of the population. If there is high inflation and at the same time the gross domestic product falls, then real incomes fall for the vast majority of the population.

In conditions of high inflation, not only the standard of living of the population is reduced. Having a fixed income. But the volumes of production of goods and services are also falling, which leads to a decrease in the real incomes of the vast majority of citizens. The experience of foreign countries shows that the critical level of inflation. At which no country in the world has achieved sustainable economic growth, is 40% per annum. Among Russian economists, different points of view are expressed: some believe. That in Russian conditions the criterion for "stability" of prices, when an economic recovery is possible, is 10% per annum; for others, the main thing is to ensure economic growth, even if inflation exceeds 40% per annum.

The negative impact of high inflation on the development of the economy is manifested in the fact that the monetary system is being destroyed and the outflow of financial resources to trade and intermediary operations is increasing, capital is accelerating its flight from the real sector of the economy, conditions are being created for the displacement of the national currency by foreign in domestic circulation, and the possibilities of sustainable financing are decreasing. state budget.

During crisis periods of development, governments of many countries try to stop the destructive impact of high inflation on the economy by establishing control over the growth of nominal wages and prices, thus affecting real incomes.

In countries with a market economy, the state policy of income regulation includes three main areas: legislative regulation of the minimum wage; legislative regulation and adjustment of the dynamics of wages in accordance with the growth of inflation; active state intervention in the process of coordinating the interests of workers and employers in order to control the provision of a socially acceptable level of labor force reproduction; application of a progressive system of taxation.

44. Differentiation of incomes of the population

The differentiation of workers' monetary incomes is formed mainly under the influence of two factors: the differentiation of wages and the differentiation of the marital status of workers. However, wage differentiation and income differentiation cannot be assessed from the same positions. In the first case, economic inequality corresponds to the concept of social justice within a given social order and is a condition for progress; in the second case, inequality develops as a result of the redistribution of income in families, which to a certain extent is "unfair", since in a certain part it has nothing to do with the work and labor merits of people.

In the conditions of a centralized economy and an egalitarian society based on an equal distribution of incomes of the population, the problems of differentiation and economic inequality were insignificant and did not cause concern for specialists. A characteristic feature of the planned economy was the strict control of the state over the incomes of citizens in order to prevent their differentiation. This was achieved by establishing mandatory tariff rates and salaries, defining various kinds of "limits" in wages, and limiting the size of bonuses.

The situation has changed dramatically since the beginning of the transformation and the formation of market relations. On the one hand, the employee is given the freedom to choose a place of work, profession, etc. On the other hand, competition in the labor market has intensified. Employers have the right to choose to hire, to determine the amount of wages. Economic structures have become independent in the field of organization of wages. A high level of income differentiation is fundamentally inherent in countries with developed market economies, especially at the initial stage of development, and is associated with employment restrictions, inflation, and shifts in the structure of production.

The causes of inequality and wealth stratification by income are the unequal distribution of income and property; unequal starting conditions for the development of individual labor activity, entrepreneurship, business; relatively low wages for some categories of workers; increasing the proportion of dependents in the family; the presence of unemployed able-bodied persons; low level of social benefits; untimely payment of wages, pensions, benefits.

One of the major factors in the growth of differentiation is inflation, in which payments are practically not indexed as prices rise, and the consumer basket becomes more expensive at a rate that outpaces the overall price increase.

One of the existing factors of differentiation of wages of workers is income taxes. Russia differs from Western countries in a kind of "leveling". At present, a single income tax on the income of the population in the amount of 13% has been introduced. While in the EU countries there are progressive scales with an increase in tax rates with an increase in cash income. Thus, in Germany the highest tax rate is set at 53% of income, in the UK, Spain, Hungary, Estonia - 40%.

Inequality and social and property stratification of the population is one of the serious problems of the formation and development of market relations. To quantify income differentiation, the decile coefficient, the Gini coefficient and the Lorenz curve are used.

The decile coefficient is the ratio between the average incomes of the top 10% and the bottom 10% of citizens.

The Gini coefficient is an index of population income concentration.

The Lorenz curve shows the extent to which the actual distribution of income is removed from the state of absolute equal distribution.

45. Concept of poverty

One of the most acute problems of Russia in the socio-economic sphere is the scale of poverty. According to experts of the international labor organization, poverty arises due to the inefficiency of the socio-economic system and structural errors. The problem of poverty has several aspects: political, economic, social, moral and ethical. Therefore, this problem requires a solution in the near future, since the development of the country largely depends on it.

The main categories of the poor traditionally include: low-paid workers (below the subsistence level), including young people entering the labor market for the first time; unemployed citizens; large and incomplete families; part of pensioners and invalids; forced migrants; marginals.

The main socio-economic characteristics of the welfare/poverty of the population are.

1. The degree of satisfaction of needs for food, clothing, housing, etc. The main criterion for evaluating this characteristic is the physiological needs of the body, necessary for the normal reproduction of labor force.

2. The degree of provision of labor rights, first of all, the right to work in general and to productive labor, in particular, the development of the Russian labor market does not fully meet modern conditions, there is a high level of hidden unemployment, temporary employment, the dictate of the employer in setting prices labor force, etc.

3. The degree of accessibility of material goods and services. This characteristic is currently largely determined by such an indicator as the profitability of labor. In the absence of a shortage of goods and the developing sector of paid services (medicine, education), the shortage of funds becomes a serious obstacle for the majority of workers in ensuring the availability of material goods and services.

4. Depth and severity of poverty. The depth of poverty characterizes that part of the population whose income and expenses are below the established poverty line (for example, the subsistence minimum). The severity of poverty shows the degree of differentiation in the income or expenditure of the population and is used to compare changes over time, as well as in terms of the impact of various socio-economic policies on the material situation of the population. The main criteria are the poverty line (threshold), the ratio of the incomes of the most income groups of the population to the least income groups.

The factors of poverty in Russia may include: unemployment, non-payment and delays in payment of wages, pensions, benefits, high "dependency load" in families, large families. Location of households (poverty is more common in rural areas), reaching retirement age (more in urban areas, less in rural areas). The main reason for the persistence of a high level of poverty in Russia and, accordingly, its negative impact on the dynamics and prospects for economic growth is the low level of wages for a significant part of workers.

The most dangerous from the economic point of view. From a social and political point of view, a form of poverty is stagnant poverty - a situation in which poverty, localized in certain groups of society or certain regions, is reproduced systematically, that is, when several generations of people are not able to overcome the factors and causes that once gave rise to poverty.

Temporary poverty is a reversible condition associated either with certain stages of the family life cycle, or with seasonal fluctuations, or with extraordinary circumstances. Manifestations of temporary poverty are relatively less socially dangerous.

46. Living Wage

Cost of living - this is an indicator of the volume and structure of consumption of the most important material goods and services at the minimum acceptable level, which provides conditions for maintaining the active physical condition of adults, the social and physical development of children and adolescents. The living wage is one of the central concepts of the system of minimum guarantees provided by the state to the population.

The cost of living is reflected in the structure of the subsistence minimum; spending on non-food items; service costs; taxes; other obligatory payments.

The living wage as an instrument of social policy is used as a basis for targeted social policy; as targets in the regulation of income and consumption of low-income groups of the population; to assess the material and financial resources necessary for the implementation of current and future social programs, the provision of targeted assistance to low-income segments of the population; to justify the size of the minimum wage and old-age labor pension.

The scope of the subsistence minimum is very wide: it is both an element of the system of minimum guarantees and the basis for determining the poverty threshold, and the basis for calculating and differentiating wages, pensions and various benefits.

In Russia, on the basis of the subsistence minimum, the consumer basket is calculated for the whole country and the subjects of the federation. Its size is determined taking into account the principles and procedure for the formation of a minimum set of food products, non-food products and services necessary to preserve human health and ensure its vital activity; natural and climatic conditions, national traditions and local characteristics of the consumption of food, non-food products and services; approximate minimum sets of food products, non-food products and services for the main socio-demographic groups of the country's population.

The subsistence minimum is calculated on the basis of scientific recommendations on the minimum consumption volumes and the list of goods and services necessary for a person; the actual volume of consumption of goods and services in low-income families; socio-economic and demographic factors that characterize the level of monetary incomes of the population, the composition and age and sex structure of the population, the size and structure of families, the financial capabilities of the state to ensure social protection of the population; objective differences in the consumption of goods and services, determined by various features.

The country's subsistence minimum provides for its differentiation according to the following main socio-demographic groups of the population: able-bodied population; pensioners; children. In addition, it differs by territorial zones (16 zones for food consumption, 3 zones for non-food products for individual use and 3 zones for a set of services), as well as by the family factor.

Theoretically, the living wage should be equal to the minimum wage. The state minimum wage applies to any employee, regardless of the legal form of the enterprise where he works. Enterprises can set their own minimum wage, which must not be lower than the state one. The time it takes to raise the minimum wage to the subsistence level also depends on the ability of employers to combine the increase in the minimum wage with maintaining or increasing the level of employment achieved.

47. The concept and elements of quality of life

Indicators of the quality of life, along with other indicators, make it possible to assess the level of social development of society. The term "quality of life" appeared in the 20s. XNUMXth century in Western theories. E. Mayo, A. Maslow, D. McGregor and others are considered to be the founders of the concept of quality of life. In Russia, in the pre-perestroika period, the terms "well-being", "way of life", "standard of living" were used. Now, along with the concept of "standard of living", such concepts as "quality of life" and "quality of working life" are used, often as synonyms for the first, and sometimes in a broader sense. At the same time, the concept of "quality of life" is broader in content than the concept of "quality of working life".

The quality of life is understood as the satisfaction of the entire complex of needs, both in production and outside it, that is, the conditions of life and work, and people's health. Opportunities for education, the level of well-being of the family, the purchasing power of the population, etc. As for working life, this is one of the elements of the quality of life in general.

The quality of working life refers to the conditions of the working life of people. But due to the fact that a significant part of people's lives is spent at work, the quality of working life largely determines the quality of life in general. Theoretical approaches to studying the quality of working life were mainly formed in the 60s and 70s. They are based on a universal approach to understanding the creative nature of the individual, on the recognition of the need to humanize labor, the mental and physical development of a person, his social satisfaction, etc. The practical significance of the concept of the quality of working life lies in restoring the integrity of labor and culture, creating such working conditions, in which employees can realize their personal potential. This takes into account everyday aspects and people's subjective perception of their level of well-being.

The quality of life of people is influenced by economic, social, demographic. Political and other factors. At the same time, it is important to take into account how the employee himself assesses the quality of his life: opportunities for self-development and creativity, the position of his family in society, its financial condition, housing conditions, etc.

In 1961, the European Commission of the United Nations developed and recommended for use indicators of the quality of life. Most countries use these indicators, varying them based on national characteristics and capabilities. The main components of the quality of life assessed are: health, food consumption, education, employment and working conditions, human rights, housing, clothing, social security, recreation and free time.

In Russia, during the period of the formation of market relations, there was a decrease in the quality of life of the population due to a sharp depreciation of the labor force, when labor of medium and high qualification did not provide conditions for a normal decent life. The task of increasing the price of labor is determined by the need to improve the level and quality of life of the population in the conditions of overcoming the crisis. Positive changes in the sphere of wages are possible only on the basis of state regulation of a guaranteed level of wages, employment, and social security.

Thus, the concept of quality of life and the quality of working life covers various human relationships. The quality of life is a kind of synthetic characteristic of the level and living conditions of the population, a summary indicator that helps, using quantitatively determined parameters, to assess the level of socio-economic development of society.

48. Standard of living: essence and factors

The standard of living as a complex socio-economic category reflects the degree of development and the level of satisfaction of various material, spiritual and social needs of a person living in society. It is made up of many components. This is the size of the real incomes of workers, and the level of consumption of material goods and services by the population, and the provision of the population with comfortable housing, and the growth of education, the degree of development of medical and cultural services for citizens. The standard of living is determined by the development of the productive forces of society and the volume of production. Specifically, it manifests itself in the characteristics of consumption and indirectly in the level of income.

If earlier, when determining the forecasts of the standard of living of the population, they were limited only to a strict framework of income and consumption, now, having in mind the people's well-being, they include in it, along with income and consumption, presented in an "extended" form, working and living conditions, the volume and the structure of free time, and not only the characteristics of the cultural and educational level of people, but also indicators of health, and indicators of the environmental situation. The standard of living reflects the most important aspect of a person's position in society identified in sociology. Expressing the degree of realization of vital interests and preferences, which are the driving force of economic activity.

There are four levels of living of the population:

1) prosperity - the use of benefits that ensure the comprehensive development of a person;

2) normal level - rational consumption. Providing a person with the restoration of his physical and intellectual strength;

3) poverty - the consumption of goods at the level of maintaining working capacity as the lower limit of the reproduction of the labor force;

4) poverty - the minimum allowable set of goods and services, the consumption of which only allows maintaining human viability.

There are factors that directly affect the formation of the standard of living, and factors that have an indirect effect on it, i.e., determine it.

The factors that directly affect the formation of the standard of living include: the level of income of the population; the volume and structure of consumption of material goods; housing provision; the level of health development; the level of development of education; the level of cultural development; the level of social security; amount of free time; rest conditions, etc.

The factors that determine the standard of living include: the degree of employment of the able-bodied population; working hours; labor intensity; the state of labor protection and safety at work.

The factors that form the standard of living characterize the living conditions of people outside the sphere of material production. To factors that have an indirect impact on the standard of living of people, as well as working conditions that add up in production and are determined by the level of its development.

The most significant factors that determine the dynamics of the standard of living of the population include the level of productive forces and production relations in society, technological progress, the economic potential of society (its national wealth), ways of distributing the social product, political and social factors.

All factors are closely interconnected, interdependent and require their comprehensive consideration in solving the problem of raising the standard of living in the country.

Naturally, countries with an efficient economy and significant social wealth are able to provide their citizens with higher living standards and social guarantees than economically backward countries. The same applies to countries with a predominant working-age population and a high level of employment.

49. Efficiency, ability to work and legal capacity of an employee

Any activity of a person is based on his capacity, efficiency and ability to work.

Legal capacity (ability to activity) characterizes human activity from a qualitative point of view. In the process of labor, a person is able to endlessly create material and spiritual values, setting himself various goals and achieving them in various ways. An infinite variety of goals and ways to achieve them is a consequence of the functioning of the human body. Therefore, legal capacity is the ability of a person to qualitatively different types of expedient activity, the ability to realize their infinite variety.

A person can solve the tasks set for himself using his working capacity, which is dynamic during the working day. In general, the working day can be represented as two components: work before lunch and work after lunch. In each of these components, human performance changes and goes through three phases:

1) the phase of development and adaptation, characterized by an increase in working capacity, its duration can last from several minutes to 1,5 hours and depends on the characteristics of the work and the person himself;

2) the phase of high stable performance lasts about 2-3 hours, and is characterized by minimal labor costs for the performance of labor functions, with their high quality;

3) the phase of decline in working capacity occurs as a result of accumulating fatigue, and the employee's reaction slows down and the results of work worsen. The phase of falling performance signals the need for rest for the worker.

Considering the dynamics of the employee's performance during the working day, we can identify the main areas of maintaining efficiency at a high level:

1) ensuring the rapid development of a person, for this industrial gymnastics, functional music, etc. can be used;

2) maximization of the period of stable performance is ensured by the introduction of micropauses (can be from 9 to 15% of the working time);

3) the prevention of employee fatigue is achieved by establishing breaks in work for rest and personal needs and by establishing regulated breaks in work.

The working capacity of a person changes not only during the working day, but also during the week, month, year.

Efficiency characterizes the quantitative side of a particular labor activity of a person. Thanks to it, it becomes possible to perform the action itself and obtain its result in quantitative terms.

Efficiency is characterized by a number of indicators: economic and physiological.

Economic indicators include the number of products produced for each hour of work, the average time spent on manufacturing a unit of output; the number of defective products per hour of work, etc.

Physiological indicators include a change in heart rate, the speed of visual reaction, that is, those indicators that characterize the change in the physiological state of the human body.

The ability of a person to work reflects the possibility of his participation in labor in general. If a person is able to work, he is able to work. Disability means that a person is completely unable to perform work or that work is contraindicated for him for health reasons. A person acquires ability to work when he reaches working age, and loses it in old age, as a result of illness or injury. Therefore, one of the measures to increase employment is the creation of jobs for people with disabilities.

50. Main social characteristics of labor

The main social properties of labor are:

1) awareness of actions, since before starting to work, a person creates a project in his mind, that is, mentally represents the result of labor;

2) the expediency of actions, that is, a person knows how to produce goods, and at the same time what resources and technology should be used;

3) the effectiveness of actions is manifested not just as a result, but in a socially useful result;

4) the social usefulness of actions is characterized both by the cooperation of labor and by the means of satisfying not only personal, but also social needs;

5) energy consumption of actions, that is, the expenditure of human energy in the implementation of labor activity.

Labor is the root cause of human development, it was labor that caused the division of functions between the lower and upper limbs, in the development of speech, the brain, in the improvement of the senses.

The labor process is carried out under certain conditions. Working conditions are understood as a set of elements of the production environment that affect the functional state of a person (different impact on health and well-being), his performance, health, all aspects of his development, and, above all, the attitude to work and its efficiency.

Labor is a social category, since in the process of labor, workers and their groups enter into certain social and labor relations, interacting with each other.

The content of labor expresses the diversity of human interaction with nature through the production and technical side of labor, through the level of development of the productive forces. The content of labor is a qualitatively diverse labor functions performed by workers in the workplace. The variety of functions is determined by the subject of labor, the means of labor and the form of organization of the production process, the level of skill of the worker himself. Transformations of the labor process (due to mechanization and automation of production) require an increase in the professional training of the workers themselves, since the composition of their labor functions is qualitatively transformed in connection with changes in the production and technical components of the labor process.

The nature of labor expresses the features of social labor inherent in each socio-economic formation and determined by the dominant system of production relations. The type of social organization of labor is determined by the way in which workers are connected to the means of production, by the specific forms of the division of labor. Therefore, the main indicators of the nature of labor are: the form of ownership of the means of production, the attitude of workers to work, the system of distribution relations, as well as the degree of social differentiation in the labor process.

The organization of labor is understood as the form, method and order of combining living labor and material labor. The organization of labor is usually responsible for whether or not the worker connects rationally with the tools and means of labor.

Labor stimulation is a system of material and moral incentives for an employee, it is a reward for labor activity. Incentives are external factors inducing to work.

Labor motivation is an incentive to active labor activity, based on the satisfaction of important human needs. Motives are internal factors that are closely related to the values and values of a person.

Job satisfaction is an emotionally colored state of balance between needs and an assessment of the degree of their satisfaction. The higher the need, the more urgent it is, the more difficult it is to satisfy.

51. Human Capital

Human capital is understood as a combination of a person's qualities, his ability to work, which determine his productivity and can become a source of income for the person himself, the organization and society as a whole.

Human capital is a certain stock of health, skills, abilities, motivations formed as a result of investments and accumulated by a person, which are expediently used in a particular area of social reproduction, contribute to the growth of labor productivity and production and, thereby, influence the growth of incomes (earnings) of a given person. In practice, the concept of human capital is most often synonymous with the educational and qualification potential of society.

The main characteristics of human capital are:

1) a certain stock of knowledge, skills and other productive qualities and abilities of a person, which is the result of investment in a person;

2) this stock of human knowledge exists potentially and is realized in a particular area of social reproduction by including it in the process of social labor;

3) expediently using the accumulated stock of knowledge, the worker receives the appropriate income in the form of wages, and society - in the form of national income;

4) Increasing the income of the employee and society should encourage them to further accumulate new stocks of knowledge, skills and experience by investing in human capital.

When studying the concept of "human capital", the question arises: why is the entire set of human productive abilities interpreted as capital? The following arguments serve as proof of this:

1) the productive abilities of a person are a special form of capital because they are an inalienable personal asset and wealth of a person, his property, and therefore they cannot be bought and sold, alienated from the owner;

2) the productive abilities of a person provide their owner with a higher income in the future due to the rejection of part of the current consumption, that is, temporary lost profits;

3) the productive abilities of a person are able to bring not only income in cash in the form of wages, but also a psychological, social, moral gain;

4) the formation of a person's productive abilities requires significant costs from both the individual and society (that is, investments in human capital are made by the person himself, the organization in which he works, and the state);

5) the productive abilities of a person tend to accumulate as a result of investment and the acquisition of production experience.

The main elements of human capital usually include:

1) education capital, including general and specialized knowledge;

2) on-the-job training capital (qualifications, skills, work experience);

3) health capital;

4) possession of economically significant information (for example, on prices, income, forecasts), which, potentially, can generate income;

5) migration capital, which ensures the mobility of workers;

6) motivation of labor activity.

Of great importance is the division of human capital into the following types:

1) general (movable) human capital, which can be used in almost any specialty and at any workplace. It is the result of general professional training (for example, computer skills);

2) special (immovable) human capital, which can be used only in a limited space. It is created as a result of special training for implementation mainly at a particular enterprise or at a given workplace.

52. Labor potential

Labor potential is a combination of all labor opportunities, both for a person and for various groups of workers and society as a whole.

The term "labor potential" has been used since the 90s. XNUMXth century The main components of labor potential are: health; morality and ability to work in a team; creative potential; activity; organization and assertiveness; education; professionalism; working hours resources.

All these components fully characterize the labor potential of both the individual worker and the workforce and society as a whole.

The formation of the labor potential of an employee depends on his desire and ability to work, on the degree of his initiative, activity and enterprise in work, on his ability to be creative. The labor potential of an employee is a dynamic phenomenon, since it changes under the influence of the accumulation of production experience, skills, and an increase in the level of education and qualifications. The decrease in the labor potential of an employee is objectively due to the age parameters of health, that is, the aging of the human body.

The labor potential of an enterprise is the maximum possible use of the labor of workers in production, taking into account their psychophysiological characteristics, the level of professionalism, qualifications, production experience, under the most favorable organizational and technical working conditions. The interaction of workers multiplies their simple sum because it generates the effect of collective labor.

Considering the labor potential of a particular enterprise, it is necessary to take into account its specific features, due to: territorial location, industry affiliation, specific products, social structure of the team, management style, etc. Therefore, the elements of the labor potential of an enterprise are: personnel, professional, qualification and organizational, accounting and the analysis of which makes it possible to effectively use the human factor of production.

The labor potential of the society embodies the potential possibility of involving and using the able-bodied population of the country in the national economy. Therefore, the use of labor potential has objective age restrictions (women from 16 to 59 years old, men from 16 to 64 years old).

Labor potential can be assessed from a quantitative and qualitative point of view. Quantitatively, the labor potential of a country can be determined by multiplying the number of labor resources by the time that one worker can work during the year. The quantitative characteristics of the labor potential are influenced by many factors, including different labor intensity, due to both labor activity and changes in demand for manufactured products; working conditions; part-time work, downtime, etc.

The qualitative measurement of labor potential involves the study of the qualification structure of workers, the degree to which their knowledge is used in organizations, and the personal abilities of a person. Qualitative characteristics of labor potential include three components: physical, intellectual and social.

The physical component of the labor potential characterizes the physical and psychological capabilities of a person, depending on his health.

The intellectual component accumulates the level of knowledge and skills, innate abilities, talent, strong-willed and leadership qualities of a person, accumulated production experience.

The social component is formed depending on the social environment, social security and social justice in society.

53. The composition of the personnel of the enterprise

under staff refers to the personnel of an enterprise (organization), including all employees, as well as working owners and co-owners of this enterprise.

The main features of the staff are:

1) the presence of his labor relations with the employer, which are drawn up by an employment contract (contract). Working owners and co-owners of the organization are included in the staff if, in addition to the part of income due to them, they receive appropriate payment for participating in the activities of the organization with their personal labor;

2) the possession of certain qualitative characteristics (profession, specialty, qualifications, etc.), the presence of which determines the activity of an employee in a particular position or workplace, and, therefore, assigning him to one of the categories of personnel: managers, specialists, other employees (technical performers ), workers;

3) the target orientation of the activities of the personnel, that is, ensuring the achievement of the goals of the organization by establishing adequate goals for an individual employee and creating conditions for their effective implementation.

Modern organizations operating in market conditions are characterized by the presence of individuals, groups who, not being their staff, are included in the personnel space of these organizations, participating in their effective functioning with an interest. These include: shareholders who do not work in this organization, the board of directors, which is fully responsible for its activities and management decisions, external managers and other groups.

The structure and composition of the personnel of the enterprise (organization) can be statistical and analytical. The statistical structure reflects the distribution of personnel and its movement in the context of employment by type of activity, as well as categories and groups of positions. Therefore, personnel of the main activities (for example, main and auxiliary workers) and non-core activities (for example, social workers) are distinguished. In turn, they are all divided into categories: managers, specialists, other employees, workers. The analytical structure is divided into general and particular. In the context of the general structure, personnel is considered according to such criteria as profession, qualifications, education, gender, age, work experience. The private structure reflects the ratio of individual groups of workers (for example, those engaged in manual labor).

On the basis of participation in the production or management process, that is, by the nature of labor functions, the composition of the staff can be represented as follows:

1) managers exercising the functions of general management. They are conditionally divided into three levels: the highest (of the organization as a whole - director, general director, manager and their deputies); medium (heads of the main structural divisions - departments, workshops; chief specialists); grassroots (working with performers - bureau leaders, foremen). Managers include persons holding positions of managers, including the manager of personnel;

2) specialists - persons performing economic, engineering, legal and other functions. These include economists, lawyers, process engineers, mechanical engineers, accountants, auditors, dispatchers, etc.;

3) other employees (technical performers) involved in the preparation and execution of documents, accounting, control, housekeeping: a purchasing agent, a cashier, a secretary, a timekeeper, etc.;

4) workers who directly create material values or provide production services. Distinguish between main and auxiliary workers.

54. Professional selection system

Personnel selection - this is the process of studying applicants in order to establish their suitability for performing duties in certain jobs or positions, as well as choosing the most suitable applicants from a set of applicants, taking into account the correspondence of their qualifications, specialties, personal qualities and abilities to the nature of the activity, the interests of the organization.

In modern conditions, the formation of a labor collective is based on a scientifically based system of rational selection of those who wish through an objective assessment of the individual characteristics of a person (his health, inclinations, capabilities, etc.) and their compliance with the objective needs of society or organization. This system, called professional selection, consists of four elements: professional orientation, professional consultation, professional selection proper and professional adaptation.

career guidance is a complex of interrelated economic, social, medical, psychological and pedagogical activities aimed at forming a professional vocation, identifying abilities, interests, suitability and other factors that influence the choice of a profession or a change in occupation. Professional orientation is an element of the system of professional selection, its purpose is to identify professional interests, abilities and suitability for a particular profession, to show the social prestige of each of them, attractiveness and content, its value significance, contributing to the emergence of a person's predisposition to this type of work activity .

The path of a person to a profession through professional orientation consists of three stages: acquaintance with the profession, which allows you to have a complete and correct idea about it; approximate awareness of their interests and abilities for this profession; making a decision (i.e. choice or rejection).

A deeper understanding of the importance of the profession, its specific features is laid down during a professional consultation. It is carried out at the enterprise (at the workplace) by the most experienced specialists and contributes to the emergence, in choosing a profession, of a more definite decision - the choice or rejection of it.

Professional selection is made from among those wishing to receive this profession. Professional selection - participation in the recruitment and selection of personnel, taking into account the requirements of specific professions and jobs in order to improve the career guidance of employees. The main task of professional selection is that it is necessary to foresee the possibility of successful professional orientation in activities that a person has not previously been engaged in. The main methods of professional selection are:

1) conversations with candidates, filling out special banks and interviews;

2) professiograms - descriptions of socio-economic, production and technical, sanitary-hygienic, psychological and other features of individual professions;

3) tests that help to most accurately determine the suitability of a person for a particular job, type of work activity.

Professional adaptation is reduced to the restructuring of physiological functions as a result of the body's reaction to changing environmental conditions. At the same time, the processes that ensure the labor activity of a person become more complicated.

Thus, professional selection is the process of identifying, using scientifically based methods, the degree and possibility of forming a person’s medical, social and psychophysiological suitability for performing a particular job (that is, in determining professional suitability).

55. The movement of personnel in the enterprise

The most important characteristic of the state of the enterprise's personnel is its dynamics: employees go to work, leave, go on vacation, study, retire, join the army.

When planning the additional need for workers, it is necessary to take into account the departure of personnel from the enterprise, and the number of newly hired workers. Therefore, to carry out calculations and determine the additional need for personnel (for expanding production volumes and other purposes), the following formulas are used:

The additional need for managers, specialists, employees, workers is determined by the number of vacancies in accordance with the approved states and taking into account the expected loss of these workers for various reasons.

Certain changes in the number of employees at the enterprise, renewal and change in the professional composition are natural and take place at any enterprise.

Intra-production movement of personnel includes: qualification movement and the transition of workers from one category to another. An analysis of intra-production movement should show what opportunities are available at the enterprise for qualification advancement, obtaining work according to interests with optimal conditions for the employee and remuneration.

The external movement of the personnel of the enterprise is taken into account by a number of indicators:

1) turnover of personnel, this is a set of employees hired (that is, enrolled in the payroll) and retired employees in relation to the average number of employees for the analyzed period;

2) the intensity of personnel turnover, characterized by the following coefficients:

a) the total turnover of personnel (the ratio of the total number of employees accepted and retired over the period to the average number of employees of the enterprise);

b) turnover on admission (the ratio of the number of employees hired during the period to the average number of employees of the enterprise);

c) turnover on disposal (the ratio of retired employees to the average number of employees at the enterprise);

3) the coefficient of replacement of workers. This is the replacement of workers who left the enterprise for various reasons with newly hired workers (the ratio of the number of employed workers to the number of retired workers);

4) the coefficient of constancy of personnel. This is the ratio of the number of employees on the payroll for the entire year to the average number of employees for the year.

Often in economic calculations, the indicator of the level of staff turnover is used to characterize the movement of personnel.

The data obtained must be compared with similar calculations of previous years. Further analysis of the indicators of the personnel of the enterprise can be aimed at identifying the reasons for the dismissal of employees. In addition, it is always advisable to know the state of personnel by individual characteristics: age, gender, qualifications, length of service, dynamics of labor assessments, etc. An analysis of staff turnover should be carried out not only for the enterprise as a whole, but also for its individual structural divisions, groups of employees.

A detailed analysis of the problematic aspects of the state and movement of personnel is one of the conditions for its rational use and increasing the efficiency of the enterprise.

56. Labor organization and labor collective

labor organization - this is an organizationally fixed set of people acting according to a single plan to achieve a goal that is significant for all members of the organization and to create a certain socially necessary product or service. Such labor organizations are often called labor collectives.

The labor collective is an association of workers engaged in joint labor activities at a state, cooperative, public, private enterprise, institution, organization. As part of a single ore collective, there are labor collectives of shops, departments, sections, brigades and other divisions.

An organization is a group of people whose activities are consciously coordinated to achieve a common goal. O.V. Romashov believes that (at a minimum) the following conditions are necessary for the creation of an organization:

1) the presence of at least two people who consciously consider themselves part of the group;

2) the presence of at least one goal that is really common for the members of this group;

3) the presence of group members who intentionally work together, achieving a common goal.

There are differences between the concepts: labor and production organization. The labor organization is much broader than the production organization and includes workers in production, scientific, educational, medical, cultural, educational, administrative and other organizations. The production organization refers only to the sphere of material production, in which workers are united for the purpose of producing material goods.

All labor organizations can be classified according to a number of criteria:

1) according to the form of ownership, labor organizations are distinguished that have the following type of ownership of the means of production: state; cooperative; joint-stock; property of the labor collective; private; joint with foreign capital; foreign;

2) by areas of activity allocate:

a) organizations operating in the field of material production (in industry, construction, agriculture, etc.);

b) organizations operating in the non-productive sphere (institutions of culture, science, health, education, etc.).

Ownership of the means of production and the results of labor activity plays an important social role in the labor organization, which is realized in the following aspects:

c) the conditions for achieving, maintaining and exercising power, dominating people, subordinating specific people and their groups;

d) a way to maximize wealth, the most attractive and easy type of income, to obtain promising profits, and not just current wages;

e) social prestige, conditions for entering the class of owners, more attractive than the class of employees;

f) the factor of freedom and independence, the implementation of entrepreneurial psychology;

g) the possibility (degree of independence) of making managerial decisions;

h) the mechanism of protection in labor relations, guarantees of a job, control of wages, its indexation, working conditions and the sale of its product, social protection and social guarantees, etc.

All this ultimately determines the "quality" of the labor organization, that is, the level of its cohesion, unanimity, organization and efficiency.

The purpose of a labor organization is to work effectively, to meet the needs of workers, to reduce production costs, to raise the level of organization of production; increasing the volume and quality of products; maximum consideration of consumer requests and price reduction in order to conquer sales markets, that is, to ensure the economic growth of the country and the prosperity of society.

57. The concept and elements of the working environment

Each labor organization has its own specific working environment. Human labor activity is always carried out in a certain space and at a certain time, using specific means of production (means of labor and objects of labor). In addition, in the course of a specific labor activity, certain social and labor relations are formed between employees, which are also dynamic and change depending on the change in the conditions for the course of a person’s labor activity. Therefore, labor activity is carried out in a certain environment, understood as a set of conditions and influences that exist in a certain environment.

Under the working environment means, working conditions and relationships of people involved in the labor process. The working environment includes both physical factors (that is, sanitary and hygienic working conditions in the broad sense) and technical and technological factors (tools, objects of labor, technological process).

Means of labor are instruments of labor, with the help of which people act on the objects of labor and, modifying them, give them useful properties that can satisfy certain needs. The means of labor include machinery and equipment, tools and fixtures, industrial buildings and structures, all types of transport, power lines, means of communication and signaling, means of protecting workers, etc. The main role in the means of labor belongs precisely to the instruments of production, since it is with their help, man transforms the objects of nature. The means of labor and objects of labor in their totality constitute the means of production. But, as you know, the means of production cannot function by themselves. The leading role in the combination of means of labor and objects of labor, that is, the functioning of the means of production, belongs to man. Therefore, the decisive factor in the production process is the human labor force.

Means of labor, objects of labor and people in the labor organization are in constant interaction. The elements of the physical work environment are subject to constant change. These changes occur more rapidly among the elements of the physical working environment that are the product of human labor and generate a range of social consequences. The change in the material elements of the physical working environment, which are part of nature, occurs more slowly and up to a certain point with less social consequences. The position of a person in the working environment can be different, and depends on whether the physical working environment is dominated by material factors that are part of nature, or material factors that are the product of human labor.

The relationships that people enter into in the process of labor activity form a social working environment. From a sociological point of view, labor, first of all, is a relationship that arises between specific people - participants in the labor process. In the course of labor activity, people enter into social relations, and within the framework of these social relations, interpersonal relations and mutual behavior of individuals are formed. The nature of interpersonal relations in the working environment is determined by the social status and role of the individual in the labor organization, and has a significant impact on human behavior in the working environment, and the achievement of the effect of labor activity.

The behavior of workers in the working environment is influenced by: forms of organization and remuneration of labor, the psychological climate, production and living conditions, the living environment of workers, non-productive activities of people, etc.

58. Social structure of labor organization

The labor collective as a social organism also has a certain social structure. There are several types of social structures: production-functional, target, vocational, socio-demographic, social-organizational, socio-psychological and national social structures.

The production-functional structure of the labor collective includes the production units of the enterprise: producing products, selling products, managing, organizing, planning, servicing, etc. In this regard, three levels of social structure can be distinguished: the highest (this is the production team of the enterprise as a whole); medium (shops, sections, services); primary (teams, shifts, groups).

Depending on the functions performed, the entire workforce is divided into two large groups: industrial and production personnel and non-industrial personnel. The composition of the industrial and production personnel includes all employees of the main activity: managers, specialists, technical performers, main and auxiliary workers, students, employees of the paramilitary and guard guards, firefighters, employees of research and design and technological divisions. The composition of non-industrial personnel includes employees of housing and communal services, cultural and household and medical and sanitary services, auxiliary agricultural enterprises, sports facilities, teaching and service personnel of preschool institutions, etc.

The target structure of the work collective is a set of all levels of the social structure, interconnected by a common goal and tasks of both an industrial and socio-psychological nature, expressing the same interests, common value orientations.

The professional qualification structure of the labor collective is a social form of the professional division of labor. It involves the division of employees of the enterprise into groups according to the level of education, professions, and within professions according to the level of qualification, work experience, specialty and specialization.

The socio-demographic structure distributes the labor collective into groups according to gender, age, marital status, income level, etc. In each group, it is necessary to study the specific needs, interests of its members, the nature of labor force reproduction, etc.

The social organizational structure expresses the system of relations in the labor collective, in which formal and informal associations are always formed, between which certain relations develop. The discrepancy between the interests of these groups can lead to social and labor conflicts.

The socio-psychological structure of the labor collective is determined by the system of interconnection of positions and roles of individual workers and small groups. As a result, a certain socio-psychological climate is formed in the work collective, a certain labor motivation, labor adaptation of new members of the team, resolution of social and labor conflicts, that is, the effectiveness of the team.

The national structure of the labor collective is the national composition of the collective. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the national traditions of each employee, especially if rather significant national groups are formed in the team.

All types of social structures of the labor collective together determine the content of intra-collective social and labor relations. The study of these relationships allows you to effectively manage labor at the enterprise and in the organization.

59. Social organization and its structure

A social organization in the broad sense of the word is any organization in a society; in a narrow sense, it is a social subsystem. Social organization is a system of social groups and relations between them. It interacts with various social groups whose members are united by interests, goals, values, norms based on joint activities.

The social organization of an industrial enterprise is a system of social groups that perform certain production functions that contribute to the achievement of a common goal or goals. These are usually workers (an organizational community of people) who unite to create or produce specific products using specific means of production. Social organization is usually characterized by the following features:

1) the presence of a single goal (production of products or provision of services);

2) the existence of a system of power, management, which implies the subordination of workers to management in the process of labor activity;

3) the distribution of functions (powers and duties) between groups of employees interacting with each other.

Social organization belongs to the most complex type of organizational systems, since its nature contains a certain duality: firstly, it is created to solve certain problems and, secondly, it acts as a social environment for communication and objective human activity. A whole system of various interpersonal relations is superimposed on a pre-created social organization, due to individual characteristics, goals, values, and motives of people.

The following tasks are most often set before the labor social organization:

1) increasing the economic efficiency of production and the quality of products and labor;

2) social development of the team and/or the employee as a person.

These tasks define two types of social organization structure: production and non-production.

The production type of the structure of a social organization is formed depending on the production factors of people's activities and includes such components of the general structure as:

1) functional, determining the content of labor;

2) professional, implemented in the training and retraining of personnel;

3) socio-psychological, that is, interpersonal relations in the team;

4) managerial, consisting in a specific management system.

Qualitative signs of the functioning of the production type of the structure of a social organization are the needs and interests, the requirements of the employee to work and, first of all, to the content and conditions of work, to the conditions of their professional and career growth, to the organization of work.

The non-production type of the structure of a social organization occurs when members of a labor organization (labor collective) participate in various types of non-production activities in their free time. A significant part of the activities of public, cultural, sports and other organizations can be attributed to the non-production structure of a social organization.

The general structure of the social organization of an industrial enterprise arises and develops both during working hours and during leisure time (development of informal relations). These social organizations are interconnected and complement each other. The social structure of a labor organization (labor collective) also includes social processes and phenomena. Under the social process in the labor organization refers to the successive changes in the social organization as a whole or its individual structural elements.

60. Cohesion of the labor collective

The labor collective itself is the most important motivator of labor activity, a factor supporting the individual efforts of employees, a stimulating and creative environment in which the individual abilities of employees are revealed. The effectiveness of joint labor activity is largely determined by the level of cohesion of the workforce.

Cohesion characterized by the attractiveness of the workforce for each of its members, the desire to remain in its composition, as well as the development of cooperation and group communications based on mutual support and exchange of experience. It is manifested in harmony, responsibility and obligation of team members to each other, coordination of actions and mutual assistance in the course of performing production tasks. In its focus, intra-collective cohesion can be:

1) positive - functional, focused on achieving production goals, increasing labor productivity and product quality;

2) negative - dysfunctional, aimed at realizing the goals of socio-psychological groups or individuals that contradict the goals of the entire team.

Intra-collective cohesion is the most important integrative characteristic of the team, indicating the level of its social development. The value of intra-collective cohesion increases sharply under the influence of the complexity of the content of labor, the increase in the level of education and the demands of workers. Many organizations develop group cohesion through the proliferation of autonomous, self-governing groups based on intense communication (in Japan, quality circles). Such groups independently determine who, when and what tasks performs, they themselves set the rhythm of labor activity, they themselves control and regulate the labor process and evaluate the results of labor.

Team building process - this is the formation and maintenance of the unity of interests, values, behavior of all its members in the course of labor activity. To determine the level of cohesion of the work team, the following indicators are used: group indices of sociometric status and emotional expansion, coefficients for assessing interpersonal relations in the team, coefficients of actual and potential turnover, the number of cases of absenteeism (absenteeism, being late for work and other violations of labor discipline), the number of conflicts and labor disputes.

The following groups of factors influence the formation of a cohesive workforce:

1) organizational and technical: the functioning of the technical subsystem of the enterprise, the creation of the necessary conditions for rhythmic work, interchangeability and mutual assistance. The spatial arrangement of workplaces predetermines the frequency of contacts, communication in the process of work, the possibility of discussing current problems;

2) economic: coordination of material, property, economic interests of each member of the team with the interests of departments and the enterprise as a whole;

3) socio-organizational: features of communications in the workforce, socio-psychological climate, leadership style. Communication is a tool for social and production communication between workers, they unite and unite workers, joint discussion of problems increases a more conscious choice of a common line of behavior. In conditions of scarcity of information, rumors appear;

4) psychological: a combination of individual personal properties of workers, their compatibility. Compatibility is manifested in mutual understanding, mutual acceptability, sympathy, empathy of team members to each other.

61. The concept of labor activity

Work experience a person is a kind of his social behavior. Labor activity is a rational series of operations and functions, rigidly fixed in time and space, performed by people united in labor organizations. The labor activity of employees provides a solution to a number of tasks:

1) the creation of material wealth as a means of life support for a person and society as a whole;

2) provision of services for various purposes;

3) development of scientific ideas, values and their applied analogues;

4) accumulation, conservation, processing and analysis, transfer of information and its carriers;

5) the development of a person as an employee and as a person, etc.

Labor activity - regardless of the method, means and results - is characterized by a number of common properties:

1) a certain functional and technological set of labor operations;

2) a set of relevant qualities of labor subjects, recorded in professional, qualification and job characteristics;

3) material and technical conditions and spatial and temporal framework of implementation;

4) in a certain way the organizational, technological and economic connection of labor subjects with the means of their implementation;

5) a normative-algorithmic method of organization, through which a behavioral matrix of individuals included in the production process (organizational and managerial structure) is formed.

Each type of labor activity can be divided into two main characteristics: psychophysiological content (the work of the sense organs, muscles, thought processes, etc.); and the conditions under which work is carried out. The structure and level of physical and nervous loads in the process of labor activity are determined by these two characteristics: physical - depend on the level of automation of labor, its pace and rhythm, the design and rationality of the placement of equipment, tools, equipment; nervous - due to the volume of processed information, the presence of industrial danger, the degree of responsibility and risk, the monotony of work, relationships in the team.

The content and working conditions change significantly and ambiguously under the influence of scientific and technological progress. The functions of transforming the object of labor are increasingly transferred to technology, the main functions of the performer are control, management, programming of its activities, which significantly reduces the cost of physical energy.

Thus, in general, we can talk about a reduction in motor components and an increase in the importance of the mental component of labor activity. In addition, the NTP creates technical prerequisites for the withdrawal of the employee from the zone of industrial hazards and dangers, improves the protection of the performer, and frees him from heavy and routine work.

However, an excessive decrease in motor activity turns into hypodynamia. The growth of nervous loads can lead to injuries, accidents, cardiovascular and neuropsychiatric disorders. An increase in the speed and power of equipment can lead to inconsistency in the parameters of its operation and the ability of a person to react and make decisions. New technologies often lead to the emergence of new production hazards and hazards, negative impact on the environment.

The problem is to "attach" technology to human capabilities, to take into account its psycho-physiological characteristics at the stages of designing, constructing, and operating the "man-machine" system. All this determines the need to study the physiological and mental processes in human labor activity.

62. The concept of labor behavior

Human behavior - a set of conscious, socially significant actions, due to the understanding of one's own functions. Labor behavior of a person is a kind of his social behavior. Social behavior is a derivative component of the social environment, which is refracted in the subjective characteristics and acts of actors, and social behavior is the result of the subjective determination of human activity. Social behavior is understood as a process of purposeful activity in accordance with the significant interests and needs of a person. Social behavior is the result, on the one hand, of the most complex system of adaptation of the individual to a variety of conditions, and, on the other hand, of an active form of transformation and change in the social environment in accordance with the objective capabilities of a person.

Labor behavior is an individual or group action, showing the direction and intensity of the implementation of the human factor in the labor organization. Labor behavior is a consciously regulated set of actions and deeds of an employee associated with the coincidence of professional capabilities and interests with the activities of a production organization, production process. This is a process of self-adjustment, self-regulation, which provides a certain level of personal identification with the work environment and the work team.

Labor behavior is also formed under the influence of such factors as the social and professional characteristics of workers, working conditions in a broad sense, systems of norms and values, labor motivations. Labor behavior is guided by the personal and group interests of people and serves to satisfy their needs.

The following can be distinguished as the fundamental principles of a person's labor behavior: motivation, perception, and the criterial basis of a person's labor behavior.

Labor behavior is based on motives, internal aspirations that determine the direction of a person's labor behavior and its forms. The same behavior can have a different motivational basis. Motivation is the key to understanding human behavior and the possibilities of influencing it.

Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting ideas about the world around us. Perception is a semi-conscious activity of receiving and processing information, and not all, but only significant information. It affects people's behavior not directly, but refracted through values, beliefs, principles, level of claims.

The criteria basis of a person's labor behavior includes those stable characteristics of his personality that determine the choice, decision-making by a person about his behavior. In the same situations, different people can make completely different, often inexplicable and irrational decisions.

The content of labor behavior is reflected in the following provisions:

1) labor behavior reflects the functional algorithm of the production process, and is a behavioral analogue of labor activity;

2) labor behavior is a form of adaptation of the employee to the requirements and conditions of the technological process and the social environment;

3) labor behavior is a dynamic manifestation of social standards, stereotypes and professional attitudes that are internalized by the individual in the process of socialization and specific life experience;

4) labor behavior reflects the characterological traits of the employee's personality;

5) labor behavior - there is a certain way and means of human influence on the industrial and social environment surrounding him.

63. Structure of labor behavior

The structure of labor behavior can be represented as follows:

1) cyclically repeating actions, similar in result, reproducing standard status-role situations or states, they are mainly determined by the technology of work (a functional set of operations and functions);

2) marginal actions and deeds that are formed in the phases of a transitional state from one status to another (for example, during career growth or a job change);

3) behavioral patterns and stereotypes, frequently encountered patterns of behavior;

4) actions based on rationalized semantic schemes, translated by a person into the plane of his own stable beliefs;

5) actions and actions performed under the dictates of certain circumstances;

6) spontaneous actions and actions provoked by an emotional state;

7) conscious or unconscious repetition of stereotypes of mass and group behavior;

8) actions and deeds as a transformation of the influence of other subjects using various forms of coercion and persuasion.

Labor behavior can be differentiated according to the following criteria:

1) by subject-target orientation, that is, by what it is aimed at;

2) according to the depth of the spatio-temporal perspective of achieving a certain goal;

3) according to the context of labor behavior, that is, according to a complex of relatively stable factors of the working environment, subjects and communication systems, in interaction with which the whole variety of actions and actions unfolds;

4) on methods and means of achieving specific results, depending on the subject-target orientation of labor behavior and its socio-cultural patterns;

5) by the depth and type of rationalization, substantiation of specific tactics and strategies of labor behavior, etc.

Business conditions have a certain impact on the labor behavior of various categories of workers. Denationalization and ongoing privatization processes based on a variety of forms of ownership, firstly, encourage intensive work and appropriate labor behavior. However, enterprising labor behavior is still not provided with adequate social guarantees, so its activity is not as high as we would like. Secondly, the diversity of forms of ownership creates a potential opportunity for the development of competition, and therefore consistently leads to a qualitative change in the labor behavior of both managers and owners, and contractors and employees.

The mechanism of regulation of labor behavior consists of many components. More about each of them. Needs - the need for something necessary to maintain the life of the organism, human personality, social group, society as a whole. Interests are the real reasons for the actions that form among social groups and individuals in connection with their differences in position and role in public life. The labor situation is a set of conditions in which the labor process takes place. Motives - a conscious attitude (subjective) to their actions (internal motivation). Value orientations are social values shared by a person that act as the goals of life and the main means of achieving these goals and, because of this, acquire the function of the most important regulators of a person's labor behavior. Installation - the general orientation of a person to a certain social object, preceding the action and expressing the predisposition to act in one way or another regarding this social object. Incentives are external influences in relation to a person, which should induce him to a certain labor behavior.

64. Types of labor behavior

Classifications of types of labor behavior are diverse:

1) depending on the subjects of labor behavior, they distinguish between individual and collective labor behavior;

2) depending on the presence (or absence) of interaction, the following types of labor behavior are distinguished: involving interaction and not involving interaction;

3) depending on the production function performed by the employee, they distinguish: performing and managerial labor behavior;

4) the degree of determinism predetermines rigidly determined and proactive labor behavior;

5) depending on the degree of compliance with accepted standards, labor behavior may be normative or deviant from the norms;

6) depending on the degree of formalization, the rules of labor behavior are either established in official documents or are arbitrary (unestablished);

7) the nature of motivation involves value and situational labor behavior;

8) production results and the consequences of labor activity form either positive or negative labor behavior;

9) the sphere of implementation of human behavior is formed by the following types of labor behavior: the actual labor process, building relationships in production, creating a working atmosphere;

10) depending on the degree of traditional behavior, they distinguish: established types of behavior, emerging types, including in the form of a reaction to various socio-economic actions;

11) depending on the degree of realization of labor potential, labor behavior may be sufficient, or require significant mobilization of various components of labor potential, etc.

The main forms of labor behavior are:

1) functional behavior is a specific form of implementation of professional activity, determined by the technology of the workplace, the technology of manufacturing products;

2) economic behavior, this is a result-oriented behavior, and its relationship with the quantity and quality of human resources expended. To optimize costs and results of labor. In the absence of compensation for labor, there will be no interest in such labor activity, and labor activity in general;

3) organizational and administrative behavior. Its essence lies in the formation of positive labor motivation of the members of the labor organization. To do this, use moral, material and social incentives to work;

4) stratified behavior - this is behavior associated with a professional, labor career, when an employee consciously chooses and implements in a relatively long period of time the path of his professional and official advancement;

5) adaptive-adaptive behavior is realized in the process of adapting an employee to new professional statuses, roles, requirements of the technological environment. It includes: conformist behavior - the adaptation of the individual to the attitudes of other persons (especially superiors); and conventional - as a form of adaptation of the individual to the established or constantly changing behavioral structure;

6) ceremonial and subordinate forms of labor behavior ensure the preservation, reproduction and transmission of significant values, professional traditions, customs and patterns of behavior, support the stability and integration of employees with the organization as a whole;

7) characterological forms of labor behavior, these are emotions and moods that are realized in a person's labor behavior;

8) destructive forms of behavior - this is the employee's going beyond the status-role prescriptions, norms and disciplinary framework of the labor process.

65. Social control in the sphere of work

Social control - this is an activity aimed at maintaining the normal behavior of an individual, group or society by various means of social influence. At the same time, it is important to ensure that labor behavior complies with generally accepted social norms. The main functions of social control in the labor sphere are:

1) stabilization and development of production;

2) economic rationality and responsibility;

3) moral and legal regulation;

4) physical protection of a person;

5) moral and psychological protection of the employee, etc.

The structure of social control is characterized by the following processes: observation of behavior, assessment of behavior in terms of social norms, and reaction to behavior in the form of sanctions. These processes testify to the presence of social control functions in labor organizations.

Depending on the nature of the sanctions or incentives used, social control is of two types: economic (encouragement, penalties) and moral (contempt, respect).

Depending on the controlled subject, various types of social control can be distinguished: external, mutual and self-control. External control is characterized by the fact that its subject is not included in the directly controlled system of relations and activities, but is outside this system. Most often, this is administrative control, which has its own motivation, reflecting the peculiarities of the attitude of the administration to the issues of discipline in the sphere of labor. Mutual control arises in a situation where the bearers of social control functions are the subjects of organizational and labor relations themselves, who have the same status. Thus, administrative control is supplemented or replaced. There are various forms of mutual control - collegial, group, public.

Self-control is a specific way of behavior of the subject, in which he independently supervises his own actions, behaves in accordance with socially accepted norms. The main advantage of self-control is the limitation of the need for special control activities on the part of the administration.

Depending on the nature of the implementation of social control, the following types are distinguished.

1. Solid and selective. Continuous social control is of an ongoing nature, the entire process of organizational and labor relations, all the individuals that make up the labor organization, are subject to observation and evaluation. With selective control, its functions are relatively limited, they apply only to the most important, predetermined, aspects of the labor process.

2. Meaningful and formal. Content control reflects the depth, severity, effectiveness of control. It is not the content quality of organizational and labor relations that is subjected to formal control, but external signs (stay at the workplace), then it is important to determine the degree of imitation of labor actions.

3. Open and hidden. The choice of an open or hidden form of social control is determined by the state of awareness, awareness of the social control functions of the object of control. Hidden control is carried out with the help of technical means, or through intermediaries.

An important aspect of social control is the certainty of requirements and sanctions, which prevents uncertainty and surprise in social control, and contributes to its open character, increases social comfort in the labor process. The use of sanctions and incentives, counteracting undesirable behavioral acts, contributes to the formation of employees' awareness of the need to comply with certain norms and regulations.

66. Theories of motivation

The theory of human relations gave impetus to the development of problems of motivation of labor behavior. A. Maslow divided the needs of the individual into basic and derivative (or meta-needs). Basic needs are arranged in ascending order from "lower" material to "higher" spiritual:

1) physiological (in food, in breathing, in clothes, in housing, in rest);

2) existential (in the security of their existence, in job security, etc.);

3) social (in attachment, belonging to a team, etc.);

4) the need for self-respect and prestige (in career growth, status);

5) personal or spiritual (in self-actualization, self-expression).

The main thing in Maslow's theory is that the needs of each new level become relevant only after the previous ones are satisfied.

D. McKelland also identified three types of needs. The needs of complicity are manifested, in his opinion, in the form of a desire for friendly relations with others. The needs of domination consist in the desire of a person to control the resources and processes occurring in his environment. Achievement needs are manifested in the desire of a person to achieve the goals facing him more effectively than he did before. But McKelland does not arrange the groups he has identified in a hierarchical sequence.

In the two-factor theory of motivation by F. Herzberg, the content of labor and working conditions are singled out as independent factors of labor activity. According to Herzberg, only internal factors (the content of labor) act as motivators of labor behavior, that is, they can increase job satisfaction. External factors, that is, earnings, interpersonal relations in the group, the policy of the enterprise, are called hygienic (or working conditions), and cannot increase job satisfaction. He believed that it was not worth spending time and money on the use of motivators until the hygiene needs of workers were satisfied.

The theories of "X" and "Y" of D. McGregor's management styles are widely known. Theory "X" comes from the fact that:

1) the average person is lazy and tends to avoid work;

2) employees are not very ambitious, afraid of responsibility, do not want to take the initiative and want to be led;

3) in order to achieve the goals, the employer needs to force employees to work under the threat of sanctions, while not forgetting about remuneration;

4) strict management and control are the main methods of management;

5) the desire for safety dominates in the behavior of employees.

The conclusions of the theory "X" are based on the fact that the activities of the leader should be dominated by the negative motivation of subordinates, based on the fear of punishment, that is, the authoritarian style of management should prevail.

Theory "Y" includes the following main reasoning:

1) unwillingness to work is an innate quality of an employee, and a consequence of poor working conditions at the enterprise;

2) with a successful past experience, employees tend to take responsibility;

3) the best means of achieving goals - rewards and personal development;

4) in the presence of appropriate conditions, employees learn the goals of the organization, form in themselves such qualities as self-discipline and self-control;

5) the labor potential of employees is higher than is commonly believed, and is partially used, so it is necessary to create conditions for its implementation.

The conclusion of the "Y" theory is the need to provide employees with greater freedom to show independence, initiative, creativity, and create favorable conditions for this. In this case, the democratic style of management will be optimal.

67. Needs and interests in the context of work behavior

Need - it is the need for something necessary for the maintenance of life and the development of the individual. In general, needs can be defined as a person's concern for providing the necessary means and conditions for his own existence. Human needs are his internal stimulus to activity in various fields of activity.

It is necessary to take into account the completeness of human needs, priorities and levels of satisfaction of needs, individual characteristics of a person that give rise to a variety of needs, as well as the dynamics of the development of needs, determined by many external and internal factors of human life.

Types of needs are determined by their motivational and labor nature:

1) the need for self-expression, through creativity in work, through the realization of individual abilities;

2) the need for self-respect (in relation to the results of their labor activity);

3) the need for self-affirmation, reflecting the realization of the labor potential of the employee for the benefit of the enterprise;

4) the need to recognize one's own importance as an employee, to recognize the weight of personal labor contribution to the common cause;

5) the need for the implementation of a social role, determined by the occupied social status and its growth;

6) the need for activity, mainly associated with the life position of a person and concern for their own well-being;

7) the need for self-reproduction as an employee and as a successor of the family, due to the need to ensure the well-being of one's own and one's family, self-development in their free time from work;

8) the need for stability, both in terms of the stability of work and the stability of the conditions necessary to achieve the goals;

9) the need for self-preservation is realized in taking care of one's health, in normal working conditions;

10) the need for social interactions is realized in collective work.

Distinguish social and personal (individual) needs.

Social needs are a combination of production and living needs. Production needs are associated with the provision of the production process with all its necessary elements. The vital needs, in turn, include the common vital needs of people (education, health care, culture, etc.) and the personal needs of people. The improvement of the productive forces also presupposes the development of the person himself as a worker and as a person, which, in turn, gives rise to ever new personal needs.

Needs only then become an internal stimulus to labor activity when they are realized by the worker himself. In this hypostasis, needs take the form of interest. Therefore, interest is a concrete expression of conscious human needs.

Any need can be specified in a variety of interests. For example, the need to satisfy the feeling of hunger is specified in various types of food, which can all satisfy this need. Therefore, needs tell us what a person needs, and interests tell us how to satisfy this need, what needs to be done for this.

The types of interests are as diverse as the needs that generate them. Interests are personal, collective and public, all of them constantly intersect and give rise to a variety of social and labor relations. Interests can be material (economic) and intangible (for communication, cooperation, culture, knowledge).

Interest is also a social relationship, as it develops between individuals about the subject of need.

68. Values and value orientations

Needs underlie the formation of values and value orientations. Value - this is the significance, the importance of something for a person, a social group, society as a whole. Value is the significance of the objects of the surrounding world for a person, group, society, determined not by the properties of these objects in themselves, but by the involvement of objects in the sphere of human (labor) life, interests and needs, social relations.

Values are: material, social, spiritual, cultural, political. The fundamental human values are: health, motherhood, wealth, power, status, respect, justice, etc. Values may correspond to the content of needs, interests, but may not. Possible coincidences, unity of needs, interests and values or their contradictions are connected with the fact that human consciousness has a relative independence. The specific activity of consciousness, its independence lead to the fact that values are not a copy of needs and interests, but ideal ideas that do not always correspond to them.

For different social groups of workers, differing in the conditions and content of labor, profession, qualifications and other social characteristics, the same objects and phenomena may have different significance. So, for some, the main guideline of behavior in the sphere of work is material well-being, for others, the content of labor, its creative saturation is more important, for others, the possibility of communication, etc.

Among the values, there are values-goals (terminal) and values-means (instrumental). Terminal values reflect the strategic goals of human existence (health, interesting work, love, material well-being, etc.). Instrumental values are the means to achieve goals. These can be different personal qualities that contribute to the realization of goals, persuasion of the individual.

Value Orientations - this is a selective attitude of a person to values, a landmark of human behavior. For some, the most important value orientation is the creative nature of labor, and for the sake of it, for some time he does not think about earnings, working conditions; if material well-being, then he can neglect other values for the sake of earning. The orientation of the individual to certain values characterizes its value orientations that determine labor behavior. On the basis of value orientations, the issue of choosing a profession, changing a place of work, place of residence, etc. is decided.

The content of values in a society depends on its culture, the development of spiritual and moral life, and public consciousness. Therefore, social ideals, that is, ideas about what social relations and the worker himself should be in society, act as a specific form of values. Ideals express the purpose of labor activity.

In accordance with social and individual values, the employee evaluates the surrounding reality, evaluates his own and other people's actions and actions. Values enrich the motivation of labor activity, since in the process of labor a person determines his behavior not only by needs and interests, but also by the value system adopted in society and the work collective. Value motivation contributes to the formation of new values. The labor behavior of an employee is determined not only by the system of values of society and the labor collective, but also by social nomes, that is, spontaneously formed or consciously established rules of conduct. Social norms regulate specific actions, actions and comprehend them.

69. The structure of the motives of labor behavior

The word "motive" comes from the Latin motivatio, which means "movement". A motive is a reason, a reason, an objective necessity to do something, an inducement to some action. A motive is a rationale for the need for a specific action; motives constitute a complex of subjective factors motivating behavior. Motive is a subjective, internal phenomenon.

Motives in the sphere of work perform the following functions:

1) orienting, guiding the behavior of the employee when choosing alternative options for labor behavior;

2) meaning-forming, that is, forming the subjective significance of a particular labor behavior of an employee;

3) mediating, showing the degree of influence on the employee's labor behavior of internal and external incentive forces;

4) mobilizing, manifested in the fact that for the implementation of significant goals for the employee, activities, he mobilizes his own forces and capabilities;

5) exculpatory, reflecting the attitude of the employee to a certain social and moral norm of behavior, the standard of labor behavior.

The motives are diverse, they are mobile, as they depend on the individual subjective characteristics of a person. All motives are combined into two large groups: motives-judgments and motives-inducements. Motives-judgments explain their behavior to themselves and others. Incentive motives really encourage active labor activity, they are internal, true motives.

In general, the variety of motives can be represented by the following types:

1) the herd motive is based on the need to be in a team;

2) the motive of self-affirmation (characteristic mainly for highly qualified and educated workers);

3) the motive of independence, consists in the desire to be the owner, leader, and is formed as a result of the desire for risk, for new activities;

4) the motive of stability consists in the preference for the reliability of work and life;

5) the motive for acquiring something new (knowledge, things, etc.);

6) the motive of justice (in distribution, promotion);

7) the motive of competitiveness, to some extent inherent in every person, etc.

The labor activity of a person is motivated simultaneously by several motives, the totality of which is called the motivational core. The motives included in the motivational core are characterized by such a parameter as the strength of the motive, which is the probability of achieving the employee's goals. The strength of the motive is also determined by the degree of relevance of the need that generates the motive.

The structure of the motivational core depends both on the subjective characteristics of the employee and on the factors of the working environment, on specific working situations, on employee satisfaction with various elements of the working situation.

N. M. Volovskaya notes that the labor behavior of an employee is characterized by a motivational core, which includes three main groups of motives: motives for providing, motives for recognition and motives for prestige. The motives for providing are related to the assessment of the totality of material resources necessary to ensure the well-being of the employee and his family members (earnings orientation). The motives for recognition consist in the desire to realize one's potentialities in labor. The motives of prestige are expressed in the desire to realize their social role, to take part in socially significant activities.

The way to form a motive for an employee is to create for him such circumstances or conditions under which it becomes possible to satisfy his actual needs through labor activity. Therefore, the study of the structure of motives makes it possible to develop the most effective system of external motivators (incentives) for the active mining activity of workers.

70. The concept of "attitude to work"

The results of a person's labor activity depend not only on the level of development of his professional qualities, the physical capabilities of a person and the degree of provision of the workplace with the means of production, but also on how a person relates to his work.

Attitude towards work can be positive, negative and indifferent. It has a great influence on the development of production and the system of production relations. The essence of a person's attitude to work lies in the realization of the labor potential of an employee under the influence of conscious needs and formed interest.

Attitude to work characterizes the desire of a person to maximize his physical and intellectual strength, use his knowledge and experience, ability to achieve certain quantitative and qualitative results.

Attitude towards work is a complex social phenomenon that develops as a result of the interaction of the following elements: motives and orientations of labor behavior (constituting the employee's motivational core); real or actual labor behavior and the employee's assessment of the labor situation (verbal behavior).

The labor behavior of an employee is characterized by his social activity, which is a measure of the social transformative activity of employees, based on the internal necessity of actions, the goals of which are determined by social needs. Social activity is realized in social activity and corresponds to three forms of its manifestation: labor, socio-political and cognitive-creative.

Labor activity is a mirror reflecting a person's attitude to work. Labor activity is the main, determining type of social activity. It is expressed in the involvement of the worker in social production and the constant growth of labor productivity, the degree to which he realizes his physical and mental capabilities in the performance of a particular type of labor activity, in discipline and initiative.

Socio-political activity is expressed in the expansion of human participation in socio-political activities, in managing the affairs of an enterprise. This is participation in the work of public organizations in the discussion of various issues, in voting, etc.

Cognitive and creative activity is manifested in an increase in the educational and qualification level of an employee, in the formation of a personality with an active life position.

When studying the mechanism of formation and management of a person's attitude to work, it is necessary to take into account the factors that form the attitude to work. These factors have a multidirectional effect, they stimulate or hinder an increase in labor efforts, the use by employees of their knowledge and experience, mental and intellectual abilities.

Job satisfaction - this is the degree to which a job well done and the result obtained leads to employee satisfaction and is accompanied by positive emotions. The obtained high results of labor are a source of internal motivation and lead the employee to job satisfaction. Therefore, motivation is decisive in the formation of attitudes towards work, and forms a certain labor behavior. Satisfaction with the result indicates that the employee influences the content of work, that is, makes the necessary changes to obtain the desired result. The employee perceives the results obtained and recognizes them as his success, receiving internal satisfaction and increasing self-esteem, which contributes to the development of self-esteem and employee self-confidence.

71. Typology of attitude to work

The typology of attitudes toward work is determined by the factors that shape it. All factors in the formation of attitudes towards work can be divided into: objective and subjective. Objective factors, conditions and circumstances form independent from the subject of labor (employee) prerequisites for his activity, related to the characteristics of the production and non-production environment. Subjective factors are associated with the reflection of external conditions in the mind and psyche of the worker, with his individual abilities.

The objective characteristics of labor are external in relation to the employee, but, nevertheless, affect the employee and are evaluated by him. As a result, a person develops a certain internal position in relation to work as a type of activity. Since objective factors are external to a person, they are incentives for labor activity. On the contrary, subjective factors - motives, internal motivating forces of a particular individual.

Objective factors are general and specific. Common factors include socio-economic and other social conditions of labor activity. Therefore, diligence can be attributed to the general factors, as the activity of internal motives, which manifest themselves with a conscious combination of personal and public interests. Specific factors are the circumstances and conditions of a particular work activity: the content of labor, its production conditions, organization and payment, the socio-psychological climate of the team, the system of family and school education, the media and propaganda, independence of activity and the degree of participation in management.

A great influence on the formation of a person’s attitude to work is exerted by subjective factors: previous experience, general and professional culture, psychological, demographic and socially determined characteristics of a person (gender, age, education, work experience, abilities, inclinations, degree of awareness of the significance of one’s work activity). External social influences, refracting through the inner world of a person (life ideals, motives for work, psychological attitude, etc.), become an influential force that makes it possible to understand why people in the same labor organization, in the same areas of work, have different attitudes towards to work. Some work with initiative, with full dedication of strength and ability, others with laziness, allow loss of working time, do not comply with production requirements, and violate labor discipline.

All factors (objective and subjective) are interconnected, are in close relationship and interdependence. Sociological science has developed a typology of workers depending on their attitude towards work. There are usually four types of employees:

1) supernormative type - these are exceptionally active and conscientious workers who fulfill and overfulfill production tasks, are proactive, participate in the management of their labor organization;

2) normative type - these are fairly conscientious employees focused on fulfilling the requirements and standards;

3) subnormative type - these are insufficiently conscientious workers who try to cheat, talk, but in such a way that others do not notice anything; these are workers who are characterized by pseudo-activity in labor behavior;

4) non-normative type - this group consists of unscrupulous workers.

Such a typology is rather arbitrary, but the study and analysis of groups of workers who differ in their attitude to work makes it possible to overcome their apathy, indifference to work, and develop interest and a creative approach to work.

72. Social essence of job satisfaction

job satisfaction - this is a state of balance of the requirements made by the employee to the content, nature and conditions of work, and a subjective assessment of the possibilities of implementing these requirements. Satisfaction with work is the estimated attitude of a person or a group of people to their own labor activity, its various aspects, the most important indicator of an employee's adaptation at a given enterprise, in a given labor organization. In the sociology of labor, a distinction is made between general and partial job satisfaction. General satisfaction with work characterizes satisfaction with work as a whole, and partial satisfaction with its various aspects and elements of the production situation.

Specific values of job satisfaction are:

1) social satisfaction with work as an indicator of the quality of a person's life, the quality of his working life, social groups and the population as a whole;

2) the functional and production significance of job satisfaction is determined by the impact on the quantitative and qualitative results of labor, on the commitment to other people, on the employee's self-assessment of his business qualities and labor indicators;

3) managerial parameters of job satisfaction and the state of social and labor relations in general. Thus, the employer considers it irrational to spend on the humanization of labor (modernization of production, creation of favorable working conditions), and carries them out under pressure from trade unions or employees of the enterprise;

4) satisfactory, from the point of view of the employee, the nature and working conditions - this is the most important factor in the authority of the leader;

5) satisfaction (dissatisfaction) with work is often an indicator of staff turnover and the need for appropriate actions to prevent it;

6) depending on job satisfaction, the requirements and claims of employees (in relation to remuneration for work) increase or decrease;

7) satisfaction with work is a criterion for explaining the actions and actions of individual workers and their social groups.

There are several principles of correlation between general and partial job satisfaction:

1) overall satisfaction arises as a result of a significant preponderance of positive or negative factors over each other;

2) one of the positive or negative factors is so significant that it determines overall job satisfaction;

3) there is a relative balance between positive and negative factors, and the general dissatisfaction is indefinite.

Job satisfaction depends on many factors that form the estimated attitude of employees to their work and significantly affect this assessment. Among the factors that shape job satisfaction are the following:

1) objective characteristics of labor activity (conditions and content of labor);

2) subjective features of perception and experience (claims and criticality of the employee, his self-discipline);

3) qualification and education of the employee, length of service and experience of his labor activity;

4) stages of the labor cycle (in the process of achieving a specific result of labor, the initial, middle and final stages can be distinguished, which are set by the criterion of product readiness, etc.);

1) the degree of awareness of the progress and results of labor activity;

2) special moral and material motivation of labor;

3) administrative regime in the organization, management style;

4) maintaining a positive assessment and self-esteem;

5) the level of expectation (the degree of correspondence between expectations and reality);

6) official or public attention to labor problems;

7) public opinion (approval or disapproval).

73. The concept and stages of labor adaptation

Labor adaptation - this is a social process of mastering a new work situation by a person, in which both a person and the work environment have an active influence on each other and are adaptive-adapting systems. Labor adaptation is the mutual adaptation of an employee and an organization, based on the gradual development of a person in new professional, social, organizational and economic working conditions. When a person goes to work, he is included in the system of intra-organizational relations, occupying several positions in it at the same time. Each position corresponds to a set of requirements, norms, rules of conduct that determine the social role of a person in a team as an employee, colleague, subordinate, leader, member of a collective management body, public organization, etc. A person holding each of these positions is expected to have a corresponding labor behavior. Entering a job in a particular organization, a person has certain goals, needs, norms of behavior. In accordance with them, the employee makes certain requirements for the organization, for working conditions and his motivation.

Labor adaptation can be primary and secondary. Primary labor adaptation takes place during the initial entry of the employee into a new production environment. Secondary labor adaptation occurs when changing the workplace without a shift and with a change in profession or with significant changes in the working environment.

Labor adaptation is a unity of professional, socio-psychological, psycho-physiological, social-organizational, economic and cultural adaptation.

Professional adaptation is characterized by the development of professional capabilities (knowledge and skills), as well as the formation of professionally necessary personality traits, a positive attitude towards one's work.

Socio-psychological adaptation consists in the development by a person of the socio-psychological characteristics of a labor organization, entry into the system of relationships that has developed in it, and positive interaction with members of a labor organization.

In the process of psychophysiological adaptation, the totality of all conditions (physical and mental stress, convenience of the workplace, etc.) is mastered, which have a different psychophysiological effect on the worker during work.

Socio-organizational adaptation is the development by new employees of the organizational structure of the enterprise, the management system and maintenance of the production process, the mode of work and rest, etc.

Economic adaptation allows an employee to get acquainted with the economic mechanism of managing an organization, a system of economic incentives and motives, and adapt to new conditions for remuneration of his labor and various payments.

Cultural adaptation is the participation of new employees in activities traditional for a given enterprise outside working hours.

In the process of adaptation, the employee goes through the following stages:

1) the familiarization stage, at which the employee receives information about the new situation as a whole, about the criteria for evaluating various actions, about the norms of behavior;

2) the adaptation stage, when the employee is reoriented, recognizing the main elements of the new value system, but still continues to retain many of his attitudes;

3) the stage of assimilation, when the worker is fully adapted to the environment, identification with a new group;

4) identification, when the personal goals of the employee are identified with the goals of the labor organization.

The inability to adapt to the labor organization leads to its disorganization.

74. Factors of labor adaptation

Labor adaptation - a two-way process between a person and a new social environment for her. The labor adaptation of a new employee is influenced by many factors that determine the timing, pace and results of this process. There are two groups among the factors of labor adaptation: subjective and objective factors.

Objective factors are factors associated with the labor process, they are least dependent on the new employee. This includes: the level of labor organization, automation and mechanization of production processes, sanitary and hygienic working conditions, team size, location of the enterprise, industry specifics, etc.

Subjective factors are personal factors, and are determined by the characteristics of a particular person. Subjective factors include:

1) socio-demographic characteristics of the employee (sex, age, education, qualifications, work experience, social status, etc.);

2) socio-psychological characteristics of the employee (level of aspirations, willingness to work, self-control, sociability, sense of responsibility, etc.);

3) sociological characteristics (the degree of professional interest, the degree of material and moral interest in the efficiency and quality of labor, the presence of an attitude towards the accumulation of one's own human capital, etc.).

The success of labor adaptation at Russian enterprises depends on a number of specific conditions:

1) the quality level of work on the professional orientation of potential employees;

2) objectivity of the business assessment of personnel (both in the selection and in the process of labor adaptation of employees);

3) perfection of the organizational mechanism for managing the adaptation process;

4) the prestige and attractiveness of the profession, work in a particular specialty in this particular organization;

5) features of the organization of labor, realizing the motivational attitudes of the employee;

6) availability of a well-established system for introducing innovations and initiatives of employees;

7) flexibility and continuity of the personnel training system, its retraining operating within the organization;

8) features of the socio-psychological climate that has developed in the team;

9) personal properties of the adaptable employee related to his psychological traits, age, marital status, etc.

Therefore, the principal goals of labor adaptation can be reduced to the following:

1) reducing start-up costs, since while a new employee does not know his job well, he works less efficiently and requires additional costs;

2) reduction of anxiety and uncertainty among new employees;

3) reducing labor turnover, because if newcomers feel uncomfortable in a new job and feel unwanted, then they may respond to this by dismissal;

4) saving the time of the manager and employees, since the work carried out under the program helps to save time for each of them;

5) development of a positive attitude to work, satisfaction with the work of a beginner.

At domestic enterprises, there is often an undeveloped mechanism for managing the process of labor adaptation. This mechanism provides for the solution of three major problems:

1) structural consolidation of adaptation management functions in the organization's management system;

2) organization of the technology of the process of labor adaptation;

3) organization of information support for the process of labor adaptation.

Adaptation of a person in a particular working environment is manifested in his behavior, in terms of labor activity: labor efficiency, assimilation of social information and its practical implementation, growth of all types of activity, job satisfaction.

75. Career guidance and professional development of employees at the enterprise

Vocational guidance - a very voluminous concept, for example, one can say that modern Western society is essentially career-oriented, since from birth it orients the child towards "success in life", towards a "successful career." Vocational guidance involves a wide range of measures that go beyond pedagogy and psychology alone to assist in choosing a profession, which also includes vocational counseling as an individually oriented assistance in professional self-determination.

The professional development of employees of an enterprise is a system of interrelated actions, the elements of which are the development of a strategy, forecasting and planning the need for personnel of a particular qualification, career management and professional growth; organization of the process of adaptation, education, training, formation of organizational culture.

The purpose of employee development is to increase their labor potential. Almost everyone has significant potential for personal and professional growth, and as human resources become more expensive, it becomes increasingly important to tap into that potential. Through targeted incentives, the organization provides its employees with the opportunity to improve their professional skills and develop personal qualities to meet future challenges. Thus, a personnel core is created, consisting of highly qualified personnel, and advanced training of employees is carried out.

The development of workers for every organization is an essential element of productive investment for the future. The priority of investments in the development of employees is associated with the need to:

1) increasing the business and labor activity of each employee for the survival of the organization;

2) maintaining the competitiveness of the organization, since training in working with new equipment is impossible without significant investments;

3) ensuring the growth of labor productivity based on the creation of favorable working conditions and modern equipment and technology.

The system of professional development of employees should be considered primarily as a system for managing the professional experience of personnel, consisting of a number of social institutions for professional development. For example, increasing the qualification potential in a team requires the interaction of organizational tools in the following areas:

1) employment policy at the enterprise: hiring employees based on their qualification potential, offering labor relations designed for long-term employment with the aim of long-term use of acquired qualifications;

2) personnel management: involving employees in identifying and resolving emerging problems in the relevant organizational area, regular developmental conversations with employees, as a result of which feedback is achieved and progress in learning is taken into account;

3) organization of work: a wide distribution of activities, which gives a chance to improve skills, regular change of tasks in order to acquire a wider range of skills;

4) staff training: formal training and development activities at various career levels, both within the enterprise and outside it.

The system of professional development of employees includes a set of elements that affect the object of development, change its abilities, making them adequate to the needs of the organization. The organization may not have a special system for the development of personnel, then it can entrust the work of vocational guidance, vocational selection and vocational training to others organizations.

76. The essence of the social and labor conflict

In the most general way, a conflict can be defined as an extreme case of an aggravation of a contradiction. The conflict arises and proceeds in the sphere of direct communication between people, as a corresponding result of the aggravated contradictions between them. A conflict is a clash of oppositely directed goals, interests, positions, opinions, points of view, views of communication partners. The following types of conflict are distinguished.

Intrapersonal conflict arises from the state of dissatisfaction of a person with any circumstances of his life, associated with the presence of contradictory interests, aspirations and needs.

Interpersonal conflict is the most common type of conflict; it arises between people because of the incompatibility of their views, interests, goals, needs.

Intergroup conflict occurs as a result of the clash of interests of different groups.

The conflict between the group and the individual manifests itself as a contradiction between the expectations of the individual and the norms of behavior and communication that have developed in the group.

In order to understand the essence of the conflict and effectively resolve it, it is necessary to refer to one of the conflict formulas:

Conflict situation + incident = conflict,

where the conflict situation is the accumulated contradictions that create the true cause of the conflict; an incident is a combination of circumstances (sparks) that are a cause for conflict; conflict is an open confrontation, which is the result of mutually exclusive interests and positions.

A social and labor conflict is a contradiction in organizational and labor relations, which takes on the character of direct social clashes between individuals and groups of workers. A social and labor conflict arises if:

1) contradictions reflect the mutually exclusive positions of subjects;

2) the degree of contradictions is quite high;

3) contradictions are understandable, that is, individuals and groups are aware of these contradictions, or, on the contrary, they are incomprehensible;

4) contradictions arise instantly, unexpectedly, or accumulate for quite a long time before turning into a social conflict.

The implementation of the social and labor conflict depends on many specific subjective factors. Individuals and groups must, on the one hand, feel a rather strong need to overcome mutual difficulties in order to decide on a confrontation. On the other hand, individuals and their groups must have sufficient capacity to enter into such a confrontation.

It is important to take into account the types of social and labor conflicts identified depending on the degree of their manifestation, these are closed and open social and labor conflicts. The main parameters that determine this division are: the level of awareness of the conflict situation, its subjects, causes and prospects; presence or absence of real conflict behavior and resolution activity; awareness of the conflict situation for others and their influence on it. It is known that a closed conflict is more unfavorable, since it is characterized by great social discomfort, a destructive effect on the organization and organizational and labor relations, the possibility of its resolution is very small.

The subjects of social and labor conflict are individuals and groups directly or indirectly related to the conflict: primary agents; joined participants and the environment of the conflict. The subjects of the social and labor conflict are often not the resultant factors. Therefore, all social and labor conflicts are different and unique and depend on which socio-economic groups, roles, statuses are their subjects.

77. Causes of social and labor conflicts

The emergence of a social and labor conflict is possible for various reasons and circumstances, for example, it may be the result of insufficient understanding in the process of communication, incorrect assumptions in relation to the actions of the interlocutor, differences in plans and assessments. The causes of social and labor conflict can be: individual personality characteristics of a communication partner; inability (unwillingness) to control one's emotional state; tactlessness and lack of desire to work, as well as loss of interest in work.

The causes of social and labor conflicts are of a deeper nature. The causes of social and labor conflicts are divided into objective and subjective.

The objective causes of social and labor conflicts suggest two situations: a certain principle of organization must either be abolished in general in order to resolve the labor conflict, or simply improved in detail, methods of implementation. Therefore, the objective causes of conflicts in the working environment can be shortcomings, weaknesses, errors in the organization of labor that push people together, make confrontation between individuals and groups inevitable.

The subjective causes of social and labor conflicts are based on the individual, subjective characteristics of the human personality and groups of individuals. Therefore, they are more unpredictable and difficult to manage.

The subjective and objective causes of labor conflicts are not always distinguishable, sometimes there are no clear boundaries between them.

The causes of social and labor conflicts at Russian enterprises are:

1) problems of distributive relations that develop due to the distribution of goods (fairly or not); due to the redistribution of already appropriated received benefits; because of the very principle of distribution. Distribution conflicts have practically no borders, they can arise between the same and different social groups (both between the poor and between the rich);

2) the complexity of functional interaction as a cause of conflict occurs when the enterprise has a complex differentiation and cooperation of labor activity, which, in turn, gives rise to a more active and responsible attitude of people to their work and the likelihood of a collision over the inaction of others is quite large;

3) role contradictions are caused, firstly, by different roles, goals and different ways of people's behavior in the working environment, and, on the other hand, by the non-realization of mutual role expectations of subjects;

4) purely business disagreements, based on the difference in professional thinking, differences in views on how to organize and perform work, etc.;

5) the division of guilt and responsibility, that is, in situations unfavorable for the organization, the process of determining a specific culprit takes place, which becomes the cause of the conflict;

6) leadership, in the form of abnormal rivalry, initiative, dominance, excessive professional and business ambitions, etc. A social and labor conflict based on leadership can proceed as a struggle for power, for employment;

7) abnormal working conditions (outdated equipment, crowded workplace, etc.);

8) incompatibility, that is, significant differences in the characters of the subjects that prevent their normal relations. For example, incompatibility in experience, qualifications, education; in economic psychology and attitude to work, etc.;

9) gender and age composition of the organization (ambitions of the young and conservatism of the older generation, which hinders the introduction of innovations);

10) social differences (class, racial, ethnic, religious, political differences of people).

78. Functions and consequences of labor conflicts

It is traditionally believed that the social and labor conflict is dangerous for the team and the enterprise. Yes, this is true, but the positive functions of the conflict are enormous. After all, a conflict is a collision of contradictions, which suggests that there are problems in the organization that need to be addressed, and as soon as possible in order to ensure the progressive development of the organization itself.

The positive functions of the social and labor conflict are:

1) informational (only through a conflict does information become open that was hidden, but was functionally necessary for everyone or many);

2) socialization (as a result of the conflict, individuals gain social experience, knowledge that is not available under normal conditions, and contribute to the speedy resolution of subsequent conflict situations);

3) normalization of the moral state (accumulated negative moods are resolved in the conflict, moral orientations are cleared);

4) innovative (the conflict forces, stimulates changes, demonstrates their inevitability; some problem is officially recognized and solved through the conflict).

Recognition of the positive functions of the social and labor conflict does not mean that the conflict can and should be purposefully created. If there is a conflict, it is necessary to treat it correctly in terms of possible positive outcomes; it is necessary not to suppress, but to solve it with a beneficial effect; analyze, learn through conflict; regulate it to achieve useful goals.

Social and labor conflict also has negative consequences:

1) increased hostility, an increase in the proportion of unfriendly statements and mutual assessments, a deterioration in social well-being and self-awareness of people in the working environment leads to the intensification of passions;

2) the curtailment of business contacts contrary to functional necessity, the ultimate formalization of communication, the rejection of open, but often necessary communications;

3) drop in motivation to work and actual indicators of labor activity due to negative mood, distrust, lack of guarantees;

4) deterioration of mutual understanding and abnormal, attitudinal disagreements over trifles in interactions, negotiations, contacts;

5) deliberate resistance to the desires, actions and opinions of others, even if there is no personal need and meaning in this; behavior "on the contrary", that is, according to the principle of contradiction; demonstrative inaction, non-fulfillment, non-compliance with mutual obligations, agreements on principle;

6) intentional and purposeful destructive behavior, that is, the installation of the destruction and undermining of certain common ties, organizations, cultures and traditions;

7) destruction of positive social identification, dissatisfaction with belonging to a given labor group, organization, discrediting connections and relationships in principle; installations on individualistic behavior;

8) actual loss of working time, distraction from work or failure to use a favorable situation, opportunity and chance to achieve something due to struggle and disputes; subjective experience of the senseless expenditure of strength and energy on enmity and confrontation;

9) not resolution, but "obfuscation" of any problems.

The listed negative consequences of the social and labor conflict can also be considered as universal signs of a conflict situation.

Workers in the conditions of social and labor conflicts behave differently. So, some avoid conflict at all costs, others treat them adequately, others tend to conflict at the slightest difficulty in a relationship. The behavior of people in conditions of conflict can be an indicator of such a quality of an employee as attitude to work.

79. Resolution of social and labor conflicts

To resolve a social and labor conflict means: to eliminate the conflict situation or to exhaust the incident. However, as practice shows, in life there are many cases when, for objective reasons, it is impossible to eliminate the conflict situation. Therefore, in order to avoid conflict, care should be taken not to create an incident.

The resolution of a social and labor conflict is a process or purposeful activity that removes its causes and consequences. The resolution of a social and labor conflict can be organized or arbitrary, spontaneous.

The solvability of a social and labor conflict depends on the degree of its complexity. Factors that determine the complexity of the social and labor conflict are:

1) the scale of the conflict. It is determined both by the total number of individuals and groups participating in the conflict, and by the number of parties and positions in the conflict. So, in the course of a conflict, three, four, etc., conflicting parties, positions may appear, which complicates the resolution of the conflict. In an interdisciplinary conflict, personal factors are more pronounced, which complicates its resolution. In an intergroup conflict, participants may be aware of its scale, the consequences associated with it, the risk, and responsibility, therefore, they are especially striving to resolve it. In inter-individual conflict, the advantage is that the discussion process is easier; it can take place promptly, in working order, but there is less likelihood of a compromise;

2) the duration of the conflict situation. The resolution of a conflict in its initial stage may be easier than in a later stage. This is explained by the following arguments: the conflict has not yet been personified; the destructive consequences of the conflict are not yet great; a complex structure of participants in the conflict has not been formed. Therefore, the social and labor conflict must be resolved as soon as possible. However, the final stages of the conflict also have a number of advantages that accelerate the resolution of the conflict, they are: over time, the cause of the conflict becomes clear to all the subjects of the conflict, and the ways to resolve it become clearer; over time, the subjects of the conflict get tired of conflict, which contributes to the speedy resolution of the conflict; over time, the motive of the game in the conflict is replaced by the motive of risk, which is a brake on prolonging the conflict, especially for more conservative subjects of the conflict;

3) the novelty or standard nature of the conflict has a multidirectional influence on its resolution. So, if a similar social and labor conflict has already taken place before, then its repetition will occur in a less acute form. At the same time, the participants in the conflict know from their own experience what measures must be taken to resolve the conflict, that is, to resolve the existing contradiction in the enterprise. In the event that there were no analogues to the conflict, then all participants are in a situation of uncertainty and act by trial and error, or use the experience of resolving similar conflicts that have taken place at other enterprises;

4) objective or subjective causes of the conflict. If the conflict is caused by objective reasons, then its resolution requires organizational and labor changes that require large material and time costs, and if it is caused by subjective reasons, then its resolution will be more difficult;

5) subjective characteristics of the conflicting parties. If the participants in the conflict are cultured, educated, then they are able to quickly find a solution to the problem. However, the high level of culture of the participants can also exacerbate the conflict situation due to their more principled attitude to the matter.

80. Methods, types and forms of resolving social and labor conflicts

There are a number of methods for resolving social and labor conflicts, which, on the basis of the behavior of the conflicting parties, can be divided into the following groups: intrapersonal, structural, interpersonal, negotiations, retaliatory aggressive actions.

Intrapersonal methods affect an individual and consist in the correct organization of one's own behavior, in the ability to express one's point of view without causing a defensive reaction from the opponent.

Structural methods mainly affect the participants in organizational conflicts arising from the incorrect distribution of functions, rights and responsibilities, poor organization of work, and an unfair incentive system for employees. These methods include: explaining to employees the requirements for work, using coordination mechanisms, developing and clarifying corporate goals, creating reasonable systems for remuneration of members of the labor collective.

Interpersonal methods involve choosing the style of behavior of the participants in the conflict in order to minimize the damage to their interests.

Negotiations perform certain functions and are a set of techniques aimed at finding mutually acceptable solutions for the warring parties.

Retaliatory aggressive actions are methods that are extremely undesirable for overcoming conflict situations, since their use leads to the resolution of the conflict from a position of strength.

O.V. Romashov identifies several types of social and labor conflict resolution:

1) autonomous, when the conflicting parties in the process of social and labor relations are able to solve problems on their own, on their own, within the boundaries of their own tasks and functions;

2) corporate, when the social and labor conflict can be resolved only as a result of organizational changes;

3) independent, when the conflicting parties solve the problem themselves, relying on their own capabilities, desires and abilities;

4) public, when others are involved in resolving the conflict, they sympathize, advise, approve or condemn;

5) administrative, when the settlement occurs only as a result of intervention and relevant decisions of the administration.

There are the following forms of resolving social and labor conflict:

1) reorganization, that is, a change in the organizational and labor order that caused the conflict, and not a struggle and persuasion in relation to the conflicting parties;

2) informing, that is, socio-psychological regulation aimed at restructuring the perception of the situation in the minds of the conflicting parties, the formation of a correct view of the conflict, and propaganda of the benefits of its peaceful resolution;

3) transformation, that is, the transfer of the conflict from a state of useless hostility to a state of negotiations;

4) distraction is the transfer of the attention of the conflicting parties to other problems, preferably common ones, contributing to their rallying for the sake of a common cause;

5) distance, that is, the exclusion of the conflicting parties from their general organizational and labor relations by either transferring one of the conflicting parties to another workplace, or direct dismissal;

6) ignoring, that is, deliberate inattention to the conflict so that it resolves itself or to prevent further aggravation of the conflict;

7) the suppression of the conflict occurs if the causes of the conflict are not removed, and conflict behavior is prohibited under the threat of administrative sanctions for one or both parties;

8) conformal preference, that is, a decision in favor of the majority, or satisfaction of the interests of a socially stronger side.

81. Social policy

The social policy of the state is designed to ensure the maintenance of a certain level of well-being of citizens, the provision of their material and intellectual needs, to form respect for human dignity and ensure social peace in society.

The organization as a social system, as a stable form of association of people with common interests and goals, is characterized by the versatility of functioning. Its development is carried out in three directions: technical, economic and social. The technical direction is mainly associated with the improvement of means and production technologies, the availability of the necessary, safe equipment and materials, the degree of mechanization and automation of labor processes. The economic direction expresses the forms of ownership of the means of production and the results of labor, the level of specialization and cooperation in production, the system of organization and remuneration of labor, the structure and methods of managing the workforce and production as a whole. Social development encompasses the staff of the organization with its traditions, preferences, intellectual potential and professional qualifications, ways to meet the material and spiritual needs of employees, interpersonal and intergroup relations, moral and psychological atmosphere in the team.

The social environment of an organization is determined by its social policy. The social environment of an organization, which is closely connected with the technical and economic aspects of its functioning, consists of those material, social, spiritual and moral conditions in which employees work, live with their families and in which distribution and consumption of material goods take place, real connections are formed between personalities, their moral and ethical values find expression.

The achievement of the social goal of any organization is the satisfaction of the social needs of the employee in the conditions of production, which occurs as a result of ensuring normal working conditions and labor motivation. The vector of social development of the organization should be aimed at diversifying and enriching the content of labor activity, making better use of the intellectual and creative potential of employees, increasing their discipline and responsibility, creating appropriate conditions for efficient work, good rest, and family affairs.

The social and labor sphere reflects the object and subject of social policy, characterizes the degree of social development, quite reasonably reflects the unity and interdependence of labor and social relations. In practice, labor relations are relations between labor and capital, an employee and an employer rarely exist in their pure form without a social component. And vice versa, social relations often arise as a result of labor processes, contradictions and conflicts that accompany them. The social and labor sphere fully reflects all phases of labor force reproduction and its social support.

The main blocks of social policy in the field of the social and labor sphere, and in particular in the field of labor force reproduction, are:

1) the social sphere, that is, the branches of the socio-cultural complex (education, healthcare, science, culture, etc.), as well as the complex of social services provided by the organization to its employees;

2) the labor market, employment services, advanced training and retraining of personnel (including in organizations);

3) the scope of motivations for the growth of labor productivity of employees (organization of wages, ensuring a high quality of working life for employees of the organization, etc.).

82. The concept of social protection

Social protection of the population - this is a system of measures of a legal, socio-economic and organizational nature, guaranteed and implemented by the state to ensure a decent life, that is, material security at the level of the standards of the modern development of society and the free development of man.

The system of social protection in a broad sense is a system of legal, socio-economic and political guarantees that represent the conditions for ensuring the means of subsistence:

1) able-bodied citizens - at the expense of personal labor contribution, economic independence and entrepreneurship;

2) socially vulnerable groups - at the expense of the state, but not below the living wage established by law.

Social protection is, on the one hand, a functional system, that is, a system of directions in which it is carried out, and, on the other hand, an institutional one, that is, a system of institutions that provide it (the state, trade unions and other public organizations).

Social protection should cover the following areas:

1) providing members of society with a living wage and providing material assistance to those who, due to objective reasons, need it, protection from factors that reduce living standards;

2) creation of conditions that allow citizens to freely earn their livelihood by any means that do not contradict the law;

3) ensuring favorable working conditions for employees, protecting them from the negative impacts of industrial production;

4) ensuring the environmental safety of members of the society;

5) protection of citizens from criminal encroachments;

6) protection of civil and political rights and freedoms corresponding to the principles of a legal, democratic state;

7) creation of conditions excluding armed social and interethnic conflicts;

8) protection from political persecution and administrative arbitrariness;

9) ensuring freedom of spiritual life, protection from ideological pressure;

10) creation of a favorable psychological climate in society as a whole, in individual cells and structural formations, protection from psychological pressure;

11) ensuring the maximum possible stability of public life.

The basic rights of citizens in the field of social protection are enshrined in Art. 18 of the constitution of the Russian Federation. Normative legal acts on the social protection of the population take the form of federal and regional laws, which establish the rights of citizens in this area and measures to implement the regulations in the sphere of the protective functions of the state. Other legal acts regulating social protection procedures include Decrees of the President of the Russian Federation, resolutions and orders of the Government of the Russian Federation; other normative acts of ministries and federal departments, executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, as well as local governments and organizations.

Socio-economic transformations of Russian society aimed at establishing and developing market relations make the problem of ensuring effective social protection of citizens in general and employees of enterprises and organizations in particular extremely relevant. On the one hand, these transformations enhance the social protection of citizens, but on the other hand, it is required to take much more efforts on social protection in some important areas of human life: protection from unemployment, inflation, material insecurity for a significant part of citizens, etc. The main thing today is to strengthen social protection from lowering the living standards of workers, concern for the conditions and content of labor, the organization and system of remuneration of workers.

83. Minimum social standards and regulations

Under state minimum standards it is customary to understand the minimum levels of social guarantees established by the laws of the Russian Federation or decisions of representative bodies of state power for a certain period of time, expressed through social standards and norms, reflecting the most important human needs for material goods, public and free services, guaranteeing an appropriate level of their consumption and intended to determine mandatory minimum budget expenditures for these purposes.

When forming budgets at various levels, social norms and standards are applied for a wide range of indicators. A significant part of them, enshrined in laws or other legal acts, determines the minimum state guarantees in the field of labor, its remuneration, employment and social security. These standards are revised depending on the rate of inflation and available financial resources.

One of the main social standards is the living wage. The subsistence minimum is an indicator of the volume and structure of consumption of the most important material goods and services at the minimum acceptable level, which provides conditions for maintaining the active physical condition of adults, the social and physical development of children and adolescents. The cost of living is reflected in the structure of the subsistence minimum; spending on non-food items; service costs; taxes; other obligatory payments. Theoretically, the living wage should be equal to the minimum wage. In Russia, on the basis of the subsistence minimum, the consumer basket is calculated for the country as a whole and for the subjects of the federation.

The housing and sanitary standard of 9 m2 per person was adopted as the minimum allowable standard for housing provision, which, as studies have shown, ensures the normal course of human physiological functions.

In the field of health protection, indicators of the provision of doctors, hospital beds, polyclinics and outpatient facilities are used to assess the minimum acceptable level of satisfaction of the needs for medical care and medical care of the population.

In the field of education, the Constitution of the Russian Federation guarantees the general availability and free of charge of preschool, basic general and secondary vocational education in state and municipal educational institutions. At the same time, the obligatory nature of basic general education was established.

In the field of labor and environmental protection, the legally established indicators of the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) of the content of chemical and other substances that adversely affect the working and working capacity of citizens in the air, water and workplaces of industrial enterprises are accepted as the minimum state standards.

In the field of employment, minimum standards, unfortunately, do not yet exist, although science has developed indicators of the maximum permissible level of unemployment by region of the country (they have not received legislative status).

Unfortunately, today the minimum wage still does not correspond to the subsistence level.

84. Social transfers and benefits

under social transfers It is customary to understand the transfer to the population by state or non-state organizations (professional, charitable, religious, etc.) of resources in cash and in kind, mainly on a gratuitous basis.

Social transfers include pensions, allowances, scholarships, subsidies, other types of social security payments, as well as free services that make up part of the total income of citizens. In kind, they consist of goods and services provided to specific families (households).

The main goals and objectives of providing social transfers are:

1) providing the population with socially significant benefits and services;

2) reducing the gap in the level of material support of working and non-working members of society, for objective reasons, not involved in the labor process;

3) mitigation of negative external factors of the period of human adaptation to market conditions (increase in unemployment, poverty and poverty, etc.);

4) ensuring the necessary quantity and structure of the reproduction of labor resources.

Social transfers are carried out in different types and forms. Among them: social assistance (assistance); state social guarantees, including social benefits for certain categories of the population; social insurance (state, compulsory and voluntary).

Social assistance is the provision by the state and non-profit organizations of goods and services to socially vulnerable groups of citizens (population) on the basis of testing their need (material assistance, charity of other organizations).

The system of social guarantees involves the provision of socially significant benefits and services to all citizens without taking into account their labor contribution and means testing.

Transfers made through the social insurance system are designed to protect the population from various social risks leading to loss of ability to work, and, consequently, income. Among them: illness, work injury, occupational disease, accident, motherhood and childhood, job loss, old age, loss of a breadwinner.

The most widely used forms of social transfers in Russia are allowances, pensions and scholarships. Benefits are regular or one-time cash payments to citizens in cases of partial or complete disability, difficult financial situation, support for families with children, as well as in the event of the death of relatives, as provided for by law. Unemployment benefit is a financial assistance provided free of charge in the presence of seniority, payment of relevant contributions, regular registration at the labor exchange for a certain period.

Scholarships are regular cash payments to students of higher, secondary specialized and vocational educational institutions studying off-the-job.

A pension is a legally guaranteed cash payment to provide citizens in old age, in case of complete or partial disability, loss of a breadwinner, as well as in connection with the achievement of the established length of service in certain areas of labor activity.

The main problem is the timely and adequate to market changes indexation of social transfers, which ensures a normal standard of living.

In addition to the listed transfers, other state expenses can also be attributed to them, for example, subsidies for enterprises and organizations that produce products and provide services to the population (subsidies for housing and communal services and public transport, enterprises employing disabled people).

85. Social insurance

Social insurance is a form of social protection of the population from various risks associated with loss of ability to work and income. A feature of social insurance is its financing from special off-budget funds formed from targeted contributions from employers and employees with state support. Social insurance is included in the system of social protection of the population, therefore, it is necessary to legally recognize the costs of social insurance of workers as socially necessary for the reproduction of the labor force.

Social insurance is aimed at solving two main tasks: ensuring the restoration and preservation of the working capacity of employees, including the implementation of preventive and rehabilitation measures for labor protection and ensuring the safety of its conditions; and the implementation of measures that guarantee the material support of persons who have lost their ability to work or did not have it.

As modern forms of social insurance can be: compulsory, voluntary and corporate social insurance.

Compulsory social insurance is a kind of social guarantees established by the current legislation in connection with the loss of income (wages) due to disability (illness, accident, old age) or place of work. The financial sources for providing such social guarantees are the insurance premiums of employers and employees, as well as the state budget. Compulsory social insurance is based on the principle of solidarity between the insured and the insured.

Voluntary social insurance is based on the principles of collective solidarity and self-help in the absence of state insurance support. It can be personal and collective and involves protection from the consequences of accidents, medical and pension provision. The financial sources of voluntary social insurance are (voluntary) contributions from employees and employers. The defining difference is the presence of an insurance contract. Distinctive features of voluntary social insurance are the democratic management of insurance funds, the most complete implementation of the principle of self-government, the social partnership of employers and employees, the close dependence of insurance payments on the level of income of policyholders.

Voluntary social insurance is a supplement, not an alternative to compulsory social insurance. Mutual supplementation of these funds makes it possible to compensate for the disadvantages of one type of insurance with the advantages of another.

Corporate social insurance systems are systems of social protection of employees organized by employers at the expense of income allocated to meet the social needs of employees (medical and health care, payment for housing, transport, educational services, cultural services, corporate pension payments).

State subsidies for the replenishment of social insurance funds (social protection funds) include contributions for non-working citizens, military personnel and civil servants, subsidies to cover the budget deficit of these funds and tax benefits. Recently, the importance of a new source of financing for compulsory social insurance funds has been growing - income from the capitalization of contributions from the insured and employers (insurers). The contributions of the insured are a direct deduction from their income. Employers' contributions are not charged as a percentage of the total payroll, but of a predetermined maximum gross wage, i.e., amounts in excess of this maximum are not taken into account.

86. Labor management in the organization

In each labor organization, labor management is carried out. In this regard, the difference between organizations is only in the degree of importance of management, the completeness of its content, setting goals, determining the objects and functions of management to achieve specific results of the activities of this organization.

The purpose of labor management in an organization is the most rational and efficient use of personnel, living and embodied labor and the expenditure of funds for payment and material incentives for labor, while observing the constitutional rights and obligations of citizens.

The objects of labor management in the organization in general terms are the direct process of labor, the relationship between people in the labor process, the reproduction of the labor force. With regard to management activities, these objects can be specified and singled out as separate objects: personnel management of an organization, management of organizational support for the labor activity of personnel, management of labor productivity and quality, management of labor motivation and stimulation, management of industrial, social and economic relations in the course of labor activity. In turn, each of the listed objects can also be divided into smaller ones.

The main functions of labor management in the organization are: planning, accounting, analysis, control and evaluation. These functions also apply to all the listed objects of labor management and tend to be cyclically repeated in time. These functions are aimed at substantiating management decisions. All of them should be based on reliable information, which, as new problems arise in labor management, must be updated, expanded and deepened. The availability of operational and multifaceted analytical information, a permanent system of accounting and monitoring the implementation of planned processes contribute to the development of a desire to find the most rational solutions and improve the efficiency of labor management.

The organization of labor management at the enterprise depends on objective and subjective factors. The objective factors include the size of the enterprise, the products manufactured, the complexity of the technological process, the nature and type of production, the qualifications of managers, the sectoral affiliation of the enterprise, etc. on working conditions, the development of industrial democracy, etc.).

At most Russian enterprises, the organization of labor management is concentrated mainly in four divisions: the personnel department, the labor organization department, the labor and wages department, and the safety and labor protection department. At foreign enterprises, most often there is a single human resource management service, subordinate to one of the vice presidents of the company (that is, labor management is centralized).

At enterprises, there are contractual forms of labor management, they should be considered as joint or coordinated (agreed) actions of the administration of enterprises or local administrations, on the one hand, and various organizations of employees of the enterprise, on the other. Such forms constantly exist at enterprises where trade union organizations are active. Contractual forms of labor management at the enterprise are good because they can reflect the correlation of forces of subjects of social and labor relations with different interests (individual and collective labor contracts) in a fairly operational mode.

87. Levels, forms and methods of labor management

In general control means an impact on something in order to streamline, preserve qualitative specifics, improve and develop. Management can be defined as some type of interaction between subjects and objects. Management functions are the necessary actions in relation to the objects of management in order to achieve the goals and objectives set, they are a kind of leverage through which the labor management mechanism is implemented.

There are three levels of labor management: international level, state level and enterprise level.

Labor management at the enterprise level aims at the most rational and efficient use of personnel, living and embodied labor, optimal spending of funds for wages and material incentives for employees.

Labor management at the state level is carried out by a system of national bodies. Any civilized state develops normative materials on labor, employment and social policy, in particular on working conditions, on the tariffing of works and employees, on inter-category ratios in wages in the public sector, on employment management, on organizing relationships between employers and employees and others

Labor management at the international level is carried out by the International Labor Organization (ILO). It was established in 1919 as an organization designed to promote social progress in every possible way, to establish and maintain social peace between different strata of society, to help resolve acute socio-economic issues in an evolutionary, peaceful way. The purpose of the International Labor Organization is to promote the achievement of material well-being and ensure the spiritual development of people, regardless of race, creed or gender, and to create conditions under which this is possible.

Methods of labor management are called the fundamental ways of providing managerial influences on social and labor processes and their participants. Labor (social labor processes) is managed using three main methods:

1) the method of direct influence of the (directive) manager on the managed, and through them on the managed process (orders, orders);

2) the method of indirect influence (through interest) of the influence of the manager on the controlled and through them on the controlled process;

3) the method of self-government (when the participants in the process themselves make and execute the decisions made, that is, industrial democracy).

The forms of labor management directly reflect the nature of the subjects and objects of management, the nature of their relationship. Therefore, the following forms of labor management can be distinguished:

1) state forms of labor management, in the form of legislative, executive and judicial authorities, regulating the relations of subjects of social and labor relations;

2) contractual forms of labor management, among which are: general agreements, regional and territorial agreements, sectoral (intersectoral) tariff and professional tariff agreements, collective agreements between representatives of labor collectives (employees and the administration of the enterprise (employer), individual labor agreements (contracts) ;

3) forms of social activity of one or another subject of social and labor relations (for example, a protest action or a strike of workers, re-election of a leader).

There are also types of labor management: democratic and totalitarian. The democratic type of labor management means a full-fledged civic subjectivity, freedom of action for all members of society. The totalitarian type of labor management is extremely dictatorial.

88. Personnel management in an organization

Human Resource Management is a complex and multifaceted work. The personnel of the organization are people with a complex set of individual qualities, the presence of which distinguishes them from the material factors of production.

Organization personnel management - purposeful activity of the management staff of the organization, managers and specialists of the departments of the personnel management system, including the development of the concept and strategy of the personnel policy, principles and methods of personnel management of the organization. Personnel management consists in the formation of a personnel management system; planning personnel work, developing an operational plan for working with personnel; personnel marketing; determining the human resources potential and the needs of the organization in personnel.

Organizational personnel management covers a wide range of functions from recruitment to dismissal of personnel:

1) recruitment, selection, reception and placement of personnel;

2) business assessment of personnel upon admission, certification, selection;

3) career guidance and labor adaptation of personnel;

4) motivation of the labor activity of the personnel and its use;

5) organization of work and compliance with the ethics of business relations;

6) management of social and labor conflicts and stresses;

7) ensuring the safety of personnel;

8) management of innovations in personnel work;

9) training, advanced training and retraining of employees;

10) management of business career and service and professional advancement;

11) management of the behavior of personnel in the organization;

12) management of social development of personnel;

13) release of the personnel of the organization.

Personnel management of an organization provides for information, technical, regulatory, methodological, legal and documentary support for the personnel management system. The heads and employees of the departments of the organization's personnel management system solve the issues of assessing the effectiveness of the work of managers and management specialists, assessing the activities of the departments of the organization's management system, assessing the economic and social efficiency of improving personnel management, personnel audit.

All these issues are reflected in the philosophy of personnel management of the organization. The philosophy of personnel management is a philosophical and conceptual understanding of the essence of personnel management, its origin, connection with other sciences and areas of management science, understanding the ideas and goals underlying personnel management. In particular, the philosophy of personnel management considers the process of personnel management from a logical, psychological, sociological, economic, organizational and ethical point of view. The philosophy of personnel management of the organization is part of the philosophy of the organization, its basis. The philosophy of the organization is a set of intra-organizational principles, moral and administrative norms and rules for the relationship of personnel, a system of values and beliefs perceived by all personnel and subordinate to the global goal of the organization.

The essence of the organization's personnel management philosophy is that employees have the opportunity to satisfy their personal needs by working in the organization. This requires conditions for the establishment of fair, equal, open, trusting relationships in the organization.

The concept of personnel management of an organization is a system of theoretical and methodological views on the understanding and definition of the essence, content, goals, objectives, criteria, principles and methods of personnel management, as well as organizational and practical approaches to the formation of a mechanism for its implementation in the specific conditions of the functioning of the organization.

89. Essence of social partnership

The system of social partnership was established only in the second half of the twentieth century in the developed capitalist countries. In Russia, social partnership has been discussed since the end of 1991. On November 15, 1991, No. 212, the President of the Russian Federation signed the Decree "On social partnership and resolution of labor disputes (conflicts)". In accordance with the Law of the Russian Federation "On Collective Contracts and Agreements", a vertical system of social partnership is being implemented in Russia, covering all levels of society and suggesting the possibility of concluding general, regional, sectoral (inter-sectoral), professional and territorial agreements, as well as collective agreements.

The most common definitions of the concept of "social partnership" are as follows:

1) social partnership is a system of relationships between employees and employers, which replaces the class struggle. According to such ideas, at present, in countries with a developed market economy, there is an opportunity to get away from class contradictions through negotiations and reaching a compromise. Social partnership in this case is one of the ways to harmonize the interests represented in society;

2) social partnership is a way of reconciling opposing interests, a method for solving socio-economic problems and regulating contradictions between the class of employees and the class of owners. Despite the changes that have taken place in the economic and social spheres of modern Western society, class differences and contradictions between the interests of employees and employers persist. In this case, social partnership is a way to mitigate class contradictions, a condition for political stability and social truce in society;

3) social partnership as a way of regulating social and labor relations does not exist, since there are no objective conditions for its existence. This is the point of view of either representatives of an extremely liberal trend, who argue that the market mechanism by itself, without the intervention of the state and any other subjects, is capable of regulating the entire force of relations, including social and labor relations, or theorists who preach totalitarianism and defend the idea of moral -political and economic unity, common interests of the nation, realized through a strong state.

Social partnership allows you to restore some balance in relations between employees and the employer, which is constantly violated due to the fact that the employer, due to his position, initially dominates in these relations. Negotiations within the framework of social partnership contribute to establishing a correspondence between economic and social needs, and this is the main condition for determining reasonable wages, taking into account real opportunities.

Social partnership should be considered as a special type of social and labor relations, providing, on the basis of equal cooperation of employees, employers and the state, an optimal balance and the implementation of their main interests.

The main principles of social partnership include:

1) the authority of representatives of all parties;

2) equality of the parties in the negotiations and in the conclusion of agreements;

3) obligatory fulfillment by the parties of the agreements reached;

4) priority of conciliatory methods and procedures in negotiations;

5) responsibility for accepted obligations.

An important role in the development of social partnership in Russia is played by the implementation of the principles laid down in the conventions and recommendations of the ILO.

90. The essence and structure of social and labor relations

Social and labor relations - this is an objectively existing interdependence and interaction of the subjects of these relations in the labor process, aimed at regulating the quality of working life. Social and labor relations characterize the economic, legal and psychological aspects of the relationships between people and their social groups in labor processes. Therefore, social and labor relations are always subjective, and reflect the degree of combination of interests of the subjects of these relations.

The system of social and labor relations has a complex structure, which in a market economy includes the following elements: subjects of social and labor relations, levels and objects of social and labor relations, principles and types of social and labor relations.

The subject of social and labor relations are various aspects of a person's working life: labor self-determination, professional orientation, hiring and firing, professional development, socio-psychological development, vocational training, etc. The subject of collective social and labor relations is personnel policy. All their diversity usually comes down to three groups of social and labor relations:

1) employment;

2) related to the organization and efficiency of labor;

3) arising in connection with remuneration for work.

The main principles of organization and regulation of social and labor relations are:

1) legislative provision of the rights of subjects;

2) the principle of solidarity;

3) the principle of partnership;

4) the principle of "domination-submission".

The following types of social and labor relations are distinguished, which characterize the socio-psychological, ethical and legal forms of the relationship of subjects in the process of labor activity.

1. Paternalism is characterized by strict regulation of the behavior of the subjects of social and labor relations, the conditions and procedure for their interaction on the part of the state or the leadership of the organization.

2. Social partnership is characterized by the protection of the interests of the subjects of social and labor relations and their self-realization in the policy of agreeing on mutual priorities on social and labor issues to ensure constructive interaction.

3. Competition is the rivalry of the subjects of social and labor relations for the opportunity and better conditions for the realization of their own interests in the social and labor sphere (one of the forms of competition is competition).

4. Solidarity is determined by the mutual responsibility of people, based on unanimity and commonality of their interests, for changes in the system of social and labor relations and reaching agreement in making socially important decisions in the social and labor sphere.

5. Subsidiarity, expresses a person's desire for personal responsibility for achieving their conscious goals and their actions in solving social and labor problems.

6. Discrimination is an arbitrary, illegal, unjustified restriction of the rights of subjects of social and labor relations, as a result of which the principles of equality of opportunity in the labor markets are violated.

7. Conflict is an extreme degree of expression of contradictions of interests and goals of subjects in social and labor relations, manifested in the form of labor disputes, strikes.

The considered types of social and labor relations do not exist in their pure form, but act in the form of models that have a qualitative variety of types of social and labor relations. This is due to the influence of many factors: social policy in the state, the globalization of the economy, the development of social labor and production.

91. Subjects and levels of social and labor relations

The main subjects of social and labor relations are:

1) an employee (a group of employees) is a citizen who has concluded an employment contract (contract) with an employer, the head of an enterprise and an individual. An employment contract can be written or oral, but in both cases it determines the social and labor relations between its participants. An important role for an employee is played by such qualities as: age, gender, state of health, education, skill level, work experience, professional and industry affiliation. In addition, the employee must be ready and able to participate in social and labor relations.

As an employee as a subject of social and labor relations, both an individual employee and groups of employees can act, differing in their position in the socio-professional structure, orientation of interests, labor motivation, etc.

Developed labor relations presuppose the existence of institutions acting on behalf of employees, representing and protecting their interests. These are trade unions. Trade unions are voluntary mass organizations that unite employees who are connected by a commonality of socio-economic interests. The Labor Code of the Russian Federation declares the principle of trade union pluralism, according to which the number of trade unions representing the interests of workers in an industry or enterprise is not limited. Other organizational forms of association of hired workers are also possible;

2) an employer, according to the international classification of employment status, is a person who works independently and constantly hires one or more employees to carry out the labor process. Usually in world practice he is called the owner of the means of production. But in the practice of Russian social and labor relations, the employer is also a leader in the public sector of the economy who hires employees under a contract (director of a state enterprise), although he himself is an employee and does not own the means of production;

3) the state as a subject of social and labor relations performs the functions of a legislator, defender of rights, employer, arbiter, etc. The measure of implementation of each of these functions is determined by the historical, political conditions for the development of the state.

There are three levels of social and labor relations:

a) individual, when the employee and the employer interact in various combinations (bilateral social and labor relations);

b) group, when associations of employees and associations of employers interact (tripartite social and labor relations);

c) mixed, when employees and the state interact, as well as employers and the state (multilateral social and labor relations).

The relations of the subjects of social and labor relations are regulated by legislative and regulatory acts. The fundamental ones are: the Constitution of the Russian Federation, the Labor Code of the Russian Federation, the Law of the Russian Federation "On Employment of the Population", the Law of the Russian Federation "On Collective Contracts and Agreements", the Federal Law "On the Procedure for Resolving Collective Labor Disputes", the Federal Law "On the Basics of Labor Protection in the Russian Federation" and others. In addition, legal acts issued by local governments, heads of enterprises and organizations are highlighted. Within the framework of the enterprise, local regulations governing social and labor relations are: a collective agreement, an employment agreement (contract), and other internal regulations.

92. Sociological research in the sphere of labor

Sociological research - this is an analysis of social phenomena or processes using special methods, which allows you to systematize processes, relationships, relationships, dependencies and draw reasonable conclusions and recommendations. A specific sociological study is a system of theoretical and empirical procedures that contribute to the acquisition of new knowledge about the object under study in order to solve specific theoretical and social problems.

Functions of sociological research:

1) information and research (collection of social information);

2) organizational and implementation (development of recommendations);

3) propaganda (dissemination of the foundations of sociological knowledge);

4) methodical (development of new research methods).

Structurally, the research process consists of three qualitatively different, but interconnected by a certain sequence of procedures: conceptualization, cognitive procedure and objectification procedure. The essence of conceptualization is the transition from a social order to the study of an object, the development of a conceptual scheme for the study. A cognitive procedure is a path from setting research objectives to obtaining certain cognitive results in accordance with them. The procedure for objectifying primary sociological data is the translation of new, primary data about an object into a scientific-theoretical and scientific-practical result.

The main goal of the ongoing research is to increase the efficiency of labor activity while ensuring the development of employees, meeting their needs, and forming positive intra-collective relations. The most common tasks of sociological research in the sphere of labor are:

1) improving the organization's management system, increasing the validity of managerial decision-making, studying social processes that affect management efficiency;

2) increasing the level of stability of the workforce, intra-collective cohesion, leadership problems, studying the factors of excessive staff turnover;

3) development of a system of adaptation of new employees, taking into account the factors that determine the timing and success of adaptation, improving the system of selection, placement of personnel;

4) increasing the labor activity of employees based on the analysis of the processes of formation of labor motivation, the assessment of the new systems of labor incentives being developed;

5) study of the content, working conditions, development of measures to improve them; development of recommendations for career planning, identification of factors that contribute to increasing job satisfaction;

6) improving the quality of working life; development of social programs, social support programs for employees.

The object of sociological research is what the process of cognition is aimed at; the object can be any social phenomenon or social relations containing social contradictions. The set of people with which the social problem is connected is the object of sociological research. The persons examined are called respondents.

The subject of sociological research is the most significant properties, aspects and features of the object that are subject to direct study.

The organization of a specific sociological research involves a number of stages: drawing up a research program; determination of the object and units of observation, that is, the sampling process; development of means for collecting materials - research methods; collection of material; analysis of the material and its generalization. The main methods of collecting information in sociological research are document analysis, observation, experiment, and survey.

Authors: Ivanova N.A., Zhulina E.G.

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