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Table of contents

1. Russian language in the modern world
2. Linguistics as the science of language. Sections of linguistics
3. Basic linguistic dictionaries
4. Outstanding Russian scholars
5. Sources of richness and expressiveness of Russian speech
6. Figurative means of phonetics of the Russian language
7. The main elements of intonation (logical stress, pause, increase - decrease in voice, tone of speech, etc.)
8. Using words in a figurative sense to create paths
9. Historical changes in the vocabulary of the language. Archaisms and historicisms
10. The main sources of replenishment of vocabulary. Neologisms
11. Origin of words: native Russian and borrowed words. Old Church Slavonicisms
12. Phraseological units of the Russian language. Sources of phraseological units. Idioms
13. Lexical means of expressive speech
14. General grammatical meaning, morphological and syntactic features of significant parts of speech (on the example of one part of speech as directed by the teacher)
15. Synonymy of syntactic constructions
16. Pictorial means of syntax: syntactic parallelism; rhetorical question, exclamation and appeal; repeated alliances and non-union, etc.
17. Modern Russian literary language and language norm. Norms orthoepic, lexical, grammatical, spelling
18. The principle of uniform spelling of morphemes is the leading principle of Russian spelling
19. The role of semantic and grammatical analysis in the choice of continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling
20. Punctuation as a way of reflecting in writing the semantic side of speech, its syntactic structure and intonational features
21. Varieties of speech according to the form of language use (oral and written speech). Varieties of speech according to the nature of the participation of interlocutors in the process of communication (dialogic and monologue speech)
22. Text as a speech product. The main features of the text
23. Functional and semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning
24. Functional styles of speech and their main features (on the example of one style of speech as directed by the teacher)

Ticket 1

Russian language in the modern world. Russian language is the national language of the Russian people, the state language of the Russian Federation and the language of interethnic communication

Ticket 2

Linguistics as the science of language. Sections of linguistics

Ticket 3

Basic linguistic dictionaries

Ticket 4

Outstanding Russian scholars

Ticket 5

Sources of richness and expressiveness of Russian speech

Ticket 6

Figurative means of phonetics of the Russian language

Ticket 7

The main elements of intonation (logical stress, pause, increase - decrease in voice, tone of speech, etc.)

Ticket 8

Using words in a figurative sense to create paths

Ticket 9

Historical changes in the vocabulary of the language. Archaisms and historicisms

Ticket 10

The main sources of replenishment of vocabulary. Neologisms

Ticket 11

Origin of words: native Russian and borrowed words. Old Church Slavonicisms

Ticket 12

Phraseological units of the Russian language. Sources of phraseological units. Idioms

Ticket 13

Lexical means of expressive speech

Ticket 14

General grammatical meaning, morphological and syntactic features of significant parts of speech (on the example of one part of speech as directed by the teacher)

Ticket 15

Synonymy of syntactic constructions

Ticket 16

Pictorial means of syntax: syntactic parallelism; rhetorical question, exclamation and appeal; repeated alliances and non-union, etc.

Ticket 17

Modern Russian literary language and language norm. Norms orthoepic, lexical, grammatical, spelling

Ticket 18

The principle of uniform spelling of morphemes is the leading principle of Russian spelling

Ticket 19

The role of semantic and grammatical analysis in the choice of continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling

Ticket 20

Punctuation as a way of reflecting in writing the semantic side of speech, its syntactic structure and intonational features

Ticket 21

Varieties of speech according to the form of language use (oral and written speech). Varieties of speech according to the nature of the participation of interlocutors in the process of communication (dialogic and monologue speech)

Ticket 22

Text as a speech product. The main features of the text

Ticket 23

Functional and semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning

Ticket 24

Functional styles of speech and their main features (on the example of one style of speech as directed by the teacher)

ANSWERS TO EXAM TICKETS

Ticket 1

Russian language in the modern world. Russian language is the national language of the Russian people, the state language of the Russian Federation and the language of interethnic communication

If you look around, you can find a lot of things created by the mind and hands of man: radio, telephone, car, ship, plane, rocket ... But the most amazing and wise thing that mankind has created is language. Almost all people on Earth can speak. They speak different languages, but all languages ​​have the same task - to help people understand each other when communicating, when working together.

Without language, the life of a person, people, society is impossible; development of science, technology, art. The meaning of language (speech, words) is noted by many Russian proverbs.

· The human word arrows are sharper.

Good speech is good to listen to.

· A bullet will hit one, and a well-aimed word - a thousand.

· The wind destroys the mountains, raises the word of the people.

On this topic, there are also a number of statements by famous figures in literature, philosophy, art.

· Language is the key to all knowledge and all nature (G. R. Derzhavin).

· Writing gives strength to the flying word, conquers space and time (Ya. K. Grot).

It is impossible for him to glorify himself, who does not know the properties and rules of grammar (A.P. Sumarokov).

Language refers to those social phenomena that operate throughout the existence of human society. The main purpose (or function) of language is serve as a means of communication. Language is inextricably linked with thinking, human consciousness, serves as a means of forming and expressing our thoughts and feelings.

There are more than two thousand languages ​​on our planet. Among them, the Russian language is one of the most common. It includes all the variety of language means used in communication between people. Despite the fact that the languages ​​differ from each other, nevertheless, each of them has "relatives" among other languages. The Russian language, like Ukrainian and Belarusian, belongs to the East Slavic languages. The languages ​​of this group have the same source of origin - the Old Russian language. Hence - a number of similar features (in particular, the similarity of the vocabulary: nouns - Russian "protein", Ukrainian "bilok", Belarusian "byalok"; adjectives - Russian "white", Ukrainian "bily", Belarusian "white"; verbs - Russian "whiten", Ukrainian "bility", Belarusian "belets").

The Russian language exists and develops only because it simultaneously performs all the universal functions inherent in any language.

With the help of language, people communicate, transmit thoughts, feelings, knowledge about the world around us to each other. Any word of our language is not just a set of sounds: it has its own meaning. And we think with the help of the same meanings. Therefore, language is closely connected with thinking and cognition. All human knowledge about the surrounding reality is fixed in the language and expressed in words, phrases and sentences that are generally accepted and understandable. This allows people to pass on knowledge from generation to generation.

In the modern world, the Russian language performs, in addition to those mentioned, three more functions.

At first, Russian is the national language of the Russian people. Wonderful monuments of art and literature have been created on it, it is the language of science and culture. In the arrangement of words, their meanings, the meaning of their combinations, there is information that conveys to us knowledge about the world and people, introducing us to the spiritual wealth created by many generations of ancestors.

Secondly, Russian is the state language of the Russian Federation. When the USSR existed, the Russian language was not such - too many nationalities inhabited the territory of the Soviet Union. Now it is a language that serves not only the needs of people at home and at work, but also the official language of the state, the language of science, production and, of course, culture.

Thirdly, Russian is one of the international languages.

In international relations, states use world languages ​​legally proclaimed by the United Nations as the official and working languages ​​of the UN. These languages ​​are English, French, Russian, Spanish, Chinese and Arabic. In any of the six languages, interstate political, economic, scientific and cultural contacts can be carried out, international meetings, forums, etc. can be held.

The study of the Russian language at school is designed to reveal the richness, beauty and grandeur of the Russian national language, to strengthen and make more conscious pride in it and love for it. The Russian language is the language of the great Russian people, which has a heroic history, outstanding achievements in culture, science, social thought, literature, etc. In all these achievements, the great contribution of the Russian language as a means of communication, as a form of national culture.

The study of the native language should begin with the study of statements about it by those who were fluent in the Russian word.

· Our unusual language is still a mystery. It has all the tones and shades, all the transitions of sounds - from the hardest to the most tender and soft NV Gogol.

· We have been given possession of the richest, most accurate, powerful and truly magical Russian language. True love for one's country is unthinkable without love for one's language. We study the language and must study it continuously until the last days of our life K. G. Paustovsky.

· The Russian language in skillful hands and experienced lips is beautiful, melodious, expressive, flexible, obedient, dexterous and roomy AI Kuprin.

Ticket 2

Linguistics as the science of language. Sections of linguistics

The science of language is called linguistics (linguistics, linguistics). School grammar studies the main sections of the science of the Russian language: phonetics (speech sounds), morphemic (word composition), vocabulary (language vocabulary), morphology (words as parts of speech), syntax (phrases and sentences).

В linguistics there are several sections.

Lexicology (its subject is the word) - the doctrine of the vocabulary of the language. Lexicology establishes the meaning of the word and the rules for its use in speech.

One of the main branches of lexicology is semantics (from the Greek "sema" - a sign), which studies all issues related to the meaning of the word, as well as changes in the meaning of the word.

Lexicology studies the vocabulary of a language in its current state, as well as the main ways of its development and the reasons for changing the meaning of a word and the vocabulary of the language as a whole. A special branch of lexicology is etymology - the science that studies the origin of the word.

Phraseology considers issues related to the meaning, morphological-syntactic and stylistic features of phraseological units, as well as their classification and main methods of formation.

Phraseological units - stable combinations of words that are close in lexical meaning to one word (at the end of the world - far away; lathering your neck - teach a lesson, punish; walking under the table - small, etc.).

Phonetics - a branch of science that studies the sound structure of a language.

Phonetics occupies a special place among other linguistic sciences. If lexicology and grammar study the semantic side of the language, the meanings of sentences, words and parts of words, then phonetics deals with the material side of the language, with its means that have no semantic meaning.

Phonetics finds practical application in orthoepy - the science of correct pronunciation.

A section closely related to phonetics graphics studies letters, i.e., the image of sounds in writing, the relationship between letters and sounds.

Word formation - a branch of the science of language that studies the ways and means of forming new words, as well as the structure of existing words.

In some textbooks this section is called morphemics (from the Greek "morphe" - form). Morphemes - significant parts of the word: prefix, root, suffix, ending. They form the morphemic composition of the word.

Grammar studies the features of language construction.

Currently, grammar is one of the most significant sections of the science of language, which includes two subsections - morphology and syntax.

Morphology (from the Greek "morphe" - form, "logos" - science, word), studies inflection and parts of speech available in a given language. Words can change by gender, number, cases, persons, etc. Although there are those that do not change (conjunctions, prepositions, adverbs). Morphology is closely related to spelling, therefore, in this section of the textbook, various kinds of spelling rules are often found.

Parts of speech are morphological classes of words. According to their role in the language, parts of speech are divided into independent and auxiliary parts.

Independent parts of speech: noun, adjective, verb, adverb, pronoun. Service parts of speech: preposition, conjunction, particle. In speech, independent and auxiliary words perform different functions. In a sentence, independent words, naming objects, their signs, actions, etc., play the role of members of the sentence, while auxiliary words often serve to connect independent words.

Syntax learns phrases and sentences.

Sentence and phrase - syntactic units for different purposes, each of them has its own essential features. The sentence serves to express the statement, is the main unit of syntax. The phrase is one of the components of the sentence, it is an auxiliary unit. In syntax, the rules for the grammatical design of sentences and phrases are studied.

Spelling (from the Greek "orfo" - correct, "grapho" - I write) - a branch of the science of language that studies the rules for writing words.

There are many cases in Russian where it is not clear which spelling is correct. You can choose the correct spelling only based on a certain rule. Such a spelling in a word that corresponds to a certain spelling rule is called orthogram.

Punctuation learns the rules for using punctuation marks.

Punctuation is closely related to syntax. School grammar gives an idea of ​​10 punctuation marks:

· dot;

· question mark;

· Exclamation point;

· comma;

· semicolon;

a colon;

· dash;

· parentheses;

quotation marks

ellipsis.

The place in a sentence or text where a punctuation rule needs to be applied is called punctogram.

Stylistics - the doctrine of speech styles and means of linguistic expressiveness, as well as the conditions for using them in speech.

A culture of speech - a branch of linguistics that studies the practical implementation in speech of the norms of the literary language.

Ticket 3

Basic linguistic dictionaries

There is a special branch of science dealing with the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries. It is called lexicography.

All dictionaries are divided into linguistic and encyclopedic. Encyclopedia presents in a concise form the current state of scientific knowledge in any field, i.e. describes the world, explains concepts, gives biographical information about famous personalities, etc.

The explanatory part of encyclopedic dictionaries and terminological reference books is much more meaningful than the explanatory part of linguistic dictionaries.

Encyclopedic and terminological dictionaries include the "Great Soviet Encyclopedia", "Small Soviet Encyclopedia", "Children's Encyclopedia", "Medical Encyclopedia", etc.

В linguistic Dictionaries contain information about a word.

There are various types of linguistic dictionaries: explanatory, dictionaries of foreign words, etymological, orthographic, orthoepic, phraseological, dictionaries of synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, dictionaries of linguistic terms, syntactic dictionaries, etc.

Sensible dictionaries describe the meaning of words. S. I. Ozhegov's "Dictionary of the Russian Language" is widely distributed and well-known, containing more than 50 thousand words, each of which is given interpretations, accompanying grammatical, stylistic marks, and illustrations of use are given.

The Dictionary of the Russian Language in 4 volumes of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (the so-called Small Academic) is also very popular. There is the Big Academic Dictionary in 17 volumes and the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language, edited by D. N. Ushakov. A special place among explanatory dictionaries is occupied by the "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" by V.I. .

Compilation of a dictionary is fraught with great difficulties, since vocabulary is the most unstable level of the linguistic structure, which is difficult to systematize. The semantic structure of a polysemantic word is constantly updated. When describing the semantic structure, it is important to take into account the semantic and sense-unifying features of lexical meaning. If the former point to the originality of the meaning of the interpreted word, then the latter emphasize the similarity of words belonging to a certain thematic range. The explanatory part of the dictionary should be distinguished by the necessary completeness, exhaustion.

Related to the problem of polysemy is the question of which of the meanings of a polysemantic word should be considered the main one, in what sequence the existing meanings should be placed. The lexicographer should also take into account that in addition to polysemy, there is such a thing as homonymy. It is not always easy to determine when the different meanings of a polysemous word diverge to form new words.

The word with the whole system of its meanings, grammatical and stylistic marks, with the necessary illustrative material is dictionary entry. The structure of a dictionary entry depends on the dictionary type. Typically, a dictionary entry contains a heading, accentological and grammatical characteristics of the word, stylistic qualification, interpretation formula, selection of quotations-illustrations, reference of a historical and etymological nature, bibliographic reference.

The word that opens a dictionary entry is usually called heading, or headword.

In dictionaries, the correct stress is indicated, the main grammatical forms of the interpreted word are given. Such instructions are called grammatical marks.

At the end of a dictionary entry, various phraseological units are usually placed.

A necessary element of any dictionary is vocabulary - a list of words to be clarified, interpreted. A certain dependence is established between the vocabulary and the interpretation. The more complete the dictionary, the more obvious that the words included in it will be included in the detailed definition, in the explanatory part of the dictionary, and vice versa.

The origin of the word, its path in the language, historical changes in its composition are fixed historical и etymological dictionaries (for example, "Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language" M. Fasmera, "Etymological dictionary of the Russian language"N. M. Shansky).

In phraseological In dictionaries, you can find descriptions of fixed expressions, learn about their origin and use.

In 1967, edited by A. I. Molotkova The first special Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language was published, in which over 4000 phraseological units were explained. In 1980, V.P. Zhukov's "School Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language" was published, containing explanations of about 1800 of the most common phraseological units.

Information about the correct spelling of the word can be found in spelling dictionary, and about the correct pronunciation - in orthoepic.

There are dictionaries grammatical, containing information about the morphological properties of the word.

There are also dictionaries dedicated to the description of certain groups of vocabulary: synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms.

Ticket 4

Outstanding Russian scholars

The formation and development of linguistics as a science of language is associated with the names of such scientists as Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov, Alexander Khristoforovich Vostokov, Vladimir Ivanovich Dal, Alexander Afanasyevich Potebnya, Alexei Alexandrovich Shakhmatov, Dmitry Nikolaevich Ushakov, Alexander Matveevich Peshkovsky, Lev Vladimirovich Shcherba, Viktor Vladimirovich Vinogradov, Sergey Ivanovich Ozhegov, Alexander Alexandrovich Reformatsky, Leonard Yuryevich Maksimov.

С M. V. Lomonosov (1711-1765) began a serious study of the Russian language. One of the best poets of the 1757th century, a remarkable philologist, writer and teacher, Lomonosov created the first scientific Russian grammar (Russian Grammar, XNUMX). In this work, the scientist determined the speech norms of his time and laid the foundations of stylistics. Establishing grammatical and orthoepic rules, Lomonosov proceeds from his own observations of living speech.

Lomonosov is credited with developing a scientific classification of parts of speech and creating the theory of "three calms". The latter played an important role in the creation of a new literary language. The scientist divided the language into three styles: high, mediocre (medium) and low. The high style was intended for writing odes, heroic poems, solemn "words about important matters." Medium - for the language of theatrical plays, satires, poetic friendly letters. Low style - the style of comedies, songs, descriptions of "ordinary affairs". When using it, it was forbidden to use Church Slavonic words, preference was given to proper Russian, often common words.

The merit of another prominent Russian linguist, poet and translator - A. Kh. Vostokova (1781-1864) - is the creation of educational books on the Russian language, such as "Abridged Russian Grammar for Use in Lower Educational Institutions" (1831), which was reprinted 15 times, and "Russian Grammar ... Fuller Stated" (1831), reprinted 11 times . In "Russian Grammar" the scientist carried out "enumeration of the entire Russian language", examined its grammatical features at the level of science of his time.

A. A. Potebnya (1835-1891) - an outstanding Russian and Ukrainian philologist, who during his lifetime became famous for his incredible erudition. Being quite young, the scientist wrote the monograph "Thought and Language" (1862), which examined the relationship between language and thinking. His main work - "From Notes on Russian Grammar" in 4 volumes - is devoted to a comparative analysis of the Ukrainian and Russian languages, the history of the main grammatical categories, and a comparative study of the syntax of the East Slavic languages ​​- Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

A. A. Shakhmatov (1864-1920) - one of the most prominent philologists of the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. He mainly concentrated his scientific interests in the field of history and dialectology of the Slavic languages. Shakhmatov devoted more than two dozen works to the problem of the origin of the languages ​​of the East Slavic group. In the last years of his life, he taught at St. Petersburg University a course on the syntax of the Russian language, based on the handwritten materials of which, after the death of the author, the famous "Syntax of the Russian Language" was published. Many modern syntactic theories go back to this work.

A. M. Peshkovsky (1878-1933) he was the first in the history of Russian linguistics to show that intonation is a grammatical tool, that it helps where other grammatical means (prepositions, conjunctions, endings) are unable to express meaning. One of Peshkovsky's best works is "Russian Syntax in Scientific Illumination" (1914) - a witty and full of subtle observations monograph in which the author seems to be talking with his students. Together with them, he observes, reflects, experiments, forcing the reader to become a conscious user of the Russian language.

L. V. Shcherba (1880-1944) - an outstanding Russian linguist and teacher - called for observations on the living facts of language and speech, for reflection on them. His work "On Parts of Speech in Russian" (1928), in which he singled out a new part of speech - words of the category of state - clearly showed what grammatical phenomena are hidden behind the familiar terms "noun" and "verb".

Shcherba is the creator of the Leningrad phonological school. He was one of the first to turn to the linguistic analysis of the language of works of art. He wrote two experiences of linguistic interpretation of Pushkin's "Memories" and Lermontov's "Pine" poems.

V. V. Vinogradov (1895-1969) - an outstanding Russian philologist and teacher. His name entered the history of culture not only in our country, but throughout the world. He is credited with creating two linguistic sciences: the history of the Russian literary language and the science of the language of fiction. His books "Language of Pushkin", "Language of Gogol", "Pushkin's Style", "Lermontov's Prose Style" are of great interest to both the specialist philologist and the entrant.

Significant are the merits of Vinogradov in the field of lexicology and phraseology. He created a classification of the types of the lexical meaning of the word and the types of phraseological units that are still used in universities. Vinogradov is known to many as the creator and editor-in-chief of the journal "Problems of Linguistics", as the president of the International Association of Teachers of Russian Language and Literature.

The scientific heritage of the scientist is extremely extensive and diverse in terms of issues. He created more than 250 works. One of the central places among them is occupied by the monograph "Russian language. The grammatical doctrine of the word." This is the most profound study of the morphology of the modern Russian language. The work was awarded the State Prize in 1951. Many foreign academies of sciences elected Vinogradov as their member.

A. A. Reformatsky (1900-1978) - a remarkable scientist-philologist. He gained fame in wide circles thanks to the famous textbook for university students "Introduction to Linguistics". His scientific interests are extremely diverse, and his works are devoted to various problems of language: phonetics, word formation, vocabulary, writing theory, the history of linguistics, the relationship between language and speech. Together with other prominent linguists - Kuznetsov, Sidorov and Avanesov - Reformatsky was the founder of the Moscow phonological school, the ideas of which are still being developed today.

The names of prominent Russian linguists are not known in the same way as, for example, the names of great physicists. However, each of them made a significant contribution to the science of language. To remember these names and to know about the theories and discoveries of Russian scholars is the duty of any, even a novice philologist.

Ticket 5

Sources of richness and expressiveness of Russian speech

Vocabulary is a collection of words in a given language. The vocabulary of the Russian language has tens of thousands of words. The vocabulary embodies the processes and results of human cognitive activity, reflects the development of the culture of the people.

The vocabulary of the language is in constant motion: some words go out of use, others appear, as new realities arise in the life around us that require a name. The science that studies the vocabulary of a language is called lexicology. Its subject is primarily the lexical meaning of the word, i.e., the content assigned to it in society.

Lexicology allows you to realize how rich and expressive Russian speech is.

The lexical system of the Russian language is changeable, mobile, dynamic. Some words go away together with the reality that they denoted, or are replaced by others (the word neck replaced "vyyu", hand - "right hand"). Some words disappeared because they could not stand the competition with others, more commonly used: thief - thief, cheeks - cheeks, etc. This archaisms. They give speech solemnity, elation.

Sometimes not the whole word becomes obsolete, but only one of its meanings. For example, the word vulgar has lost its meaning "ordinary, hackneyed" and has acquired a completely different connotation in modern language.

At the same time, new objects appear in our life, new concepts arise, and this entails the need to define them. This is how new words are born. They are usually called neologisms. For example, spaceport, honorik (a mix of mink and ferret), bionics.

The vocabulary of the Russian language is enriched in different ways, the most important of them is word formation, i.e., the emergence of new words by constructing them from the morphemes available in the language according to known models. The method of new words appearing by developing new meanings from existing ones (semantic derivation) is widespread. A certain part of the words appears as a result of borrowings from other languages. This process has become very active in recent years due to numerous foreign contacts. Examples: voucher, leasing, broker, clearing, barter, dealer, investment, etc. All Russian words can be divided into two groups: primordialthat arose on Russian soil, and borrowedcoming from other languages.

A lot of words got into the Russian language from other languages: Greek (lamp, icon, sexton, bible), Latin (school, revolution, exam, linguistics), Turkic (pencil, sundress, chest), German, Dutch (soldier, officer, headquarters , bill), etc.

However, the main source of replenishment of the vocabulary of the language is not borrowing, but the formation of new lexical units on the basis of the native language, by using various methods of word formation.

In Russian, there are the following ways of forming words:

1) suffix:

fly - pilot, educator - educator, scatter - scatter-yva-n-s, cold - cold-ovate;

2) prefixal:

to swim - to swim, to swim, you to swim; dark - over-dark; sleepy - sleepless; friend - non-friend;

3) pristavochno-suffixal (a prefix and a suffix are added to the generating stem at the same time):

beard - under-beard-ok, scream-ra-shout-sya;

4) unsuffixed:

cross - transition ?, blue - blue ?, deaf - wilderness ?, fly - flight ?;

5) addition:

a) without a connecting vowel: raincoat, sofa bed, launch vehicle;

b) with a connecting vowel: dry fruits - dried fruits, wagon repair - wagon repair, factory + bird - poultry farm;

c) addition with suffix: mow hay - senоmower;

d) merging words based on the phrase: evergreen, long-playing;

e) merging words based on the sentence: tumbleweed;

6) abbreviation (formation of compound words).

Wherein:

a) initial letters can be combined - MGU, MPGU;

b) sounds can be combined - university, traffic police;

c) only the first word can be abbreviated - salary, savings bank;

d) parts of two words can be abbreviated - prodmag;

7) words can also be formed by transition from one part of speech to another:

Sick (adj.) baby crying. Sick (n.) groaned softly. He left, through (germ.) doctor for help. thanks (pretext) the doctor's help made him feel better;

8) new words may appear as a result of the development of new meanings for words that have existed in the language for a long time (a shell or a bread box to denote garages).

The richness and expressiveness of Russian speech determines the presence of various groups of words in the vocabulary of the language.

The first of them - synonyms (words similar in lexical meaning: brave - courageous, courageous, courageous, daring). Synonyms belong to the same part of speech. They may vary:

a) stylistically: potatoes (colloquial) - potatoes (neutral);

b) by compatibility with other words: brown hair, brown wool, brown eyes;

c) by frequency of use: postman - letter carrier, thermometer - thermometer.

Synonyms form synonymous series: pilot - pilot, aviator; homeland - fatherland, fatherland. The word, stylistically neutral and most commonly used, is the main one in this series.

Synonyms allow you to diversify speech, avoid using the same words. And writers skillfully use them, not mechanically replacing a repeated word, but taking into account the semantic and expressive shades of the words used.

Another group of words antonyms (words related to the same part of speech, but having opposite meanings: friend - enemy, heavy - light, sad - fun, love - hate). Not all words have antonyms. If the word is ambiguous, then each meaning can have its own antonym: a bad bucket is a whole bucket, a bad deed is a good deed. The opposition of antonyms in speech is a vivid source of speech expression that enhances the emotionality of speech: newand prejudice old (A. Griboyedov); to me sadly because gaily you (M. Yu. Lermontov), ​​etc.

Antonyms are constantly used in antithesis - a stylistic device, which consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, positions, states.

The phenomenon of antonymy is used to create a new concept by combining the contrasting words "Living corpse", "Optimistic tragedy", "Bad good man", etc. This stylistic device is called oxymoron.

Another group of words homonyms (words that sound the same, but different in meaning: key (spring) and key (for a castle), mink (animal) and mink (burrow), onion (plant) and onion (weapon)).

Homonyms can be complete (e.g. key, mink) or incomplete, coinciding in any form: glass (genus case from glass) and glass (3rd person of the verb to drain). Homonymy is often used in humorous works to achieve a comic effect.

Knowledge of the sources of richness and expressiveness of Russian speech allows not only to speak correctly and beautifully, but also to express your thoughts in writing, for example, in essays.

Ticket 6

Figurative means of phonetics of the Russian language

Speech is a stream of sounds. They are studied by a branch of the science of language called phonetics. A sound is the smallest unit that is spoken or heard. The sound does not have an independent meaning, but with the help of sounds one can distinguish the words: lamp-ramp, house - catfish, ox - led.

All sounds of the Russian language are divided into vowels и consonants. Vowel sounds are formed by an air stream that passes through the mouth and does not encounter any obstacles. They are made up of tone. In Russian, 6 vowels occurring under stress are - a, o, i, s, u, e.

Consonant sounds are formed when there is no free passage for the air stream in the oral cavity. The tongue may touch the teeth or the palate, the lips may close. The air stream has to overcome these obstacles, and then consonants are formed. There are quite a lot of them in Russian: hard sounds are hard and soft, voiced and deaf, some of them form pairs.

Sounds in the language are needed in order to distinguish words. This is the most important duty of sounds. If two sounds can independently distinguish words, then we have phoneme, i.e., a distinctive unit of language. For example: house - volume, д и т - phonemes; house - ladies, о и а - also phonemes, since they distinguish a given pair of words.

Words are created with sounds. Sounds, if they are not words (conjunctions, prepositions, particles, interjections), mean nothing, have no meaning. However, sometimes the meaning of a word is assigned to a separate sound included in this word. Let's take sound as an example. р, which is included in the words thunder, thunder, thunderstorm, peals, roar. The listed words have long been used by word artists to convey the natural phenomena corresponding to them. So, the poet Tyutchev in the poem "Spring Thunderstorm" intentionally includes words containing this sound:

Sound writing is one of the properties of expressive speech. The musicality of poetic texts implies penetration into the peculiarities of sounding speech, into its ability to impress not only with the meaning of words, but also with their sound.

The Russian phonetic system is flexible and expressive. Sounding speech is the main form of the existence of a language, and in a literary text each word is "larger than the same word in a general language text" (Yu. Lotman). In a work of art, more often in a poetic work, various methods are used to enhance the phonetic expressiveness of speech. One of the main figurative means of phonetics is a stylistic device, which consists in the selection of words of close sounding.

For example:

(A. Pushkin)

The vowels [o] and [a] and the consonants [p], [p], [t] are repeated here. This makes the verse musical and vivid. Depending on the quality of the repeated sounds, there are alliteration и assonance. Alliteration is the repetition of consonant sounds. For example: A roar of thunder passed through the blue sky (S. Marshak). A voiced trembling [p] in combination with [g] creates the impression of a thunderclap.

Assonance called the repetition of vowels: It's time, it's time, the horns blow. (A. Pushkin). Assonance is based on stressed vowels, since vowels often change in an unstressed position. Examples of assonance: I quickly fly along cast-iron rails, I think of my own thought. (N. Nekrasov). The sound [y] is repeated, giving the impression of a humming rushing train.

Another method of sound recording is onomatopoeia - the use of words that, by their sound, resemble the auditory impressions of the depicted phenomenon. For more than two centuries, the lines of A. Sumarokov have been a model of onomatopoeia, where the croaking of frogs is depicted as follows: Oh, how, how we, gods, should not speak to you!

Rhyme, this striking feature of the verse, is also based on the phonetic capabilities of the Russian sound system - on sound repetitions:

(M. Lermontov)

An important means of organizing poetic speech is accentuationIt rhythmically organizes the poem.

So, sound recording - one of the most powerful poetic techniques, which consists in a careful selection of a combination of sounds, the use of words that, by their sound, resemble the auditory impression of the depicted phenomenon. The repetition of consonants is called alliteration, and vowels - assonance.

Ticket 7

The main elements of intonation (logical stress, pause, increase - decrease in voice, tone of speech, etc.)

Words are divided into syllables. Not all syllables have the same length and strength. One of the syllables in the word is distinguished by the greatest strength and duration of the pronunciation of the vowel sound. It's called percussion. The Russian language is peculiar power accent.

Emphasis - this is the musical tone to which the word is tuned, that "voice" by which we recognize the word. All words that are independent parts of speech usually have stress. The assimilation of the correct stress is associated with a number of difficulties due to its features.

The first is that the stress in Russian words is not attached to a specific syllable in the word (as, for example, in most Turkic languages, in French (where the stress falls on the last syllable), in Polish (the stress is on the penultimate syllable), in Czech and Hungarian (accent - on the first syllable)). This accent is called free, it can be on any syllable of the word.

The second feature of Russian stress is its mobility, its ability to change its place depending on the form of the word. For example, the verb understand in an indefinite form has an accent on the second syllable, in the past tense in the masculine gender it moves to the first syllable - p'understood, and in the feminine - to the last one - understood'a.

There are also large groups of words that change stress depending on the form among verbs. These are the verbs to live, to be, to twist, to pour, to give, to drink and their prefix formations. The scheme of their stress is bizarre and, moreover, changes over time. Only the feminine form of the past tense remains unchanged - with an emphasis on the ending.

The mobility of Russian stress leads to the need, along with the formation of forms, declension, conjugation of words, to be attentive and to stress, which, apparently, does not remain constant. This is the difficulty of the language, but also one of its colors, when the word in different forms sounds in a new way.

These two properties of Russian stress are taken into account in Russian versification, which is based on the number of syllables and the number of stresses, as well as on the ratio of stressed syllables to unstressed ones. Such a verse is called syllabotonic (syllable-stressed). In syllabothonic versification, five main sizes are distinguished: iambic, trochee, amphibrach, dactyl, anapaest.

The third feature of Russian stress is its variability over time. Language serves society, it develops, improves, changes.

Any statement is pronounced with some intonation. Differences in intonation depend on the change of four acoustic components:

The fundamental tone of the voice (the more frequent the vibrations of the vocal cords, the higher the fundamental tone);

sound intensity;

sound duration (the more sounds are pronounced per unit of time, the shorter their duration, the faster the pace of speech);

The degree of distinctness of the timbre, i.e. the quality of the sounds.

Changes in these primary components of intonation are caught by ear and more accurately calculated on special equipment: oscilloscopes, intotonographs, sonographs.

Each speaker has his own average tone of speech. But in some places of the phrase there is an increase or decrease in tone. Such a movement of tone up or down from the middle level is called intonation. In scientific linguistics, the concept of intonation also includes changes in the intensity, duration, timbre of a speech tact and phrase.

In Russian, six intonational structures can be distinguished (abbreviated as IK). Each of them has a center - a syllable, on which the main stress falls (bar, phrasal or logical), pre- and post-center parts (in some cases they may be absent). The part that is in front of the center is usually pronounced in the middle tone. One IR is distinguished from another by the direction of movement of the tone in the center and after the center:

First IC: on the vowel of the center there is a decrease in tone, the tone of the post-center part is below average;

· second IC: the center vowels are pronounced almost the same as the pre-center vowels, and the tone of the post-center part is below average;

third IC: on the center vowel, the tone rises sharply, and in the post-center part it is below average;

fourth IC: on the vowel of the center, the tone rises sharply, the tone of the post-center part is also above average;

Fifth IC: has two centers: on the vowel of the first center, an ascending tone movement, on a vowel of the second center or on the next vowel - descending, the tone between the centers is above the middle, the tone after the center is below the middle;

sixth IC: on the vowel of the center, the tone rises, the tone of the post-center part is higher than the middle one.

Intonation distinguishes sentences of different types, reflects the speaker's neutral or subjective attitude to the content of the statement, conveys various shades of emotions.

Intonation is closely related to punctuation, although, of course, punctuation cannot be based on it alone.

For example, in the sentence: "Tired children quickly fell asleep", a comma can be placed after the word tired, if the definition is given an additional adverbial meaning of the reason, and then it should be highlighted intonationally.

So, any statement is pronounced with intonation. Intonation - the phenomenon is complex, it consists of several components:

1) in each phrase there is a logical stress, it falls on the word that, in terms of meaning, is the most important in the phrase. With the help of logical stress, you can clarify the meaning of the statement, for example: a) Tomorrow we will go to the theater (and not next week); b) Tomorrow we(our class, not another) let's go to the theater; c) Tomorrow we let's go to the theater (but we won’t go); d) Tomorrow we will go to theater (and not to the circus);

2) intonation consists of rises and falls of the voice - this is the melody of speech. It has its own in every language;

3) speech is accelerated or slowed down - this forms its pace;

4) intonation is characterized by the timbre of speech, depending on the target setting;

5) a pause - a stop, a break in the movement of tone - always happens on the border of phrases, but it can also be inside a phrase. It is very important to pause in the right place, since the meaning of the statement depends on this: How surprised his words / brother! How surprised him / the words of his brother! There are pauses logical (semantic) and psychological (dictated by feelings).

Ticket 8

Using words in a figurative sense to create paths

Many words in Russian have several meanings at the same time. This phenomenon is called multiplicity or polysemy. For example, the word golden has the following meanings:

1) made of gold (gold jewelry);

2) the colors of gold, yellow (golden hair, golden field);

3) very good, valuable (gold worker), happy, joyful (golden time of youth); dear, beloved (my golden girl).

The connection between these meanings is obvious: the name of one concept is, as it were, transferred to another. The first meaning is direct, the rest are figurative. Figurative meanings can be related to direct ones on the basis of similarity (for example, appearance, color), but these connections can be more complicated - on the basis of adjacency (gold is a valuable metal, and on the basis of value, the last three values ​​\uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbare related to the first).

Words and expressions used in a figurative sense, creating figurative representations of objects and phenomena, are called trails. Among the tropes, metaphor, metonymy, personification, etc. are distinguished.

One of the tropes of artistic speech is metaphor - a word or expression used in a figurative sense based on similarity. Even Aristotle noted that "to compose good metaphors means to notice the similarities ..."

Any metaphor is based on an unnamed comparison of some objects with others that have a common feature, but which, in our view, are associated with a completely different range of phenomena. In a metaphor (as opposed to a comparison), the object that is figuratively characterized with the help of a trope is not called. For example, Pushkin calls his youth spring: "You have reconciled yourself, my high-flown dreams of spring," using the figurative meaning of this word: it's time to flourish, youth. Often he metaphorically calls the end of life a sunset, using the figurative meaning of this word (end, outcome):

Then the romance in the old way will take my cheerful sunset;

And, perhaps, on my sad sunset, love will shine with a farewell smile.

In a metaphor, a writer or poet creates an image - an artistic representation of the objects, phenomena that he describes, and the reader catches, understands exactly what similarity the semantic connection between the figurative and direct meaning of the word is based on. Endowing inanimate objects with signs and properties of a person is called personification.

One of the poetic tropes is comparison, i.e., the convergence of two phenomena in order to clarify one through the other. In any comparison, one can distinguish the object of comparison, the image of comparison and the sign of similarity.

Comparisons are different in structure. Most often they act in the form of a comparative turnover, joined with the help of conjunctions like, exactly, as if, as if, etc. Often there is a form of comparison expressed by a noun in the instrumental case: Letters smolder like ants on sheets (E. Bagritsky). There are comparisons that are transmitted in the form of a comparative degree of an adverb or adjective: A bush crawls out of the darkness, a furry bear cub (V. Lugovskoy); The earth was fluffier than the carpet under him (N. Tikhonov). There are comparisons that are included in sentences using the words similar, similar, reminiscent: There the ocean burns with fire like hell, and jellyfish look like lace skirts of ballerinas (K. Paustovsky).

A special form of figurative comparison are negative comparisons, in which one object is opposed to another:

(N. Nekrasov)

Such comparisons are especially typical for works of oral folk art. Like any other tropes, comparisons can be general linguistic and individual author's: blue as the sky, green as the grass, fast as the wind, bald as the knee. There are many general language comparisons in stable phrases: spinning like a squirrel in a wheel, stuck like a bath leaf, stupid like a cork.

Epithet - one of the types of trails. An epithet is an artistic definition, i.e. colorful, figurative, which emphasizes some of its distinctive properties in the word being defined. Any meaningful word can serve as an epithet, if it acts as an artistic, figurative definition for another:

1) noun (tramp wind; maiden rose);

2) adjective (silver birch, fatal clock);

3) adverb and gerund (looks greedily, rushing sparkling), but most often epithets are expressed using adjectives used in a figurative sense.

Epithets are one of the most common and beloved tropes by authors, with the help of which they concretize phenomena or their properties. Oral folk art is characterized by the so-called constant epithets. It is difficult to disagree that the best definition of the sea, immediately conjuring up its appearance, is the epithet blue, that it is better not to convey the vast expanse of the steppe than the epithet of the expanse of pure field. The girl in Russian fairy tales is characterized by the epithet red, and the good fellow is kind. In epics, the name of the enemy is inextricably linked, always associated with the epithets dog, thief. Mother earth is cheese - the heroes of epics and fairy tales affectionately call their homeland.

Ticket 9

Historical changes in the vocabulary of the language. Archaisms and historicisms

The Russian language is in constant motion and change. The vocabulary of the language changes by updating the vocabulary, accumulating new expressive means. Some of the obsolete words cease to be used, i.e., they become obsolete and enter the passive fund of Russian vocabulary.

Comparing, for example, the lexical system of the modern Russian language with the "Old Russian dictionary", we find not only quantitative changes, but also deeper, qualitative ones. These changes fall into several types.

Changes in the way items are named. Previously, in the days of Ancient Russia, objects were named based on the characteristics of their shape, material, and adjacency with other objects. Nowadays, the principle of naming an object according to its function, purpose is becoming predominant.

Changes in generic relations between concepts and their reflections in the dictionary. In the Old Russian language, there were such words as a table, a bench, a bench, an armchair, a bed, etc. However, there was no word furniture or any other that would unite all specific names.

The tendency to organize words into similar sets with the same generic name increases in subsequent stages of language development. Today it becomes especially obvious.

Change in synonymous relations between words, increase in synonymous rows.

Moving from the general to the particular, let us turn to concrete evidence of a change in the lexical system of the Russian language - historicism and archaism. Both of them are obsolete words. Examples: halberd, pischal, axe, this, zelo, etc.

The names of objects that were known only to our ancestors and fell into disuse are historicisms (halberd, pishchal, ax - the names of ancient weapons).

It may be so: the thing or concept remained, but their names left the language, were replaced by others. Such lost words archaisms: this - this one, green - very, lad - teenager, young man, thoughtful - reasonable. Archaisms may differ from modern words not entirely, but only in some sounds (or even one): piit - poet, fire - fire, vran - raven. it phonetic archaisms. If in the past the word had a different emphasis, then they speak of accent, or accentological archaisms: symbol, judge, ghost.

Another type of archaism - morphological; they are archaic in their morphemic structure: ferocity - instead of modern ferocity, nervous - instead of nervous, collapse - instead of collapse.

It happens that the appearance of a word is quite modern - its meaning is archaic. it semantic archaisms. Thus, the word shame, which we now use in the sense of "disgrace", in the old days meant "spectacle." Ordinary about a hundred and fifty years ago meant "made in one day", and not at all "ordinary, ordinary", as it is now. There are more phraseological archaisms. These are called obsolete stable combinations of words, sayings, idioms.

The reason for the appearance in the language of historicisms - in the change of life, customs, in the development of technology, science, culture. In place of one thing and relationships come others. For example, with the disappearance of such types of clothing as armyak, camisole, caftan, the names of these types of clothing left the Russian language. They can now only be found in historical descriptions.

Many historicisms are used by writers in their works, thus helping to "hear the feedback of a distant era." Take, for example, the "Bogatyr poem" by N. Aseev:

The princes rode on horseback in patterned cones; kmets in bast shoes repulsed the enemies in those stubborn battles.

Obsolete can be called a certain category of words that appeared not so long ago - in the Soviet era. Remember such words as educational program, dispossession, kulak, middle peasant, food requisition, tax in kind, socialist-revolutionary, Supreme Economic Council (Supreme Council of the National Economy), STO (Council of Labor and Defense), Rabkrin (Workers 'and Peasants' Inspectorate), etc.

But despite the fact that historicisms belong to passive vocabulary, their role is very important even in modern texts. The fact is that these words are necessary where it is necessary to display the color of the era, to talk about objects and phenomena of the past.

The main reason for the appearance of archaisms - in the development of the language, in updating its vocabulary - one word is replaced by another. The archaisms that are forced out of use do not disappear without a trace: they, like historicisms, are preserved in historical novels and essays - to recreate the life and language coloring of the era. Sometimes obsolete words are used in a new sense. So, the word dynasty has returned to the modern Russian language. Previously, it could only be combined with such definitions as royal, monarchical. Now they talk and write about working dynasties, dynasties of miners, lumberjacks, meaning families with an "inherited" profession. So, if historicisms often disappear without a trace from use, then archaisms have synonyms in modern Russian: this - this, mirror - mirror, zelo - very, cheeks - cheeks, eyes - eyes, etc.

Ticket 10

The main sources of replenishment of vocabulary. Neologisms

New objects constantly appear in our life, new concepts arise, and this entails the need to name them. This is how new words are born. They are usually called neologisms. It happens that neologisms are created by a specific person when he feels the need to name some kind of reality. As a rule, new words are invented by writers and scientists. More often, an already existing word has a new meaning, a semantic neologism arises. Often, neologisms arise on the basis of phrases according to the law of speech economy.

One of the main ways to enrich the vocabulary of the Russian language is word formation - the emergence of new words by constructing them from the morphemes available in the language according to known patterns.

A method of semantic derivation is widespread - giving existing words a new meaning.

Most neologisms are associated with the development of science, technology, culture. Many of these words are firmly entering our lives, losing their novelty and moving into an active vocabulary. For example, in the 50-70s. a large number of terms appear related to the development of astronautics: cosmonaut, cosmodrome, cosmic vision, telemetry, spacecraft, etc.; most of these words, due to their relevance, very quickly became common and entered the active vocabulary.

New words, as already noted, appear in different ways: some are formed according to models from the elements available in the language: mobile shop, snowmobile, cinema panorama, microdistrict, etc. Others are borrowed, for example, sports terms outsider, dribbling, stopper. On the basis of borrowed words in Russian, the formation and emergence of new words is also possible - rally, biathlete, lifter.

The first two groups of neologisms are called properly lexical, the last group is semantic neologisms. Language neologisms can perform not only a nominative, but also an expressive function.

The expressive-stylistic saturation of a word in most cases is associated with its semantic renewal and expansion of the context of its use. Contextual neologisms should be distinguished from linguistic neologisms, or individually-author's. Individual-author's neologisms are words that are formed by word artists, publicists, etc. in order to enhance the expressiveness of the text. Unlike linguistic neologisms, such neologisms perform not a nominative, but an expressive function, they rarely pass into the literary language and are widely used.

Like linguistic neologisms, individual author's neologisms are formed according to the laws of the language, according to models from morphemes available in the language, therefore, even taken out of context, they are understandable: to rise high, to rise, to chamber (Mayakovsky); prosin, divination (herbs), ringing, cone-finned, loosen, pannost (Yesenin), etc.

As a rule, each new word in a language is formed according to some word-formation scheme or model.

The most common is foundation. One of the components of such new words are: cosmo-, radio-, electro-, glass-, etc. For example: radio astronomer, electromusic, film university, super-powerful, ultra-long-range, radio emission, television review, super lightning, spaceport, television review, etc.

There are other, also quite common ways of forming neologisms - suffix and prefix: dock, antimatter, unmanned, antiparticle, organize, engage, etc.

Neologisms can also be formed by adding diminutive or augmentative suffixes. For example: transports, careless, acmeists, futurists, huge, etc.

According to the composition, neologisms can be divided into several groups:

1) the names of new branches of knowledge (aeronomy, interoscopy, exobiology, etc.);

2) names of new mechanisms and devices (driver, chemotron, mosquito, etc.);

3) names of new substances and materials (glass fiber, kormobakterin, benzolone, etc.).

Some words from passive vocabulary moved into the category of active and became neologisms. These words include the following: democratization, citizenship, priority, publicity, social justice, etc.

Ticket 11

Origin of words: native Russian and borrowed words. Old Church Slavonicisms

Vocabulary of the Russian language - the system is changeable. Its lexical layer is constantly updated with new words, this is the most changeable part of the language system.

In the vocabulary of the Russian language, two main layers of words can be distinguished depending on their origin: original Russian vocabulary and borrowed vocabulary. Native Russian vocabulary refers to those words that were formed directly in the Russian language in different periods of its development.

There are several groups of native Russian words:

1. Common Slavic words, which entered the Russian language from the Slavic language-base. These are, for example, the names of persons by kinship (brother, sister, mother, father); the names of some tools and household items (plow, plow, pitchfork, chisel); names of persons according to their occupation (weaver, reaper); the names of the dwelling (house, yard), etc.

2. East Slavic (or Old Russian) words that arose in the Russian language around the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. There are a lot of such words, they are common for the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, which constituted a single East Slavic language.

3. Actually Russian wordsthat have appeared since the XNUMXth century. after the division of the East Slavic language into Ukrainian, Belarusian and Russian. This includes all words except borrowed ones.

A special group of borrowed words are old Slavonicisms. So it is customary to call the words that came from the Old Slavonic language, the most ancient language of the Slavs. Old Slavonicisms have some distinctive features. Here is some of them:

1) disagreement, i.e. combinations of ra, la, re, le in place of Russian oro, olo, ere, barely (enemy - enemy, sweet - malt, milky - milky, breg - coast);

2) combinations of ra-, la- at the beginning of a word in place of Russian ro-, lo- (work - a grain grower, boat - a boat);

3) a combination of railway in place w (alien - alien, clothes - clothes, driving - I drive);

4) u in place of the Russian h (lighting is a candle, power is power, burning is hot);

5) initial a, e, u instead of Russian I, o, y (lamb - lamb, one - one, young man - take away);

6) in the Russian language there are quite a lot of morphemes of Old Slavonic origin: suffixes - eni-, -enstv-, -zn-, -tel-, -yn- (unity, bliss, life, guardian, pride); suffixes of adjectives and participles: - eysh-, -aysh-, -ash-, -usch-, -om-, -im-, -enn- (kindest, bitterest, burning, running, led, kept, blessed); prefixes: voz-, from-, bottom-, through-, pre-, pre- (repay, regurgitate, overthrow, excessively, despise, prefer), etc.

Getting into the composition of the Russian vocabulary, Old Slavonicisms were distributed into three main groups. The first group includes words that, having entered the Russian language, completely replaced their Russian equivalents, for example cloud, good, between, before, vegetables, enemy, good, captivity, burden, time, etc. The second group includes those Old Slavonicisms , which exist together with Russian variants of words, for example, head (head), power (volost), seduce (turn), dust (gunpowder). As for the third group, it includes those words that are the so-called stylistic reserve in the language, for example: vran (raven), blato (swamp), etc.

In addition to Old Slavonicisms, words from other languages ​​also entered the Russian language. From Greek in ancient times came many names from the field of religion (lamp, angel, demon, kliros, etc.), scientific terms (geography, mathematics, philosophy), names from the field of science and art (anapaest, comedy, trochee) . There are many scientific and socio-political terms from Latin in Russian: revolution, constitution, evolution, vertical, etc. Borrowings from Western European languages ​​are significant and are explained by numerous contacts with these peoples. Many words came from German and Dutch in the era of Peter I in connection with his reforms (from German - guardhouse, camp, freight; from Dutch - harbor, pilot, flag). From English borrowings are actively penetrating into our language at the present time: briefing, clearing, etc. From French, there are many everyday names, from the field of art: bracelet, medallion, coat, etc.

There is also a special type of borrowing, which is called "tracing paper". Translated from French, it means dictionary copy. As for the Russian language, there are two types of it: derivational tracing paper and semantic tracing paper.

Word-building tracing paper - these are the words that are formed according to foreign language schemes, but with the help of Russian roots and word-building elements. For example, from the Greek language (anomia - lawlessness, simfonia - consent, autocrateia - autocracy, etc.); from the Latin language (insectum - insect, intelligentia - intelligence, oxigenium - oxygen, 1agricultura - agriculture, etc.).

In addition to cripples, there are varieties of them called semi-tracing paper - words, one part of which is not translated into Russian, but can be transmitted through their morphemes. Some words are both tracings and semi-tracings, such as antisocial, antisocial, intramuscular, etc.

Ticket 12

Phraseological units of the Russian language. Sources of phraseological units. Idioms

Before we start talking about phraseological units, let's define what phraseology is. Phraseology is the science of set phrases. Phraseology can be called stable phrases of a particular language.

In order to understand what phraseologisms are, let's look at a few examples. For comparison, let's take the following phrases: "red scarf" and "red corner". The first phrase can be called free, because instead of the adjective "red" you can use any other adjective, for example, green, yellow, white, black, etc. As for the second phrase, its meaning will be lost if the adjective "red" is replaced to any other. Such a phraseological combination can be called non-free or stable.

There is a classification of phraseological phrases developed by academician V. V. Vinogradov. According to it, there are phraseological fusions, phraseological units and phraseological combinations. Thus, phraseological units differ in the degree of cohesion of the components. If it is maximum, then these are phraseological fusions, for example, to get into a mess, to beat the thumbs, without hesitation. Phraseological fusions are also called idioms. They cannot be divided, decomposed or translated into other languages.

There are also many such phraseological fusions, which include both archaisms and historicisms, for example:

· a goal like a falcon, which means "a ram, a smoothly planed pillar";

· as the apple of an eye - "pupil";

· get into a mess, i.e. "into the machine for weaving ropes";

turuses on wheels - "a mobile tower for the siege of fortresses", etc.

If the connection between the components is smaller, it is phraseological units (pull the strap, lather the neck). Here, the total value is the sum of the values ​​of its components. For example, holding a stone in your bosom, dancing to someone else's tune, making an elephant out of a fly, etc.

Thus, neither in phraseological unions, nor in phraseological units there are words with a free meaning.

In phraseological combinations, one member of a phraseological unit has the so-called limited, associated use, and the second is free: a sensitive issue, fraught with consequences, pitch darkness.

Sometimes idioms are referred to as phraseological expressions. This includes proverbs, sayings, winged words and expressions.

The composition of the Russian language includes a large number figurative phraseology. It is characterized by a high degree of expression. In this regard, a large number of it can be found in fiction, as well as in journalistic literature.

The sources of phraseological units of the Russian language are diverse. The main part of phraseological units of the Russian language is of native Russian origin. As sources, one can single out: professional speech (sharpening folly, hitting bucks), jargon (rubbing glasses, a bit card, going for broke - with gamblers) and colloquial speech.

The source of the original phraseology is turns from the works of writers: happy hours are not observed (A. Griboyedov); affairs of bygone days (A. Pushkin); and the chest just opened (I. Krylov); knight for an hour (N. Nekrasov); a living corpse (L. Tolstoy), etc. Such set expressions from fiction and journalism are usually called popular expressions.

Phraseological units are almost always bright, figurative expressions. Therefore, they are an important expressive means of language used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and pictorial characteristics of heroes, surrounding reality, etc. For example, K. Paustovsky in the novel "Smoke of the Fatherland", characterizing the action of one of the heroes, instead of Words without hesitation, thoughtlessly uses phraseologism headlong: She was attracted to him by childishness, a tendency to get carried away headlong, chivalry, an ironic attitude towards himself.

Sometimes writers use phraseological units in a modified, re-arranged form. In these cases phraseologism acquires new aesthetic qualities. For example, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin uses the phraseologism to poke his nose somewhere, expanding it: Censorship is used to sticking its stinking nose into the very sanctuary of the writer's thought.

Phraseological units are almost always bright, figurative expressions. Therefore, they are an important expressive means of language used by writers as ready-made figurative definitions, comparisons, as emotional and pictorial characteristics of heroes, the surrounding reality, etc. In modern Russian there are a large number of winged expressions that have entered our speech from works of fiction .

One of the most important features of phraseological turnover is its constant lexical composition. For example: "stumbling block", "living on knives", "kuzkina mother", etc. But nevertheless, the Russian language is rich in phraseological phrases in which the lexical composition varies.

Ticket 13

Lexical means of expressive speech

Vocabulary occupies a central place in the system of figurative language means. The word, as is known, is the basic unit of the language, the most noticeable element of its artistic means. And the expressiveness of speech is associated primarily with the word. Many words have the ability to be used in several meanings. This property is called ambiguity, or polysemy. Writers find in ambiguity a source of vivid emotionality, liveliness of speech.

The figurativeness of speech is created through the use of words in a figurative sense. Words and expressions used in a figurative sense and creating figurative representations of objects and phenomena are called tropes. The following trails stand out: metaphor - a word or expression used in a figurative sense based on similarity.

Another type of trail metonymy. This is a word used in a figurative sense based on contiguity.

Epithet - this is an artistic definition: When would you know how lonely, languidly sweet, insanely happy, I am drunk with grief in my soul ... (A. Fet)

Comparison It is a comparison of two phenomena in order to determine one by means of the other.

Personification - transferring the properties of living beings to inanimate objects:

Polysemy should not be confused homonyms, i.e., words that coincide in sound and spelling, but are completely different in meaning: the key is “spring” and the key is “master key”. Different types of homonyms (homophones, homographs, homophores) are also a source of expressive speech.

Homonymous rhymes - bright means of sound game. I. Brodsky brilliantly owned it:

(Hills, 1962)

The expressiveness of speech enhances the use synonyms - words denoting the same concept, but differing in additional semantic shades or stylistic coloring. The beauty and expressiveness of a native speaker's speech can be judged by how he uses synonyms. Without mastering the synonymic richness of the native language, it is impossible to make your speech bright and expressive.

Antonyms occupy a special place in the system of expressive lexical means. Antonyms - these are different words related to the same part of speech, but having opposite meanings: friend - enemy, heavy - light, sad - fun, love - hate. Not all words have antonyms.

Antonyms are constantly used in antithesis - a stylistic device, which consists in a sharp opposition of concepts, positions, states.

has a powerful emotional impact on the reader. lexical repetition, when by repeating a word a key concept in the text is highlighted. In poetic works, such types of lexical repetition as a means of expression are used, such as anaphora and epiphora. Anaphora - this is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of the passages that make up the statement.

Epiphora - repetition of words or phrases at the end of lines.

The words of the Russian language differ in the scope of distribution. Some are used freely, unlimitedly and form the basis of the Russian literary language. Such words refer to common vocabulary. These are, for example, the names of phenomena, concepts of socio-political life (state, society, development, etc.); economic concepts (finance, credit, bank, etc.); phenomena of cultural life (theater, performance, actor, premiere, exhibition, etc.); household names (house, apartment, family, children, school, etc.).

The other part of the vocabulary is used to a limited extent. Here are the following groups.

Dialectisms - words, the distribution of which is limited to a particular territory. Russian writers and poets skillfully (and moderately) used dialect words as one of the means of expression.

The vocabulary of limited use also includes the so-called special vocabulary, i.e. words used and understood mainly by representatives of a certain science, profession. To such vocabulary belong, first of all, terms - words used for the logically accurate name of special concepts, establishing their distinctive features, for example, medical terms: scanning, shunting, inoperable; linguistic terms: polysemy, semantics, morpheme.

In addition to terms, special vocabulary distinguishes professionalism, i.e. words and expressions that are not strictly legalized, scientific definitions of certain professional concepts, but are widely used by specialists in a particular field.

The limitedly used vocabulary also includes words called jargon, which form the basis of a special social variety of speech - jargon. These words are used by people united by common interests, habits, occupations, social status, etc. In the language of fiction, elements of jargon are used to characterize some characters.

The vocabulary of limited, little-used includes the so-called argo, characterized by special artificiality, conventionality, strict secrecy.

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General grammatical meaning, morphological and syntactic features of significant parts of speech (on the example of one part of speech as directed by the teacher)

Words in Russian are divided into classes, which are called parts of speech. The modern scientific classification of parts of speech is based on the following features:

1) general grammatical meaning (of an object, action, attribute of an object, attribute of an action, quantity);

2) a general system of change (nouns are declined, adjectives are declined, verbs are conjugated, etc.);

3) general syntactic function.

According to these features, the following parts of speech are distinguished.

1. Noun denotes an object in a broad sense; has a gender, changes in numbers and cases; in a sentence it is usually the subject or the object.

2. Adjective denotes an attribute of an object; changes by gender, number and case, consistent with the noun; in a sentence, it performs the function of defining or nominal part of a compound predicate.

3. Name numeral denotes quantity; changes in cases; can be subject, predicate, object, definition.

4. Pronoun as a part of speech is distinguished in the school tradition on the basis of its inherent indicative function. Pronouns are words that do not name anything, but they can also indicate objects (you, nobody, someone, he), and signs (some, some, that), and quantity (how many, several).

5. Verb denotes an action or state; conjugates (changes in persons and numbers); most often in a sentence is a predicate.

6. Adverb denotes a sign of an action or sign, i.e., an adjective; does not change; is a circumstance, less often - a definition.

These are independent, or significant, parts of speech. In the proposal, they are its members. There are also service parts of speech that are not able to independently be members of the sentence:

1. Pretext serves to link words in phrases and sentences (in, due to, through, during, due to).

2. Union serves to connect homogeneous members of a sentence and sentences (a, but, for, as if, etc.).

3. Particle adds additional meaning to the sentence - denial, doubt, question, amplification, etc.: (didn't know about it; Didn't you know about it?; Even he didn't know about it; Did he know about it?).

There is also a group of onomatopoeic words and interjections that are not members of the sentence, do not name anything, but express feelings and motives. In speech, they act as inseparable sentences: Ah! Yes! Well! Hooray! Meow-meow, kitty-kitty.

Let's consider each group in more detail. So, noun - this is an independent part of speech, the most numerous in the Russian language. She names the phenomena of reality:

names of objects and things;

the names of living beings;

names of events and phenomena of social life;

names of natural phenomena;

The names of the substances

Names of abstract properties and features.

Thus, one of the main grammatical features of a noun is its objectivity. The composition distinguishes several groups of nouns:

Common nouns and own;

· abstract and concrete;

· animate and inanimate;

Collective and real.

К common noun include such nouns that denote generalized names of phenomena and objects. They name groups of homogeneous objects. Such nouns include, for example, a constellation, a river, a student, etc.

Own nouns name a specific object or phenomenon, for example, Russia, Germany, Yenisei, etc. In turn, proper nouns are divided into separate groups: names, nicknames, surnames of people (Nikolai, Chizhik, Bazarov); geographical and territorial names (Thames, Petrovka, Smolensk region, etc.); names of holidays, historical events, etc.

Inanimate nouns call inanimate objects, such as a car, house, machine tool, etc. a animate, on the contrary - live, for example, a badger, a mosquito, a fox, a person, a horse, a bear, etc.

Specific nouns name a specific object, events, facts, animal, etc.

Distracted nouns characterize abstract concepts, qualities, properties, actions.

Real nouns characterize a particular substance, oxygen, hydrogen, salt, etc.

Collective nouns combine many homogeneous objects into one whole, for example, youth, peasantry, merchants, etc.

Concerning adjective, then according to lexical and grammatical features they distinguish Quality и the relative.

Qualitative adjectives are characterized by the fact that they denote a feature that belongs directly to the subject. Qualitative adjectives are divided into several thematic groups according to the type of signs: signs of a person’s emotional state (sad, cheerful), signs of color, signs of space and place (narrow, spacious), signs of quality (bad, good), moral and intellectual signs (cowardly, heartless ).

Relative adjectives denote a sign indicating the relationship of this object to other objects. In turn, relative adjectives are divided into groups: self-relative (glassware, stone floor, iron railings); possessive adjectives (mother's hairpin, grandmother's cakes, bear's paw); ordinal adjectives (seventh day, first player, third marriage). Self-relative, in turn, are divided into several subgroups. They are conditioned by various relationships: attitude to action (drilling machine, dining table, washing machine); relation to time or place (station square, daily task); attitude to another object (coffee table, thundercloud, crystal vase). Sometimes, in figurative use, relative adjectives become qualitative (stone face, peaceful conversation, cordial conversation, steel muscles, golden hands).

There are several derivational types of possessive adjectives: adjectives with suffixes -on-, -ov- (father's hat, squirrel mink); adjectives with suffixes -sk- (Lermontov's poems, Turgenev's girls); adjectives with the suffix -j- (sheep's wool, wolf's paw); adjectives with the suffix -in- (rat tail, chicken egg).

У numeral also has a number of distinctive lexical and grammatical features. There are quantitative numerals (eight more than six), numerals of whole units and fractional numerals (one-fifth of crops). There is also a variety such as collective numerals (four, seven).

Several types of pronouns:

Pronouns-nouns (something, someone, you, I, he, someone, they, yourself);

Pronouns-numerals (as many as);

· pronouns-adjectives (mine, yours, which, what, whose).

Within the framework of pronouns, several lexical and grammatical categories are distinguished: personal and personal demonstrative pronouns (you, we, he, you, I); age pronoun (myself); definitive pronouns (all, every, each, different); demonstrative pronouns (this, that, such, both); possessive pronouns (ours, yours, mine, yours); negative pronouns (none, nobody, nothing); interrogative-relative pronouns (who, what, which, whose, which); indefinite pronouns (someone, someone, something, something, someone, someone, something).

Among adverbs there are two varieties:

Derivatives (formed from significant parts of speech);

non-derivatives (about, here, where, then, very, slightly).

Prepositions distinguish between primitives that arose a very long time ago. These include (for, on, from, over, under, through, for, before). There are derivatives, adverbs, verbal, denominative, compound, simple.

Particles introduce various semantic and modal shades into sentences. There are several types of particles: clarifying (exactly, precisely, just, exactly), pointing (there, here, this, that), excretory-restrictive (only, only, only, almost), intensifying (already, even, already, and), concessive (nevertheless, after all), interrogative (really, perhaps), incentive (let, come on, but well), affirmative and negative (by no means, exactly), formative and derivational. Interjections distinguish between emotional, incentive).

Sometimes some grammatical forms can be used in the meaning of others. Thus, speech is stylistically colored. Here we are talking about verb forms. For example, the present tense verb can be taken to denote the past. Thus, there is a visual representation of actions. Sometimes a verb in the present tense is used to indicate events that should happen in the near future: "Farewell, beloved city, we leave tomorrow for the sea."

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Synonymy of syntactic constructions

The Russian language has a huge stock syntactic synonyms, i.e., parallel turns of speech that differ in subtle shades in meaning and can in some cases replace one another: She was sad. - She was sad. - She felt sad. - She was sad!

Or: Ivanov, having made a decision, set to work. - Ivanov, after making a decision, got down to business. - After the decision was made, Ivanov got down to business. - Ivanov, who made the decision, got down to business.

In the following examples, the synonymy of syntactic constructions is represented by a comparison expression in Russian: took off like a falcon; took off like a falcon; took off like a falcon; took off like a falcon; flew like a falcon.

Two-part simple sentences with different types of predicates are synonymous: He was sick (compound nominal predicate). - He was sick (simple verb). - He began to get sick (compound verbal predicate); He's glad. - He rejoices. He became gray. - He is quite gray.

Syntactic synonyms also include real and passive phrases: The student read the book. - The book is read by the student; The plant exceeded the plan. - The plan was overfulfilled by the plant. The difference between these sentences is that in the actual turnover the subject of the action (student, factory) is put in the foreground, and in the passive the object becomes the main one in the message. Wed See also: The director called the master. - The master is called by the director. In the first sentence, the message refers to the director and his activities, and in the second, the master is the main character.

Sentences with isolated turns and complex sentences are synonymous: Fascinated by the game, the children did not pay attention to those who came up. - Since the children were passionate about the game, they did not notice the approachers; The boy sitting by the window stood up. - The boy who was sitting at the window got up; As she left the porch, she dropped her crutch and stood helplessly on the steps. - When she came down from the porch, she dropped her crutch and stood helplessly on the steps; I stepped aside, not knowing what to do. I stepped aside because I didn't know what to do.

A single gerund, denoting an accompanying action, can be replaced by a predicate verb, but at the same time, the shade of minority, additionality disappears: She smiled affectionately, nodding her head several times. She smiled kindly and nodded her head several times.

Synonymous relationships also appear in compound sentences, when parts are connected by synonymous connecting unions: Only somewhere the wheel rattles, and the nightingale whistles in the garden (and the nightingale whistles in the garden); The birches had blossomed, but the oaks stood bare. - The birches blossomed, the oaks stood bare; The soloist was not very good, but the choir was excellent. - The soloist was not good, but the choir was great.

Some semantic relations can be expressed both by compound and complex sentences. This is how syntactic synonyms arise, differing in stylistic shades or in the scope of use. Compound sentences are distinguished by liveliness, lightness, immediacy and therefore are more characteristic of colloquial speech: It became stuffy in the sakla, and I went out into the air to freshen up. - Since it became stuffy in the sakla, I went out into the air to freshen up.

There is a synonym for non-union complex sentences, compound and subordinate sentences: Winter will come - the pond will be covered with ice (union-free). - Winter will come, and the pond will be covered with ice (compound). - When winter comes, the pond will be covered with ice (complex). Another example: It will be a good day - we will go out of town. - It will be a good day, and we will go out of town. When it's a good day, we'll go out of town.

So, syntax has rich synonymic possibilities. In colloquial speech, the use of one- and two-part sentences is most common: I propose to start work. - I propose to start work. The second sentence is more dynamic, categoricalness is emphasized. Synonymous constructions: Lightning split the tree. - Lightning split the tree. - The tree is split by lightning. (If the doer is emphasized, it is expressed by the subject; if the action is important, an impersonal phrase is used, in a passive construction, attention is focused on the object.)

We can talk about the synonymy of participial phrases and subordinate attributive clauses, about the synonymy of compound and non-union sentences. Writers and poets skillfully use these means.

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Pictorial means of syntax: syntactic parallelism; rhetorical question, exclamation and appeal; repeated alliances and non-union, etc.

The most important function of language is communication. To fulfill this essential role, syntax, it is in the field of syntax that the moment of message, communication occurs.

Syntax - a branch of the science of language, which studies the structure and meaning of phrases and sentences.

Basic units of syntax - collocation и proposal. The sentence performs a communicative function, that is, it serves to communicate, question or induce, in other words, to communicate. Unlike a sentence, a phrase serves to specify the names of objects, actions, signs. For example: white birch, young birch, green birch, etc. A group of sentences closely related in meaning and grammatically forms complex syntactic integer.

Thus, phrases, sentences (simple and complex) and a complex syntactic whole are studied in syntax.

The syntax of a phrase sets the rules for matching words. These rules are determined by the grammatical features of the word as a particular part of speech. For example, phrases like early spring are possible because a noun as a part of speech is able to attach an adjective, subordinating it to itself, and an adjective as an agreed part of speech can take the form dictated by the noun (gender, number, case). This type of connection is called agreement.

Phrases such as read a book, talk with a friend are based on the grammatical properties of the verb as a part of speech capable of subordinating nouns to itself. This type of connection is called control.

In some cases, the connection in phrases is determined by the meaning and order of words. This type of connection is called adjoining.

The types of syntactic connection in a sentence are wider, more diverse than in a phrase.

Distinguish simple and complex suggestions. In a simple sentence, there is one grammatical center, one grammatical basis, in a complex one - at least two. Syntax also studies the ways of connecting parts of a complex sentence: coordinating and subordinating, intonation as a means of connecting parts of a complex sentence.

Words in a sentence are arranged according to certain laws. For the correct construction of a sentence, word order is essential, any rearrangement of the members of the sentence leads to a change in meaning, highlights, emphasizes a particular word. This is easily found in the simplest sentences, for example: Even he does not know this (he knows everything); He does not even know this (such an elementary thing); He does not even know this (i.e., he has not heard about it at all).

In Russian, direct and reverse word order (or inversion) are distinguished. In direct order, the subject precedes the predicate, the agreed definition is before the word being defined, the inconsistent definition is after it, the addition is after the control word, the circumstance of the mode of action is before the verb: The new foreman quickly set up the work of the brigade. This word order is called stylistically neutral.

RџSЂRё inversion (from Latin inversio - inversion) words are arranged in a different order than is established by grammatical rules. This is a powerful expressive tool. It is often used in emotional, agitated speech.

Visual means of syntax are commonly called stylistic figures. In a text, stylistic figures are usually represented by special syntactic constructions of a phrase, sentence, or group of sentences.

Among the stylistic figures most often distinguished asyndeton и polyunion.

Asyndeton - intentional omission of connecting unions between members of a sentence or between simple sentences as part of a complex one. The absence of unions, as a rule, gives the statement dynamism, swiftness, allows one phrase to convey the richness of the pictures.

Unionless the combination of homogeneous members creates the impression of incompleteness, inexhaustibility of the enumerated series, and sometimes emphasizes the logical heterogeneity of the connected concepts: Everywhere under the lazy wind, the wings of mills, manors, farmsteads, houses with steep tiled roofs, with stork nests, rows of low willows along ditches (A. N . Tolstoy).

Such constructions are typical for calm narrative speech.

Multi-Alliance - the intentional use of the same union to highlight (logical or intonation) the members of the sentence connected by it and enhance the expressiveness of speech.

In works of art, to enhance figurative and expressive speech, the authors use such a stylistic figure as anaphora (unity).

Anaphora - this is the repetition of individual words or phrases at the beginning of the passages that make up the statement.

Among the visual means of syntax, there are exclamation и appeal. Appeal - a word or combination of words that names the addressee. Most often, proper names act as an address, less often - the nicknames of animals or the names of inanimate objects. The appeal is not a member of the proposal, retaining its isolation. It is accompanied by its inherent vocative intonation.

In some cases, a lengthy appeal in poetic speech becomes the content of a sentence: A soldier's son who grew up without a father and matured noticeably ahead of time, you are not excommunicated from the joys of the earth by the memory of a hero and father (A. Tvardovsky).

So, the syntax has a huge expressive power. The following figurative means used in the syntax are known.

1. Syntactic parallelism - this is the same construction of several sentences, when the members of the sentence, equally expressed, are located in the same sequence.

2. Rhetorical question - this is an interrogative sentence in structure, but conveying, like a narrative, a message about something.

3. Handling - a bright expressive means of artistic speech. An address is a word or a combination of words that names the addressee. Most often, proper names act as an address, less often - the nicknames of animals or the names of inanimate objects. The appeal is not a member of the proposal, retaining its isolation. It is accompanied by its inherent vocative intonation. If in colloquial speech the main function of appeals is the name of the addressee of the speech, then in poetic appeals, in addition, they perform stylistic functions: they are often carriers of expressive and evaluative meanings

4. Non-Union consists in the intentional omission of connecting unions between members of a sentence or between simple sentences as part of a complex one. The absence of unions gives the statement dynamism, swiftness, allows one phrase to convey the richness of the picture. In literary works, authors often use polyunion, which consists in the deliberate use of the same union in order to highlight (logically and intonationally) the members of the sentence they connect and enhance the expressiveness of speech. Repeating unions, firstly, emphasize the incompleteness of the series, and secondly, they express the meaning of amplification.

5. Inversion - the arrangement of words in a different order than that established by grammatical rules. In inversion, the words are arranged in a different order than is established by the grammatical rules. This is a powerful expressive tool. It is often used in emotional, agitated speech.

Another pictorial syntax is period - such a complex sentence that contains a number of homogeneously constructed sentences (for example, subordinate clauses), usually beginning with the same conjunctions and having approximately the same size.

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Modern Russian literary language and language norm. Norms orthoepic, lexical, grammatical, spelling

According to the definition of the famous scientist Vinogradov, a literary language is a common language of writing of a particular people, the language of official everyday, documentary and written communication, science, journalism, fiction, all manifestations of culture, expressed in verbal form, more often in writing, sometimes oral. Literary language is characterized by several features, among which it should be especially noted:

Processedness (language means are selected from the general language inventory on the basis of certain criteria);

· fixation in writing; general obligation for all members of a given language community;

ability to function in all spheres of public life;

the ability to perform various functions (message, communication, impact);

The presence of stylistic differentiation (there are several styles in the literary language);

normalization (there are strict, mandatory rules for the selection and use of words).

The specificity of literary norms is their codification - selection and consolidation of certain forms of language means, as well as clarification of their use in normative manuals (dictionaries, textbooks, reference books).

The Russian literary language is characterized by variability (the presence of variants). Live speech serves as a source of variability. The literary norm is mobile in time. The norm is obligatory for all members of the language community. However, this phenomenon is not only a literary language (there are norms in dialects as well). The specificity of the literary norm is its processing and awareness. Literary norms are stable and conservative. One of the main features of a literary language is its normalization, that is, the presence of norms.

Language norm - this is a sample, this is how it is customary to speak and write in a given linguistic society in a given era. The norm determines what is right and what is not, it recommends certain language means and modes of expression and prohibits others. For example, you can’t say collidor, you should - a corridor, you can’t pronounce it calls - it only rings. Language norms are objectively formed in the process of language practice of members of society. Norms may change over time, but they are still stable over time. Compliance with the norms facilitates the use of literary language.

Norms permeate all tiers of the literary language. There are orthoepic norms, that is, pronunciation, prescribing how to put stress in a word, how to pronounce this or that sound. Lexical norms mean the correctness of the choice of the word and the appropriateness of its application. For example, the occurring expression goal scorer is undesirable. The cavalcade of the clouds is also incorrect, I wish you good success, since the word "cavalcade" means a group of riders on a walk, and success cannot be bad.

Grammar norms subdivided into morphological and syntactic. Morphological norms determine the correctness of the formation and use of word forms. For example, the normative form of the genitive plural is a lot of stockings, boots, but socks, you can’t make gestures when doing, you shouldn’t change indeclinable nouns: in a new coat, incorrect: better (simply - better) or smartest (smartest or smartest ). Syntactic norms regulate the formation of phrases and sentences, for example, when driving: you can’t talk shows that ... (shows what?), confidence in victory (in victory), the limit of patience (patience) has come, pay for travel (pay for h then?); After watching this movie, I felt sad (Watching this movie made me sad. Or: I felt sad after watching this movie).

Under spelling rules understand spelling and punctuation. Spelling norms - these are the rules for writing words, they are enshrined in spelling dictionaries, school textbooks in the Russian language and manuals. Punctuation norms dictate the rules for punctuation marks. They are set out in textbooks and manuals on the Russian language and in the "Rules of Russian Spelling and Punctuation" (1956).

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The principle of uniform spelling of morphemes is the leading principle of Russian spelling

There are many spelling rules related to the spelling of roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings. But the main, leading principle is one. Consider examples. Why in the word water in the root is written o, and in the word grass - a? Why different endings in the noun: from the village and to the village? Why should one write oak but soup? After all, the same sound [p] is heard. Why is sad spelled with the letter t, and tasty without it? There seem to be different spelling rules, but they can be combined based on the guiding principle of spelling, which requires the writer to:

1) did not trust his hearing and did not write as he hears;

2) checked dubious spellings;

3) remembered that verification is possible only in the same morpheme (root, ending, etc.);

4) knew how to choose the correct word.

The main thing is to know the strong positions: for vowels, this is the position. Thus, all rules have the same basis. They determine the leading principle of Russian spelling. This principle, when the sound is checked by a strong position, is called morphological. This principle is the most convenient for Russian writing.

The essence of the morphological principle of Russian spelling is that significant parts (morphemes) common to related words retain a single style in writing, although they differ in pronunciation depending on the phonetic conditions in which the sounds that make up the significant parts of the word are found. Regardless of pronunciation, the morphological principle of spelling is applied when writing roots (hod, walker, running - [hot], [had] ok, [khod] ovoy); suffixes (oak, linden - oak [ov] yy, lip [yv] yy); prefixes (sign, signature - [nbt] write, [pot] write) and endings (on the river, on the river - on the river [e], on the river [b]).

In addition to the morphological principle, which is the main one in Russian orthography, phonetic spellings, i.e. spellings corresponding to pronunciation. The most striking example of such spellings is the writing of prefixes ending in z: bez-, voz-, iz-, nid-, raz-, through-, through-. The final sound z in these prefixes before the deaf consonants of the root is stunned, which is reflected in the letter: soulless - stupid, head - exclaim, publish - interpret, overthrow - send down, smash - disband, excessive - interlace.

Finally, there is also traditional, or historical, spellings that are a relic of the past. An example here is the writing of a letter after the hard hissing w, ksh and after b: in the Old Russian language, the sounds [zh], [ksh] and [b] were soft and the writing of the letter after them was natural, as it corresponded to the pronunciation.

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The role of semantic and grammatical analysis in the choice of continuous, hyphenated and separate spelling

Continuous, hyphenated and separate spellings include different grammatical categories of words: compound nouns and adjectives, pronouns, numerals, adverbs, as well as writing particles with different parts of speech. The principles of writing such words are based both on the meaning of the word (its meaning), and on the distinction between a word and a phrase, and on taking into account the belonging of a word to one or another part of speech. For example, the spelling of complex adjectives such as hard-to-reach, fast-cutting, long-playing and free phrases based on the same words. To write correctly, one must take into account the syntactic feature: if the first component answers the question "how?", then it is an independent part of speech and is written separately: Children playing in the garden for a long time did not want to go home. - Long-playing records have now been replaced by CDs. It is also necessary to take into account the meaning of the word and its belonging to a part of speech when writing nouns and adverbs homonymous with them: We looked into the distance for a long time, but could not distinguish anything. - Call me into the bright distance (V. Shukshin); A field was visible in the distance. - In the distance, the blue smoke of a locomotive melted; Finally I understood everything. The trip has been postponed until the end of next month. The same preposition in time and adverb in time. Here, too, the place of emphasis changes.

Separately, phrases such as in my opinion, along the trail of a wolf, along the summer garden are written. But if the agreed words from these phrases become adverbs, they are written with a hyphen (dash): in my opinion, like a wolf, like a summer (warmly).

There are several rules for writing a word not with different parts of speech, but the general rule is this: if it is not a prefix in a word, it must be written together, if it is not a negative particle, then separately. For example: Unnecessary things (superfluous), stupid act (stupid). - These things are not necessary, as you think, but completely superfluous. - Your act is not smart, as you think, but rather stupid. When spelling numerals, it is important to take into account their structure: complex numerals are written together, and compound ones are written separately: two hundred - two hundred two, seventy - seventy eight.

There is a peculiarity in the spelling of pronouns with not and neither: they are written together without a preposition (no one, no one) and separately with a preposition (with no one, no one). In some cases, the correct spelling of words depends only on the knowledge of the basic rules of Russian spelling. Here are the most important ones:

Rules for merged writing. General rules

Are written concurrently all compound words (sberbank, trade union), words with prefixes (pre-war, infrared, trans-Iranian), compound nouns, adjectives, adverbs, the first element of which is a numeral (five-year plan, two-story, three times). Nouns are written together: compound nouns with the first element agro-, meteo-, aero-, bio-, micro-, neo-; inflected compound nouns with a verbal first part (hold a tree, a daredevil, a spinner). Compound adjectives are written together if they are formed from contiguous nouns (water supply - from water supply), if they are formed on the basis of a subordinating phrase (railroad - railway), if they denote a single concept (often these are terms: infrequent, instant). Adverbs are written together if they are formed by combining prepositions with adverbs (until now, forever, through and through), from collective numerals with prepositions in or on (twice, three times, four times), from a full adjective or pronoun with a preposition (hard-boiled, close, draw, with might and main ), from short adjectives with prepositions (to the left, dry, from afar, in vain), from a noun with a preposition (forward, sideways, crouching), by merging prepositions with a pronoun (why, because, therefore, why, why). Negative and indefinite pronouns are written together if there is no preposition between the root and "not" or "neither": nobody, somebody, nobody, nothing. Prepositions are written together: in view of, due to, like, instead of, like, about, over. Unions written together: but, moreover, moreover, so that, too, also, if, supposedly.

Hyphen rules. General rules

Are written through hyphen lexical formations, which are a repetition of the same word (small-small, barely) or a repetition of the same root (day-to-day, a long time ago, glad-radechonek); a combination of two synonymous words (unexpectedly, unexpectedly, quietly and peacefully, path-road); complex ordinal numbers, if they are written in numbers (183 millionth); ordinal numbers, if they are written in numbers with a grammatical ending (15th, 128th). Nouns are hyphenated if the compound word is formed without a connecting vowel (firebird, cafe-restaurant, prime minister), if they are the name of political parties and trends (social democracy, anarcho-syndicalism), complex units of measurement (human -day, kilowatt-hour), the name of the intermediate cardinal points (northeast, northwest), if the names of the compound noun contain a verb or conjunction (love-dislike, ivan-da-marya), with gender - followed by genitive case, if the noun begins with a vowel or consonant l or with a proper name (half-apple, half-lemon, half-Moscow), if the first part of the noun is foreign elements ober-, unter-, label-, headquarters, vice -, the ex-. Adjectives are written with a hyphen if they are formed from nouns written with a hyphen (social democratic, northeastern), formed on the basis of a combination of words with a coordinating connection (meat-milk, blue-white-red), denote a quality with an additional shade (bitter-salty, pale pink, bright red). Adverbs are written with a hyphen if they start with po-, and end in - om, - him, - ki, -i (in Russian, in bearish), as well as adverbs like first, second, etc. Complex prepositions because of, from under, over, over are written with a hyphen. Words with particles something, - like, - either, - something, - that, - that, - with, - de, are written with a hyphen (something, come on, etc.).

Separate spelling rules

Apart nouns are written with a preposition (along the road, past the houses, at the well); pronouns with a preposition (with no one, no one); adverbs formed by combining a preposition with a noun, if a certain word can be inserted between them: for a moment (for one moment), for a gallop (for the whole gallop), to a dead end (to such a dead end that), if the noun begins with a vowel, and the preposition ends in a consonant (in exchange, short cut, alone), if they are formed from nouns that have retained at least some case forms in combination with prepositions (squatting - squatting, on all fours - on all fours, abroad - abroad, under the arms - armpits); combinations of adverbs with not and neither (too much, beyond the power, not for thunder, not in a hurry); all particles, unless they are part of conjunctions or prepositions (no matter what I did, nothing came out; I heard the same thing; he did the same as I did).

Ticket 20

Punctuation as a way of reflecting in writing the semantic side of speech, its syntactic structure and intonational features

Punctuation - This is a section that studies the rules for punctuation, as well as the signs themselves. Punctuation is a very important means of writing writing.

Punctuation as an element of written speech is a kind of means of communication between people, and between people, both writing and reading. In this regard, two sides can be distinguished in it: what is relevant to the writer, and what is relevant to the reader. Thus, punctuation is a means of expressing certain meanings and shades of the writer, which he puts into a written statement. In turn, the reader, when he sees punctuation marks in the written text, perceives the meanings that they express.

In accordance with this, it should be concluded that both the meanings and shades that are expressed by punctuation marks should not be different for the writer and the reader. In accordance with this, the meaning of punctuation marks should be the same for all literate people.

Often, many people use punctuation marks without paying attention to their common usage. In this regard, there is a deviation from the basic rules of punctuation. There is nothing to worry about if incorrectly placed punctuation marks do not make it difficult to understand the text. Direct contact between the reader and the writer is established in this way only if generally accepted punctuation norms are observed.

Russian punctuation also reflects intonation: a dot in place of a large drop in voice and a long pause, question and exclamation marks, intonation dashes. For example, an appeal can be highlighted with a comma, but increased emotionality (and therefore a special intonation) dictates another sign - an exclamation point:

"It's me, mother," he said.

- Well, God is merciful, mother! - continued Judas (M. Saltykov-Shchedrin).

The choice of sign may depend entirely on intonation: It will rain, let's go to the forest. - It will rain - let's go to the forest. In the first example, there is a simple enumeration, in the second - the intonation of conditionality (When it rains, let's go to the forest). But it should be remembered that the intonation principle in Russian punctuation acts as a secondary one and is often violated in favor of the structural one: The deer digs the snow with its front foot and, if there is food, begins to graze (V. Arseniev). The Bashkirian stepped with difficulty through the threshold and, taking off his high hat, stopped at the door (A. Pushkin). In both cases, the comma stands after the union and, since it fixes the boundary of the structural parts (subordinate clause and adverbial turnover), but there is no pause after the union. Thus, the intonational principle is violated in favor of the structural one. In general, the intonational principle rarely operates in its pure form. Usually it is combined with the semantic and structural division of the sentence.

Thus, punctuation is closely related to intonation. There are different intonations in Russian. Firstly, intonation can act both as a means of conveying semantic shades and as an indicator of the emotional quality of speech.

For written genres, the importance of thoughtful and consistent punctuation will vary. So, for example, in business documents (reports, reports, statements, programs, etc.), the syntactic structure is simple, so the writer does not have to get confused in subtle shades of meaning. The situation is quite different with artistic speech, especially with prose. Since its main task is to reveal the meaning of the most important social phenomena, emotional experiences, human relationships, therefore, artistic speech uses all the possible techniques that the Russian language has.

Punctuation marks according to their functions are divided into two groups:

separating;

highlighting.

Separating punctuation marks are used to separate some parts of the text from others, the preceding sentence from the next immediately following it, one homogeneous member from another, etc. This also includes those punctuation marks that are placed at the end of the sentence. Thus, the separating punctuation marks include a period, an exclamation point, a question mark, a comma, a colon, a dash, an ellipsis, a semicolon. However, sometimes separating functions can play the role of separating ones.

Punctuation marks belonging to the second group are necessary to designate syntactic constructions inserted into a sentence as an addition, clarification, explanation, disclosure of the content of the sentence or its members. Emphasizing punctuation marks can also serve to designate syntactic constructions containing the name of the object or person to whom the speech is addressed. Such sentences, despite the complexity of the construction, are structurally integral, that is, they cannot be divided into separate sentences.

Ticket 21

Varieties of speech according to the form of language use (oral and written speech). Varieties of speech according to the nature of the participation of interlocutors in the process of communication (dialogic and monologue speech)

Depending on how the speaker uses the language, there are two forms of it: oral and written. Let's consider them in comparison.

Oral form:

primary in relation to writing. Initially, sound was the only, most natural form of the existence of language. The language was only spoken. And so far, in terms of the degree of use, oral speech clearly predominates;

oral speech is usually less prepared, it has more spontaneity, spontaneity, randomness, reservations, repetitions, interjections, unfinished constructions, "parasite" words;

oral speech has the means of sound expressiveness: tempo and timbre, pauses, logical stresses, sound power. In addition, it can be accompanied by gestures, facial expressions;

orthoepic requirements are imposed on oral speech (correct pronunciation of sounds, stress setting).

Written form:

Written language is secondary. It appeared because of the need to transmit speech at a distance and store it for a long time. At first it was only a way of transmitting oral speech, but then it turned out that the difference between them is so great that they speak of a special, written speech;

Written speech is more strict, complex in form, more complete and logical in content, it complies with literary norms. It has a stricter choice of words, more complex sentences;

This is unusual for written speech, therefore it is less expressive (to some extent, these shortcomings are compensated for by the use of punctuation marks, italics, petite, font emphasis, etc.);

· Spelling and punctuation requirements are imposed on written speech.

Currently, there is an interaction between oral and written forms of speech: oral speech often relies on written speech. Reports, speeches, sound letters, etc., are first written in writing and then voiced, so such oral speech has many features of written speech: preparedness, completeness and correctness, but at the same time it retains such oral advantages as sound expressiveness, facial expressions and gestures .

Speech also exists in the form monologue or dialogue. Monologue - this is the speech of one person, addressed to many listeners (less often one). This is a detailed type of speech, usually prepared in advance. It has a certain idea and composition, and is relatively complete (report, lecture, speech at a meeting, etc.).

Dialogue is a conversation between two or more people. It is related to the environment in which the speech takes place. Each new line in the dialogue builds on the previous ones. Gestures, facial expressions, indications of surrounding objects, appeals, interjections, onomatopoeic words, intonation play an important role in the dialogue.

So, language exists in two of its varieties: oral and written. Initially, the language was only spoken and sounding was the only form of its existence. The need to transmit speech at a distance, to preserve speech for a long time, led to the invention of writing. Written speech appeared. At first, written speech only recorded the sounding speech, but over time it turned out that the difference between the sounding speech and the written one was so great that they began to talk about two languages: the sounding language, the spoken language and the written language.

Written language often expresses intellectual information, so it is used more often in book speech. Oral language is usually used to express emotions, moods, attitudes.

Linguistic differences between oral and written speech come down primarily to differences in syntax. There are fewer complex sentences in oral speech, but there is a lot of unsaid, made up for by gestures, facial expressions, and many incomplete sentences. Written speech, on the contrary, requires completeness of the statement, coherence, logic. Written language sets the rules for writing and reading. So arose spelling and punctuation.

Spelling and punctuation norms of the written language are obligatory for all. The laws of oral and written communication are different. Often in the same situation it is impossible to say or write the same way.

Ticket 22

Text as a speech product. The main features of the text

In terms of linguistics текст is a group of sentences united into a single whole by one topic with the help of language tools. The text has the following main features:

· Articulation. The text consists of several sentences. One, even a very common sentence, is not a text;

semantic integrity. This quality of the text is manifested, firstly, in the fact that any text is a statement on a specific topic (it is often named in the title); secondly, in the fact that, by reporting something about the subject of speech, the author realizes his intention, conveying his attitude to what he reports, his assessment of the depicted (the main idea of ​​the text);

relative completeness (autonomy), it has a beginning and an end;

connectivity. The connectedness of the text is manifested in the fact that each subsequent sentence is built on the basis of the previous one, absorbing one or another part of it. What is repeated in the next sentence from the previous one is called "given", and what is reported additionally is called "new". "New" is usually logically stressed and placed at the end of a sentence. For example: A well was dug in the yard. A frog (new) settled near the well (given). She (given) sat (new) all day long in the shade of a well log house. The role of "given" is to connect sentences with each other. The role of the "new" is in the development of thought in the text. To connect sentences in the text, "given" and "new", two methods are used: sequential and parallel. With serial communication, the “new” of the first sentence becomes “given” in the second, the “new” of the second becomes “given” in the third, etc. With parallel communication, the same “given” is preserved in all sentences, and in each sentence to "new" is added to it. Various means of communication can be used in the text: repeated words, pronouns, synonyms, conjunctions at the beginning of a sentence, words with the meaning of part and whole.

An important means of communication is ratio of types of temporary forms verbs-predicates, as well as word order. In artistic, journalistic, scientific and business styles, the repetition of words is more often used, which ensures the accuracy of speech. Pronouns are widely used in all styles of speech. Repetition in parallel communication usually gives speech solemnity, elation. In scientific grammar, the text is considered as the result of the use of language. It highlights the following features:

expressiveness (the text is always expressed orally or in writing);

Delimitation (autonomy) - each text, even the smallest one, has clear boundaries - a beginning and an end;

Such a characteristic of the text as coherence suggests that the language units that form the text are interconnected in a certain order.

The scheme of connected speech from the point of view of its constituent units can be represented as follows: a sentence - a prose stanza - a fragment; chapter - part - finished work.

There are texts consisting of one sentence (rarely - two). These are aphorisms, riddles, proverbs, chronicle notes in a newspaper, etc. There are texts that are equal to a prose stanza or fragment: a note in a newspaper, a poem or a fable in prose. And there are, of course, texts of considerable length.

Another important feature of the text is its wholeness. The text in relation to content and construction is a single whole, for understanding the structure of the text, the relationship between content and form is of paramount importance. The structure of the text is connected by theme and idea, plot and composition.

The content of the text is revealed only through its verbal form. The content is related to the topic. Subject - this is what is described in the text, what the narration is about, reasoning is unfolding, dialogue is being conducted, etc. In non-fiction texts, the topic is usually indicated in the title. The titles of works of art can be directly related to the theme ("Woe from Wit", "Undergrowth"). Works of art, even relatively small in volume (for example, stories), can reveal several topics, and stories, novels, and plays are almost always multi-dark.

The next important feature of the text - orderliness. All linguistic units that form the text, all its parts and all meaningful, semantic aspects are ordered and organized in a certain way. It has already been mentioned that articulation. The presence of this characteristic implies that the ways of linking words in a sentence and parts of a complex sentence are well known.

Distinguish serial (chain) and parallel connection of sentences. With a parallel connection, sentences are not linked, but compared. The features of this type of connection are the same word order, the members of the sentence are expressed in the same grammatical forms, sometimes by repeating the first word of the sentences.

With a sequential connection of sentences, one sentence, as it were, merges into another: each next sentence begins with what the previous one ended with. For example: I have often marveled at the shrewd insolence of crows. They, as if jokingly, fooled me more than once (A. Platonov).

Based on everything that has been said above about the text, we can give such a definition. Text - this is an ordered sequence of language units expressed in written or oral form, united into a whole by a theme and a main idea.

Ticket 23

Functional and semantic types of speech: description, narration, reasoning

Depending on the content of the utterance, our speech is divided into three types:

· description;

narration;

· reasoning.

The description speaks of simultaneous signs, the narrative speaks of successive actions, and the reasoning speaks of the causes of properties and phenomena.

Description: A huge bird swam on the black water. Its plumage shimmered with lemon and pink. A beak with a red leather bag was glued to the head.

Narrative: Pelican hurriedly climbed ashore and hobbled to our halt. Then he saw a fish, opened his beak, clicked it with a wooden thud, shouted "wek" and began to desperately beat his wings and stamp his paw.

Reasoning: Pelicans can't dive. This is due to the special structure of the bones and the presence of subcutaneous air sacs (according to K. Paustovsky).

The description can be used in any style of speech, but in the scientific description of the subject should be as complete as possible, and in the artistic - the emphasis is on only the brightest details. Therefore, the language means in the artistic style are more diverse than in the scientific one. In the first there are not only adjectives and nouns, but also verbs, adverbs, comparisons, various figurative uses of words are very common.

The peculiarity of the narrative lies in the fact that it talks about successive actions. The message about changing events is the "new" in the sentences of such a text. "Data" is the person doing the action. The narrative often uses verbs in the past perfect tense. But in order to give the text expressiveness, other forms are used simultaneously with these forms.

Every argument has two parts. The first contains thesis, i.e., the statement to be proved. The second part substantiates the expressed idea: arguments and examples. In reasoning, there is often a third part - output. The thesis and justification are usually associated with unions because, since. The conclusion is joined by the words therefore, thus, therefore. Full reasoning, parts of which are connected by unions, is especially common in scientific and business speech. In colloquial and artistic speech, incomplete reasoning is more common, and unions are omitted.

Ticket 24

Functional styles of speech and their main features (on the example of one style of speech as directed by the teacher)

Styles - these are varieties of language, due to differences in the areas of communication and the main functions of the language. In linguistics, such a special section as stylistics deals with the study of styles.

There are five areas of communication (they are also called language situations): everyday life, science, law, politics, art. As for the main functions of the language, there are three of them: communication, message, impact.

Depending on speech situations and language functions, the following types of styles are distinguished:

conversational style (everyday sphere, communication function, less often - messages);

Scientific (field of science, message function);

official business (field of law, function of communication);

publicistic (the sphere of politics and art, the functions of communication and influence);

Artistic (sphere of art, function of emotional impact).

Characteristics of speech styles

Conversational style serves primarily for direct communication with the people around us. It is characterized by ease and unpreparedness of speech. It often uses colloquial words (young instead of newlyweds, start instead of start, now instead of now, etc.), words in a figurative sense (window - in the meaning of 'break'). Words in a colloquial style often not only name objects, actions, signs, but also contain their assessment: good fellow, dodger, careless, take a nap, be smart, cheerful. Colloquial style syntax is characterized by the use of simple sentences. Incomplete sentences are widely presented in it, since colloquial speech is most often a dialogue.

Scientific style - this is the style of scientific works, articles, textbooks, lectures, reviews. They contain information about various phenomena of the world around us. In the field of vocabulary, the scientific style is characterized primarily by the presence of special vocabulary, terms (declension, conjugation, theorem, bisector, logarithm, etc.). Words are used, as a rule, in their direct meanings, since scientific speech does not allow ambiguity and must be extremely accurate.

Official and business style serves a wide area of ​​legal, administrative, diplomatic relations. Its main purpose is information, communication. This style is used when writing various documents, instructions, charters, etc. The words in it are used in their direct meaning in order to avoid their misinterpretation. In the vocabulary of this style, there are many words and stable combinations assigned specifically to this style: petition, statement, resolution, order, protocol, appeal, sue, initiate a case; We, the undersigned. Frequent in the syntax of this style are impersonal sentences with the meaning of necessity, order (it is necessary to urgently prepare, measures should be taken, etc.).

Journalistic style - this is the style of newspapers, speeches on current socio-political topics. The most common genres of journalism include editorial, correspondence, essay, speech at a rally, meeting, etc. In the works of journalism, two tasks are usually set: firstly, a message, information about certain social phenomena or acts, and, secondly - an open assessment of the issues raised in order to actively influence the listener or reader, in order to attract the interlocutor to support the position that the author takes and defends.

The vocabulary of this style contains many words and phraseological phrases of a socio-political nature: progressive humanity, the struggle for peace, advanced ideas.

Art style used in works of art to paint a picture, depict an object or event, convey the author's emotions to the reader. Statements of the artistic style are distinguished by figurativeness, visualization, and emotionality. The characteristic linguistic means of styles include words with a specific meaning, words in figurative use, emotionally evaluative words, words with the meaning of a feature, object or action, words with the meaning of comparison, comparison; perfect form verbs with the prefix for-, denoting the beginning of the action, the figurative use of tense and mood forms (In this Dunyasha and fall in love Akim!), emotionally-colored sentences: Suddenly, something broke in the stagnant air, the wind blew violently and swirled around the steppe with noise, with a whistle. Immediately, the grass and last year's weeds raised a murmur, and on the road dust swirled in a spiral, ran across the steppe and, dragging straw, dragonflies and feathers, rose to the sky in a black spinning pillar and clouded the sun (A. Chekhov).

Language of fiction represents the most complete expression of the national language. In works of fiction, the artist of the word enjoys almost unlimited freedom in the choice of linguistic means to create the most convincing, memorable images, for an aesthetic impact on the reader. Therefore, the language of fiction is able to include all the richness of the literary and popular language.

In order to give the reader an idea of ​​the era, scene of action, life, the writer uses obsolete words (historicisms, archaisms), words of local dialects in the narrative.

In stylistics, there is such a thing as stylistic language resources. These include stylistically colored vocabulary (steal - neutral, kidnap - bookish, steal - colloquial); stylistically colored morphemes (male, officer, chauffeur, soldier - colloquial, ponder, collect - colloquial, rejoice, love - bookish); stylistic possibilities of parts of speech (five kilograms of oranges - five kilograms of orange - colloquial, on vacation - bookish, on vacation - colloquial, on a sofa bed - colloquial, on a sofa bed - bookish); stylistic means in syntax (due to drought, the harvest was low (book) - due to drought ... (neutral); task completed by students (book) - task completed by students (neutral)).

Author: Baklanova M.V.

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