Free technical library

Methods of teaching psychology. Lecture notes: briefly, the most important

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Comments on the article

Table of contents

1. Psychology of learning (Teaching and learning. Problems of learning. Content of education, problems of monitoring the effectiveness of education, principles of state policy in the field of education. Features of adult education: psychological and pedagogical aspects. Organization of adult education)
2. Educational activity (The structure of educational activity. The problem of motivation of educational activity. Educational activity of students. Formation of educational activity of students. Theory of learning and teaching at the university)
3. The content of education (State standard. Curricula)
4. Forms of training sessions and methods of conducting them (Lecture and methods of lecturing. Practical, seminar and laboratory classes. Methods of organization and management of the discussion)
5. Teaching psychology (The purpose of teaching psychology. Methodological features of teaching theoretical and applied psychology)
6. Control and correction of educational activities (Essence, goals and functions of learning control. The problem of managing the learning process. Feedback in learning. The content and forms of pedagogical control. Creation of diagnostic methods that control success and identify the causes of failure in learning. Criteria-oriented tests (CORTS) : essence, technology of creation. Content of correctional work)
7. Active learning methods (Psychology of active learning methods. Programmed learning methods. Problem-based learning methods. Interactive learning methods)
8. Management of independent work of students (Features of the organization of work with literature. Independent work of students. Features of the organization of independent work in distance learning)
9. The teacher in the pedagogical process (General regulatory components of the pedagogical process and psychological and pedagogical problems. The personality of the teacher in the educational process. The problem of styles of pedagogical activity. The interaction of the subjects of the educational process. Pedagogical activity and its psychological characteristics)
10. Pedagogical communication in the structure of the educational process (Communication as an activity. Communication motives. Anatomy of dialogue. Positions, roles in communication. Formal aspect of pedagogical communication. Levels of communication (conventional, manipulative, standardized, playful and business). Contact and feedback in pedagogical communication. Individual features and strategies of pedagogical communication Barriers of pedagogical communication The problem of educational conflicts and ways to prevent them)

Topic 1. PSYCHOLOGY OF LEARNING

1.1. Teaching and learning

Teaching in the psychological dictionary is defined as the process of acquiring and consolidating or changing the existing ways of an individual's activity. The result of the teaching are the elements of individual experience (knowledge, skills, habits).

Any interaction with the world leads to the satisfaction of the needs of the individual and to a more complete and accurate reflection of the conditions of activity. In addition, a change in the content of objective activity causes a change in the subject itself. The methods of productively oriented human activity with the use of tools of labor are passed on to the next generations through these tools and products of labor, language, etc. Thus, learning begins to act as a process of assimilation by the individual of the formed methods of activity. Since these methods exist in an implicit, folded form, they cannot be assimilated without first expanding them. This deployment of methods of activity with the aim of assimilating them to other people is the essence of learning.

Obviously, learning becomes a necessary condition for human learning. At first, an action new to him could be perceived by him only in the external (material) environment. In the future, with the help of language, this action is transferred to the sign level and through speech - to the mental (ideal) plane. The transfer to the ideal plan of material actions is a unique psychological mechanism of teaching. In the process of learning, psychological mechanisms are rebuilt, formed, which form the basis for the emergence and development of the individual's abilities. Thus, teaching is a necessary condition and the main mechanism of human mental development.

Didactics (that is, the theory of education) as a science has its own subject of study: these are the laws and principles of education, its goals, the scientific foundations of the content of education, methods and means of education. In pedagogy, learning is traditionally understood as the planned and systematic work of a teacher with students, based on the implementation and consolidation of changes in their knowledge, attitudes, behavior and in a given personality under the influence of teaching, mastering knowledge and values ​​in their own practical activities. Acquiring knowledge about the surrounding reality and about himself, the student (learner) acquires the ability to make decisions that regulate his attitude to this reality. At the same time, he learns moral, social and aesthetic values ​​and, experiencing them in various didactic situations, forms his attitude towards them, creates his own system of values. as a result of the interaction of the teacher with the student (student).

This orderly interaction between a teacher and students, aimed at achieving a didactic goal, includes the following main links of interaction:

1) the activities of the teacher:

- explaining to students the goals and objectives of education;

- Acquaintance with new knowledge;

- management of the process of awareness and acquisition of knowledge and skills;

- management of the process of cognition of scientific patterns and laws, the transition from theory to practice;

- organization of heuristic and research activities;

- verification and evaluation of changes in learning and development of trainees;

2) activities of trainees:

- own activities to create a positive motivation for learning;

- perception of new knowledge, skills, analysis, synthesis, comparison and systematization of patterns and laws;

- understanding of causal relationships; acquisition of skills and abilities, their motivation;

- practical activities to independently solve emerging problems; self-control and self-assessment of achievements.

Education is directly dependent on social and social conditions, on the certain influence of people, the content of scientific knowledge and the experience of mankind. The most important condition for learning is its reliance on natural language, verbal thinking and the languages ​​of science, which ensures the processing, storage, and transmission of information in the learning process. An equally essential condition for teaching is the all-round development of the personality, the unity of rational, mental and practical activity with a harmonious combination of mental and physical principles.

1.2. Learning problems

The ratio of training and development is one of the core problems of pedagogy. In pedagogical research, this problem is often reduced to an analysis of the organization of the educational process. Having studied the issue of the influence of training on development, L. S. Vygotsky (1896-1934) drew the following conclusions: 1) training creates a zone of proximal development, which then passes into the sphere of actual development; 2) learning moves development forward, relying not only on mature functions, but also on those that are still maturing. Learning must come before development. And the main conclusion: pedagogy should focus not on yesterday, but on tomorrow, those zones of proximal development.

In Russian pedagogy, there are two groups of concepts of developmental education that interpret the laws and principles of this process in different ways: 1) concepts focused on mental development (L. V. Zankov, Z. I. Kalmykova, E. N. Kabanova-Meller); 2) concepts that take into account personal development (P. A. Tsukerman, V. V. Davydov, D. B. Elkonin, S. A. Smirnov).

The didactic thoughts of the Polish teacher A. B. Dobrovolsky (1872-1954) have not lost their relevance. Proceeding from the conviction that learning is one of the aspects of learning, the didactics states: "learning" is a concept of the past. The concept of “learning” becomes fundamental in the new upbringing, the slogan of which is the following thesis: “as much independence, activity and self-expression as possible”. Accordingly, the main principle of his didactics was formed: a person must learn on his own. Teaching should be self-learning, self-education. And only when it is impossible or requires too much and unnecessary effort, unproductive and inefficient expenditure of time and effort, only then - with the help of a teacher. But even in this case, the principle applies: as much as possible independently.

Education as a set of external and internal actions provides a person with the opportunity to learn about nature, society and culture, to take part in their formation and at the same time promotes the multilateral development of skills, abilities and talents, interests and sympathies, beliefs and attitudes, and the acquisition of professional qualifications. One of the means and a powerful factor in the development of personality is the content of education implemented in training.

1.3. The content of education, the problems of monitoring the effectiveness of education, the principles of state policy in the field of education

When focusing on the implementation of the predominantly educational function of a knowledge-oriented school, the content of education is defined as a set of systematized knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs, as well as a certain level of development of cognitive forces and practical training achieved as a result of educational work. With this approach, knowledge acts as an absolute value and obscures the person himself.

In the light of the ideologization of education, a personality-oriented approach to identifying the essence of the content of education is increasingly being established, in which the absolute value is not knowledge alienated from the individual, but the person himself. This approach ensures the freedom to choose the content of education in order to meet the educational, spiritual, cultural and vital needs of the individual; humane attitude to the developing personality, the formation of its individuality; creates an opportunity for self-realization of the individual in the cultural and educational space. The personality-oriented content of education is aimed at developing the natural characteristics of a person (health, the ability to think, feel, act), his social qualities (to be a citizen, a family man, a worker) and the properties of a subject of culture (freedom, humanity, spirituality, creativity).

The difference in approaches to the essence of the content of education is due to the goals and objectives of education at different stages of the development of society.

The content of education. The concept of the content of education includes the following components.

1. Cognitive experience of the individual - a system of knowledge about nature, society, thinking, technology, methods of activity. Knowledge as the main element of the content of general education is the result of the knowledge of reality, the laws of development of nature, society and thinking. The content of education includes the following types of knowledge:

- basic concepts and terms that reflect both everyday reality and scientific knowledge;

- facts of daily activities and science necessary to prove and defend their ideas;

- the basic laws of science, revealing the connections and relationships between various objects and phenomena of reality;

- a theory containing a system of scientific knowledge about a certain set of objects, the relationships between them and methods for explaining and predicting the phenomena of a given subject area;

- knowledge about the methods of scientific activity, methods of cognition and the history of obtaining scientific knowledge;

- appraisal knowledge; knowledge about the norms of relations to various phenomena of life established in society.

The indicated values ​​differ from each other in the functions in training and the technologies used. The main functions of knowledge: 1) a means of creating a general picture of the world;

2) a tool for cognitive and practical activities; 3) the basis of a holistic scientific worldview.

2. Experience in practical activities, those experience in the implementation of methods of activity. Knowledge about the ways of carrying out activities is already contained in the first component of the content of general education and the basic culture of the individual. However, knowledge alone is not enough, it is necessary to learn the experience of their application, that is, the skills and abilities developed by mankind. External (practical) and internal (intellectual) skills and abilities can be common for all academic subjects (draw up a plan, highlight the essential, compare, draw conclusions, etc.) and specific, formed and manifested only within the framework of academic subjects (solving mathematical tasks, setting up experiments in chemistry, etc.). General educational skills are close to general intellectual skills and abilities, such as taking notes, annotating, working with textbooks, dictionaries, reference books, etc.

The system of general intellectual and practical skills is the basis of specific activities and ensures the ability of people to preserve culture. These types of activities include cognitive, labor, artistic, social, value-oriented, communicative.

3. The experience of creative activity, which ensures the readiness of the student to search for solutions to new problems, creative transformation of reality. The specific content of the experience of creative activity and its main features are:

- independent transfer of knowledge and skills to a new situation;

- vision of a new problem in a familiar situation;

- independent combination of known methods of activity in a new way;

- finding different ways to solve the problem and alternative evidence;

- construction of a fundamentally new way of solving the problem, which is a combination of already known methods.

The peculiarity of the content of this element of the basic culture of the individual is that for the implementation of its procedure it is impossible to specify a scheme of actions. These systems are created by the individual himself.

4. Experience of personality relationships. This component of the content of education is a system of motivational-value and emotional-volitional relations of the individual. Its specificity lies in the evaluative attitude to the world, to activities, to people.

The culture of feelings is a special phenomenon, which is a consequence of the social development of the individual. The experience of human relations, his knowledge and skills are the conditions for the formation of a system of values, interests, ideals, and ultimately the worldview of the individual.

All components of the content of education and the basic culture of the individual are interconnected. A person cannot be considered educated if, knowing the norms of behavior, he observes them indifferently. Awareness of a worldview idea, its use to explain the phenomena of reality - but without being convinced of the truth of this idea, without an emotional attitude - is not yet part of a person's worldview, which is the criterion of his education and upbringing.

For a long time, general education was understood in a simplified way: only as a link that precedes vocational education and forms the basis of the latter. In the theory of the content of education, the introduction of general education subjects in vocational schools (natural sciences and the humanities) was not properly considered. At present, general education can be represented, on the one hand, as a through line of the entire system of continuous education, and on the other hand, as general educational training of a person preceding professional training. And in this case, the content of education includes three main cycles of subjects: natural science, humanitarian, labor and physical training.

Knowledge of the basic patterns of the development of nature, methods and means of their use for the benefit of man is provided by subjects of the natural science cycle (biology, physics, chemistry, geography, mathematics, etc.). Mathematics, in addition, equips a person with a formalized language for expressing dependencies in the form of formulas, graphs, which is a means of developing logical thinking. Humanitarian subjects (history, literature, social science, native and foreign languages, etc.) help to understand the laws of social development, the social nature of the person himself. At the same time, an important role in humanitarian education belongs to art disciplines: fine arts, music and singing, rhetoric, which form aesthetic and moral feelings. Finally, labor training, physical education and the basics of life safety strengthen health, form the skills and abilities necessary for a future worker and defender of the Fatherland.

Thus, modern Russian general education is simultaneously polytechnic.

Theories of the formation of the content of education. The main of these theories - the concepts of the material and formal content of education - developed in the late XNUMXth - early XNUMXth centuries. Proponents of the theory of the material content of education (the theory of didactic materialism) considered the main goal of education to be the transfer of as much knowledge as possible from various fields of science to students (Ya. A. Komensky, G. Spencer, etc.). Proponents of the theory of the formal content of education (the theory of didactic formalism) considered learning a means of developing the abilities and cognitive interests of students, their attention, memory, ideas, and thinking. At the same time, they considered the mind to be the source of knowledge. From which it follows that, first of all, it is necessary to develop the mind and abilities of a person. When selecting the content of education, supporters of the theory of didactic formalism were guided by the developmental value of such subjects as mathematics and classical languages ​​(J. Locke, I. G. Pestalozzi, I. Herbart, and others).

Criticizing both of these concepts, K. D. Ushinsky (1824-1870 / 71) argued that the school should develop the intellectual powers of a person, enrich him with knowledge, teach him to use them. He formulated the idea of ​​the unity of didactic materialism and didactic formalism - so at the end of the XNUMXth century. the theory of didactic pragmatism in the formation of the content of education (the theory of didactic utilitarianism) appeared. Supporters of this concept believed that the source of the content of education lies in the social and individual activities of the student.

The content of education should be presented in the form of interdisciplinary knowledge systems, and their development requires collective efforts from the trainees, practical actions to solve the tasks assigned to them.

The theory of functional materialism was developed by the Polish educator and psychologist W. Okon (Okon, b. 1914). In his opinion, the content of individual subjects should reflect their leading idea (for example, in biology - the idea of ​​evolution, in mathematics - the idea of ​​functional dependencies, in history - historical conditioning, etc.), i.e., when choosing the content of education, it is necessary follow a worldview approach.

In the 1950s the theory of territorial structuring of the content of education was developed, the emergence of which is associated with the introduction of programmed learning into the educational process. This concept answers the question of how to transfer knowledge to students, how to properly structure it, divide it into parts that are related meaningfully and logically.

The content of modern education is determined by the target setting laid down in the Law of the Russian Federation of July 10, 1992 No. 3266-1 "On Education" (hereinafter - the Law on Education). When selecting the content of education in pedagogical theory and practice, it is customary to focus on the following principles.

1. The principle of compliance of the content of education with the requirements of the development of society, science, culture and personality. It involves the inclusion in the content of general education of the traditionally necessary knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as those that reflect the current level of development of society, scientific knowledge, cultural life and the possibility of personal growth.

2. The principle of a single content and procedural side of learning involves taking into account the characteristics of a particular educational process.

3. The principle of structural unity of the content of education at different levels presupposes the consistency of the following components of education: theoretical representation, academic subject, educational material, pedagogical activity, personality of the student.

4. The principle of humanization of the content of general education is associated with the creation of conditions for the active creative and practical development of universal culture by students. Humanitarian education is aimed at the formation of a humanitarian culture of the individual, which characterizes its inner wealth, the level of development of spiritual needs and abilities and the level of intensity of their manifestation in social practical activities. Humanitarian culture is the harmony of the culture of knowledge, the culture of feelings, communication and creative action.

5. The principle of fundamentalization of education implies awareness of the essence of cognitive and practical transformative activity by students. At the same time, training is not only a way of obtaining knowledge, skills and abilities, but also a means of equipping students with methods of obtaining new knowledge, self-acquisition of skills and abilities.

6. The principle of compliance of the main components of the content of general education with the structure of the basic culture of the individual is a consequence of the implementation of the principles of humanization and fundamentalization of the content of general education.

Monitoring the effectiveness of education. An important component of the educational process is diagnostics, with the help of which the achievement of goals is determined and without which effective management of educational activities is impossible. Diagnostics involves the precise determination of the results of the didactic process.

The concept of diagnostics has a broader and deeper meaning than simply testing the knowledge, skills and abilities of trainees, which only states the results without explaining their origin. Diagnosis examines the results, taking into account the ways to achieve them, reveals trends, the dynamics of the didactic process. Diagnostics includes control, verification, evaluation (assessment), accumulation of statistical data, their analysis, identification of dynamics, trends, forecasting of the didactic process.

The productivity of training depends on the quantity, quality, completeness, timeliness (efficiency), depth and objectivity of control. Control is understood as monitoring the process of mastering knowledge, skills and abilities. An integral component of control is verification.

The main didactic function of the test is to provide feedback between the teacher and students, the teacher to receive objective information about the degree of assimilation of educational material, timely identification of shortcomings and problems in knowledge. The check aims to determine not only the level and quality of training, but also the volume of educational work.

In addition to the verification itself, control contains evaluation (as a process) and evaluation (as a result) of the verification. The assessment is recorded in class journals, report cards, data banks, etc. in the form of a mark - symbols, code signals, etc. The results of the control form the basis for evaluating the student's progress. At the same time, the teacher reveals what, in what volume of knowledge the student has mastered, whether he is ready to perceive new information, and also receives information about the nature of the student's independent learning activity. In addition, control shows the teacher how fruitful his own work was, how successfully he used the possibilities of the pedagogical process for educational purposes. And the student himself during the control receives information about his educational activities. This helps him to understand what success he has achieved in the assimilation of knowledge, to see the gaps and shortcomings in them.

The function of assessment is not limited only to a statement of the level of learning, it is also a means of stimulating learning, motivation, and influence on a person. Under the influence of assessment, the teacher develops an adequate self-esteem, a critical attitude towards his successes. Given the importance of assessment, the diversity of its functions, it becomes obvious that it is necessary to search for such indicators that would reflect all aspects of the student's educational activity and ensure their implementation.

It is necessary to diagnose, control, test and evaluate the knowledge, skills and abilities of trainees in the logical sequence in which they are studied. The first link in the verification system should be a preliminary identification of the level of knowledge of trainees. The second link is the current testing of knowledge in the process of assimilation of each topic being studied. The third link in testing knowledge and skills should be considered a repeated test, which, like the current one, should be thematic. The fourth link is a periodic test of knowledge, skills of trainees in a whole section or a significant topic of the course. The purpose of this kind of verification is to diagnose the quality of students' assimilation of the relationships between the structural elements of the educational material studied in different parts of the course. The main function of the periodic review is systematization and generalization. The fifth link in the organization of the test is the final test and taking into account the knowledge and skills of the trainees acquired by them at all stages of the didactic process. The final accounting of academic performance is not reduced to the mechanical identification of the arithmetic mean score; it is, first of all, diagnosing the level (quality) of actual learning in accordance with the goal set at this stage. Finally, a special type of test is a comprehensive test, which diagnoses the abilities of students and the knowledge, skills and abilities they have acquired while studying various subjects in solving practical problems.

Types, forms and methods of learning control. Control can be carried out using a variety of methods, it comes in different types and forms.

In pedagogical practice, several types of control have developed and are used. Preliminary control is carried out by the beginning of training and aims to identify the available knowledge, skills and abilities. It allows the teacher to choose the most effective methods and forms of work. Current control is carried out in the course of training and makes it possible to determine the degree of formation of knowledge, skills and abilities, their depth and strength. Periodic control summarizes the work for a certain period of time. Thematic control allows you to determine the end results of training. It covers the entire system of knowledge and skills in the subject. Delayed control is carried out after some time after studying the topic, section, course and allows you to judge the effectiveness of the process by its final result.

The form of control is divided into individual, group and frontal.

Control methods are the methods by which the effectiveness of the educational and cognitive activity of the trainees and the pedagogical work of the trainees is determined. In pedagogical practice, methods of oral, written, practical, computer control and self-control are used.

Oral control is carried out in the process of oral questioning of trainees. Written control involves the implementation of written tasks (exercises, tests, essays, reports, etc.) Practical control is used to identify the formation of skills and abilities of practical work. Computer control allows you to establish uniform requirements for measuring and evaluating knowledge. The results of such control are easily amenable to statistical processing. With the use of computer technology, self-control can also be carried out. For self-control, carried out without the use of advanced computer technologies, it is necessary to teach the student to independently find errors, analyze the reasons for the incorrect solution of cognitive tasks, and look for ways to eliminate them.

The following pedagogical requirements are imposed on control in the learning process:

- the individual nature of the control that should be exercised over the work of each student;

- systematic, regular control at all stages of training;

- comprehensiveness of control, which should provide the possibility of testing theoretical knowledge, intellectual and practical skills of trainees;

- objectivity of control, allowing to exclude subjective and erroneous judgments and conclusions;

- a differentiated approach, taking into account the individual personal qualities of the trainees;

- the unity of requirements on the part of the trainees.

Recently, test control has become more and more widespread. Depending on the subject and method of measurement, pedagogical, psychological, sociological, socio-psychological, cultural, etc. tests are distinguished.

Principles of state policy in the field of education. The modern system of education in the Russian Federation is built on the basis of the Law on Education.

It defines the following principles of state policy in the field of education.

1. The humanistic nature of education, the priority of universal human values, human life and health, the free development of the individual, the education of citizenship and love for the Motherland.

2. Unity of the federal cultural and educational space, protection by the education system of national cultures and regional cultural traditions in a multinational state.

3. General accessibility of education, adaptation of the education system to the peculiarities of development and training of students.

4. The secular nature of education in state and municipal educational institutions.

5. Freedom and pluralism in education.

6. Democratic state-public nature of education management, autonomy of educational institutions.

In accordance with the Law on Education, the process of education and upbringing must be carried out in the interests of society, the state, and the individual. The highest humanistic meaning of social development is the affirmation of the attitude towards man as the highest value of being, the creation of conditions for the free development of everyone. The humanization of education is considered as the most important socio-pedagogical principle, reflecting modern trends in the construction of the education system. From the teacher, the humanization of education requires in all possible ways to contribute to the development of the originality and originality of the personality of each student.

In pedagogical theory, two ways have developed to take into account the personal characteristics of students: an individual approach, when educational work is carried out according to a single program with all students while individualizing the forms and methods of working with each of them, and a differentiated approach, i.e., dividing students into homogeneous groups according to their abilities , interests, etc., and work with them on various programs.

The following patterns of humanization of education are distinguished.

1. Education as a process of formation of mental properties and functions is due to the interaction of the student with the teacher and the social environment. In order to master the achievements of material and spiritual culture, in order to make them his own needs, "organs of his individuality", a person enters into certain relations with the phenomena of the surrounding world through other people. According to its functions, this is a process of education.

2. The main trend in the functioning and development of the education system is an orientation towards personal development. Harmonious general cultural, social, moral and professional development of the individual makes a person free and creative.

3. Education will satisfy personal needs if it is focused on the "zone of proximal development", that is, mental functions that have already matured in the student and are ready for further development.

4. Personal development in harmony with the universal culture depends on the level of mastery of the basic humanitarian culture. This pattern determines the cultural approach to the selection of the content of education.

5. The culturological principle requires an increase in the status of the humanities, their renewal, the influence of spirituality and universal values ​​on the learning process. The most important condition for designing new curricula and programs is to take into account the cultural and historical traditions of the people, their unity with the universal culture.

6. The more diverse and productive the activities that are significant for the individual, the more effective is the mastery of universal and professional culture.

7. The process of general, social, moral and professional development acquires an optimal character if the student becomes the subject of training. The personal approach assumes that both the teacher and the student treat each person as a social value, recognize each person's right to be different from others.

8. The principle of the dialogical approach involves the transformation of the position of the teacher and the position of the student into personal equal rights, into the position of cooperating people. The teacher does not educate, does not teach, but activates, stimulates aspirations, forms the student's motives for self-development, studies his activity, creates conditions for self-expression.

9. Personal self-development depends on the degree of creative orientation of the educational process. This regularity forms the basis of the principle of an individual creative approach. The implementation of this principle involves the direct motivation of educational and other activities, the organization of self-realization of the individual, the diagnosis and development of its creative capabilities. This approach also provides a personal level of mastering the base of humanitarian culture.

10. The readiness of the participants in the pedagogical process to take on the concerns of other people. This principle requires such a level of internal composure of the individual, in which a person does not follow the circumstances that develop in the pedagogical process, but creates these circumstances himself, develops his own strategy, and consciously and systematically improves himself.

1.4. Peculiarities of Adult Education: Psychological and Pedagogical Aspects

Humanistic psychology recognizes a person as a unique integral system capable of possible self-actualization. The main provisions of this theory are as follows.

1. A person must be studied in integrity, each person is unique.

2. A person's experiences of the world and himself in the world constitute his personal experience, which becomes valuable and sufficient in itself.

3. Human life is a single process of its formation and being.

4. A person is endowed with potentials for continuous development and self-realization.

5. A person must be free from external circumstances in order to be guided in his choice by his own meanings and values.

6. Man is an active, intentional, creative being.

Humanist-psychologists assign the central role in human behavior to motives that provide not adaptation to the environment, not conformal behavior, but the growth of the constructive beginning of the human "I", the desire of a person to organize his inner ("phenomenal") world and achieve the integrity of his own personality, understand the meaning its existence (existence). Teaching, in the understanding of humanist psychologists, is a self-managed structuring of personal experience for the purpose of self-realization of the individual.

In training organized from the standpoint of humanistic psychology, a high degree of freedom and choice of all parameters of the educational process (goals, motives, forms and methods, control, etc.) is realized. At the same time, the teacher plays the role of a mentor, a consultant helping the student. Recognition of the leading role of the student himself in his learning by scientists-teachers was taken as the basis for understanding the specifics of adult learning. The theory and methodology of teaching adults in the context of lifelong education is a special area of ​​scientific and pedagogical knowledge - andragogy (from andros - man, man; agogein - to lead, lit. - "leading an adult").

The concept of continuous education provides, firstly, for a more rational distribution of periods of study and labor activity of a person throughout his life; secondly, the division of education into phases of initial (basic) and subsequent (after basic) education; thirdly, the acquisition of the skills, skills, knowledge, qualities, personal orientations necessary for a person as the need for them arises.

A learning adult is distinguished by the following characteristics: 1) he is aware of himself as an increasingly independent, self-governing personality; 2) accumulates an ever-increasing supply of life (domestic, professional, social) experience, which becomes an important source of learning for himself and his colleagues; 3) his readiness for learning (motivation) is determined by his desire to solve his vital problems and achieve a specific goal with the help of learning activities; 4) he strives for the immediate implementation of the acquired knowledge, skills, abilities and qualities; 5) his educational activity is largely due to temporary spatial, professional, domestic, social factors (conditions).

These specific features that distinguish an adult learner are the main basis in determining the approach to organizing the adult learning process. Based on socio-economic, scientific and andragogical factors, based on those characteristic features of an adult student that manifest themselves in the process of his education, scientists have developed the foundations of andragogy. At the same time, two more premises were added to the main, initial premises, concerning the leading role of the student in the educational process, as well as the nature of the interaction of the teacher in the organization of the learning process. So, the initial, fundamental premises of andragogy were formulated as follows.

1. The student has a leading role in the learning process.

2. A learning adult strives for self-realization, independence, self-government and is aware of himself as such.

3. An adult student already has life (everyday, social, professional) experience that can be used as an important source of learning for himself and his colleagues.

4. An adult learns to solve an important life problem and achieve a specific goal.

5. An adult student expects to immediately apply the skills, knowledge and qualities acquired during the training.

6. The educational activity of an adult student is largely determined by temporal, spatial, domestic, professional and social factors that either limit or contribute to the learning process.

7. The learning process of an adult student is organized as a joint activity of the student and the teacher at all its stages: planning, implementation, evaluation and - to a certain extent - correction.

Based on these premises, andragogy determines all the parameters of adult learning. The theoretical provisions of andragogy form the basis for a particular character, features of the interaction between a learning adult and a teacher in the implementation (model) of learning. In the andragogical model of learning, the leading role in organizing the learning process at all its stages belongs to the learner himself: an adult learner is an active element, an equal subject of the learning process. This premise means the need to build such adult learning activities, the main characteristics of which are the active leading role of the student himself in the construction and implementation of the training program and, at the same time, the joint activity of the student and teacher in the preparation and implementation of the educational process. The determining factor in this process is the relationship and nature of the interaction between the teacher and the student. The androgogical model takes into account the characteristics (age, psychological, social, etc.) of adult students and the specifics of their activities in the learning process, however, the main goal (parameter) of adult education, its authors consider the development of critical, creative thinking. The key provisions of their theoretical approaches are formulated as follows.

1. An adequate social being is an adult who thinks critically and is capable of learning.

2. Potential possibilities for the development of thinking, a sense of "selfhood" in adults is expressed in qualitative changes in mental structures.

3. The most preferred are creative and critical types of thinking that contribute to the full development of an adult.

4. The combination of collective learning and self-learning contributes to the development of creative and critical thinking to the greatest extent.

5. Learning includes thinking, exploratory discovery, critical reflection and creative response.

6. Education is not a transfer of knowledge, but rather a selection, a synthesis, an open dialogue.

Here, various teaching methods are possible: exposition, when the content of the training is provided to the student by an outside source: a teacher, a textbook, an educational film, etc.; managerial, when leaders direct the learning process in such a way that students achieve predetermined goals; search, when the content of training is not entirely defined, and the educational process includes both the formulation of problems and the search for their solution. In the latter case, the students themselves select and organize the information, the content of the training, the necessary experience in order to study the problems and find their solutions. The purpose of the method is to include the student in mental activity, and then the perception of content and information occurs in the process of "thinking? studying the problem? solving the problem." These teaching methods are adequate to the tasks of the andragogical model of teaching.

Based on the premises mentioned above, taking into account the conclusions and methods of teaching, the authors of the described learning model name the characteristic features of adult learning: 1) uncommandable, non-directive nature of learning; 2) orientation of training to achieve results in solving problems;

3) posing problems and creating the necessary knowledge;

4) connection with practice and verification with its help of the obtained learning outcomes; 5) constant discussion of the content, forms and methods of teaching in the study group; 6) taking responsibility for the learning process by all members of the group and the teacher, without the right to control the learning of each member of the group; 7) the process of evaluating learning outcomes with the participation of all members of the group; 8) dialogue between members of the study group.

In line with the andragogical model of learning (as a complex activity of the teacher and student in the implementation of learning), this means the ability to listen to each member of the group, respect the opinions and feelings of others, critically perceive the expressed thoughts, ask correct questions and strive to share the opinion of the other. The dialogue provides, firstly, equality between the members of the study group, frankness, trust, caring attitude towards each other among the members of the study group; secondly, mutual respect, the integration of thinking and learning, in which the individual controls his own thinking and learning (as opposed to a situation in which the individual's thinking simply adapts to the authority or experience of others).

From the point of view of andragogy, adult students have a deep need for independence, self-government, they must play a leading, decisive role in the learning process. The task of the teacher is ultimately to encourage and support the development of the adult from complete dependence to increasing self-control. The main characteristic of the learning process is the process of self-determination by students of the parameters of learning and the search for knowledge, skills, abilities and the qualities they need.

From the standpoint of the andragogical model of learning, a person, as he grows and develops, accumulates his experience, which can be used as a source of learning. The function of the teacher in this case is to assist the student in identifying his current experience. Accordingly, those forms of classes that use the experience of students become the main ones: experiments, discussions, solving specific problems, etc.

In the andragogical model, students' readiness to learn is determined by their need to learn something to solve their specific life problems. In this case, the teacher's task is to provide the student with the necessary methods and criteria that would help him find out his learning needs. In this regard, the individualization of education on the basis of an individual program becomes the basis for organizing the learning process.

Within the andragogic model, students want to be able to apply the skills and knowledge they have acquired today in order to become more competent in solving any problems. Accordingly, the course of study is based on the development of certain aspects of the competence of students and focuses on solving their specific life tasks. The student's activity in this case consists in acquiring the specific knowledge, skills, abilities that he needs to solve a vital problem, and the teacher's activity is to assist the student in selecting the knowledge, skills, skills and qualities he needs. Training is based on interdisciplinary modules.

In the andragogical model, the entire learning process is based precisely on the joint activities of students and the teacher. Without this form of activity, the learning process simply cannot be realized. Thus, the andragogical model of learning provides for and ensures the active activity of the student, his high motivation and, consequently, the high efficiency of the learning process.

1.5. Organization of adult education

In accordance with the terminology adopted by UNESCO, according to the degree of organization, education is divided into formal, non-formal and non-formal.

Formal education involves the organization of education that meets the following requirements. First, it must be education acquired by the student in institutions specially designed for learning. Secondly, training should be carried out by specially trained personnel. Thirdly, this type of education should lead to the receipt of a generally recognized document on education. Fourth, within the framework of formal education, systematized learning is carried out, i.e., the systematic mastery of classified knowledge, skills and abilities. Finally, this learning is characterized by the purposeful activity of students. This is a generally accepted, traditional type of education, represented by traditional education systems.

Non-formal learning is distinguished by two parameters: the systematization of learning and the purposeful activity of students. This training is organized outside the walls of educational institutions, it is not always carried out by professional teachers (for example, colleagues at work) and does not always culminate in a generally recognized document of education. Here it is appropriate to recall various kinds of circles, sections, courses, lectures, etc.

Informal learning is unorganized learning that does not have any of the named parameters. In other words, this is any acquisition of information about various aspects of life received from the media, from friends, acquaintances, when visiting theaters, cinemas, even if this new knowledge does not always correspond to reality, approximately or superficially. Such knowledge is not systematized, random, not always scientifically substantiated, and the development of certain skills and abilities, the formation of habits, qualities and values ​​are unconscious. The expansion of the sphere of education is currently taking place primarily due to the rapid development of non-formal education. Within the framework of this type of education, there are no prerequisites for initial education, no requirements are imposed on the place, time, timing, forms and methods of education.

According to the method of organizing the individual work of students, education is divided into institutional, group and independent.

Institutional training is the most accepted kind. It is distinguished by the presence of experienced teachers and good sources of learning. The strength of this type of training lies in the stability, thoroughness of preparation, sufficient depth and a high degree of guarantee of achieving results. The disadvantages include a high degree of dictatorship of teachers, a sense of dependence among students, significant standardization, conservatism, and inflexibility.

Group learning - it involves several students on an equal footing who have chosen and jointly created one program, while the goals, implementation plan and main content are accepted by all members of the group of students. This type of training is effective in cases where its program is of interest to several people. However, there can be dangers, such as bad leadership, interpersonal conflicts, and bad relationships.

Independent learning is characterized by a greater degree of autonomy, the independence of the student from external interactions, and the flexibility of learning. Its use is adequate when the student shows interest and responsibility in learning, when the program is not so complicated and other types of learning are difficult. In self-learning, failures are also possible, for example, access to the necessary sources of learning is difficult, the implementation of one's own learning activities, the establishment of feedback is limited, that is, a critical assessment of the results of the student's activities.

According to the main method of interaction between the student and the teacher, education is divided into full-time and distance (or remote). The advantages of full-time education are that this type of education provides direct contact, direct communication between the student and the teacher. This allows you to achieve high learning efficiency.

Distance learning originated and developed within the framework of correspondence learning. In addition to written works and learning sources, distance learning uses television and radio programs, video and audio cassettes, computer programs, and various types of teacher consultations (computer, telephone, face-to-face).

The development of distance learning is associated with the emergence of the concept of "open" learning (in Russian it is better to designate it as free learning). The difference between free education is a practically unlimited variety of courses and training programs, and it is not limited either in content, or in the terms of study, or in the forms of education, or in the types of education. This type of training is based on the following philosophical, psychological and andragogical premises:

1) an independent and leading role of the individual in the process of her learning;

2) provision by educational institutions to the student of opportunities and assistance for the implementation of the learning process;

3) overcoming the negative aspects of distancing students from teachers;

4) the use of various forms of communication between students and teachers.

The main principle of this type of education is the principle of free choice. With the development of free learning, the relationship between students and teachers and learning itself has changed: there is a real involvement of the student in the learning process.

Topic 2. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

2.1. The structure of learning activities

A person is formed and manifested in activity. Throughout his life, he carries out many types of activities: reading, drawing, doing science, cutting and sewing, mental and physical labor, studying at school, etc. Each activity in certain periods of a person’s life is leading, dominant. For example, for a student, learning activity is the leading one. In the scientific literature, educational activity is considered as a special activity of the student, consciously directed by him to achieve the goals of education and upbringing, taken as his personal goals. As a result of educational activity, changes occur in the student himself, therefore, this is the activity of the subject for self-change.

In their research, psychologists and educators distinguish the following features of educational activity.

1. Educational activity is focused on changing the student himself, on his development, and not on obtaining other results. This is the main function of learning activity.

2. General methods for solving various classes of learning problems should be defined. Educational activities should be aimed at mastering these methods by students.

3. The student should not receive knowledge in a "ready form". In order for him to consciously master new concepts and methods of action, the study of a new concept should begin with a motivational introduction (that is, an explanation to the student why and why he needs to study this concept).

4. The formation of educational activities should be based on the principle of generalization: knowledge of a general nature precedes knowledge of a particular and specific nature.

5. Educational activity is the basis of any other activity, since before carrying out any activity, it is necessary to master it in the conditions of educational activity.

In the studies of psychologists, attempts are being made to determine the structural composition of educational activity. In addition to the need for learning activities, its first component is the motivation for learning. The second component is learning objectives. In turn, the learning task includes a goal, learning activities, conditions for achieving the goal, i.e. self-control and self-assessment, and a result. When you combine these components, you get the following row:

learning activity = need + motive + goal + learning activities + self-control + self-esteem.

In modern conditions, educational activity plays a huge role: this is the activity that must be performed by a person throughout his life. But in order to master the activity itself, it is necessary to know its structure. Like any other, learning activity has its own subject, product, operations (learning activities) and orienting basis. The subject of learning activity is the experience of the student himself, which changes by assigning elements of social experience to him, the product is the student himself, his abilities, the result of his development. In educational activities, the goal is aimed at the student, who himself consciously sets the goal of developing skills, abilities or any quality in himself. Operations, or a system of learning actions, include planning and performing actions that provide the solution of learning problems.

Planning actions - this is the system of guidelines and instructions, using which students perform learned actions. This is the indicative basis of action (OOA), which allows you to plan the upcoming activities: in what sequence to act; what to do first; what actions need to be taken. There are three types of orienting basis of action.

A feature of the first type of OOD is that students are given an incomplete system of guidelines and instructions. In order for the action to be performed correctly, a more complete system is needed. Therefore, the student performs the action by trial and error. On the basis of this orientation, the educational action is assimilated with great difficulty, it remains not fully conscious. The transfer of such an educational action to new objects practically remains difficult.

The second type of OOD: students are given a complete orienting basis of action in the form of either an instruction, or a computer program, or an algorithm for solving a problem, etc. In other words, the teacher (the author of the textbook) performs planning actions, and the student only copies them according to the model.

The third type of OOD is that the teacher gives generalized guidelines. In this case, the orienting basis of the action is compiled by the student independently with the help of a general method that is given to him. With the help of a general algorithm for solving a learning problem proposed by the teacher, the student composes his own specific algorithm of action.

Researchers offer the most general algorithm for solving a learning problem: 1) isolate data, conditions, facts, grounds, definitions; 2) compare and group (systematize) these data; 3) rephrase and rethink the learning task; 4) transform the situation to determine what you are looking for.

Implementation activities include:

- actions related to the understanding of the content of the educational material, which is presented by the teacher orally. It is also possible to independently search and solve the problem;

- actions related to understanding the content of educational material from written messages, i.e. reading and decoding educational material; clarification of the content; highlighting the main provisions; note-taking. This also includes actions related to the independent acquisition of new knowledge by deriving consequences, evidence, conclusions;

- actions of working out educational material by memorization or working out in the exercises offered by the teacher;

- activities involving self-construction of knowledge. This group includes the analysis of the solution of the educational problem and the verification of the solution found.

The structure of control actions includes control of assimilation and control of working off. These actions involve students comparing their actions with samples and are part of performing actions. Actions of control gradually turn into self-control. Self-assessment of one's actions implies awareness by students of all components of educational activity.

1. Students' awareness of the learning task: what is the learning task; what actions should be taken to solve any problem; what needs to be done to solve a particular problem?

2. Awareness by the individual of the purpose of educational activity: what did I learn in this lesson? Evaluation by the student of the results of activities depending on the implementation of its goals.

3. Evaluation of modes of activity specific to various academic subjects; understanding by students of general methods of action, the ability to highlight the general, invariant in various academic subjects. This should also include students' awareness of specific operations necessary to solve cognitive problems.

2.2. The problem of motivation of educational activity

The word "motive" (from the French motif - I move) can be interpreted in two ways. On the one hand, the motive is understood as a person's motivation for activity. On the other hand, a motive is a conscious need, which is a source of human activity, therefore, a motive expresses the direction of its activity. Motives are related to the goals that a person sets.

In the studies of psychologists, the motive is defined as an incentive to activity associated with the satisfaction of the needs of the subject. The totality of such motives that cause the activity of the subject is motivation. Motives are an essential component of any activity. A typical sign of a motive is a set of actions around one object. A motive can be satisfied by a set of different actions. On the other hand, action can be motivated by various motives. Needs, interests, feelings, knowledge, etc. can act as motives. Motives are far from always realized, therefore, two large classes of motives are distinguished - conscious and unconscious.

The motivational sphere includes needs, motives and goals. A human need is a desire to act: a need requires the performance of actions, as a result of which it is satisfied. For example, I want to sleep, I don't want to eat, I don't want to study, I want ice cream, etc. The most significant of the needs is intellectual. By actions, one can judge the needs of a person. The need, as a rule, has two sides - procedural (action) and content (need). Some needs may be without need, for example, the need to communicate, think, sleep, etc. A person not only wants something, but also designates his needs with a word. Thus, needs are characterized by the following features: meaning (idea), content (need), procedural side (activity).

The motives of educational activity are the driving force that directs the student to the active acquisition of knowledge, skills and abilities. Such motives can be motivated by different sources: external (learning situations), internal (social needs, the need for activity, in obtaining information), personal (success, pleasure, self-affirmation). The sources of motives will create a positive attitude towards learning activity if they are "included" in it, that is, if they are its goal and result. Among the motives of learning, one can distinguish, for example, the prediction of the results of learning (I will receive a test, pass an exam, master a foreign language, etc.), foreseeable experiences that are associated with the results of educational activities.

In the structure of motives, it is important to find the dominant, acting really, and highlight it. The greatest force among the motives of educational activity has a cognitive interest, i.e., an interest in cognition. The motivation of cognitive interest is connected with the unity of its three sides: cognitive, emotional and volitional, which make up its structure. The unity of interest, feeling and will is a powerful stimulus for teaching. With age, cognitive interest turns from unstable to dominant. The development of the motivational basis consists in increasing the share of the cognitive motive in it. Poorly successful students show a lack or delay in cognitive interest, instability of educational motives, and the predominance of motives of coercion over motives of motivation.

The motivational basis of learning activity is a sequence of motives that support its continuity and stability. The motivational basis of the student's activity organizes (unites) learning activity into a single whole. The system of the motivational basis of the student's learning activity consists of the following elements: focusing on the learning situation (realization of the meaning of the upcoming activity), conscious choice of motive (goal setting), striving for the goal (implementation of learning activities), striving to achieve success (realization of confidence in the correctness of one's actions ), self-assessment of the process and results of activities (emotional attitude to activities).

The formation of the motivation for learning activity is slowed down by the poverty of the reported educational material, the incompetence of the teacher, his inability to understand professional issues, disinterest in work, the monotony of the examples and tasks given, the repetition of methods, the lack of evaluation, the unfriendly attitude of the teacher towards students, the methods of coercion to activity.

Training courses are designed to create students' motivation to acquire knowledge in the discipline being studied, to promote the process of their professional self-determination and personal reflection.

In the learning process, there are three groups of motives, depending on what underlies the motivation - motivation or the need for knowledge. These motifs are associated with traditional and active learning methods:

1) directly motivating motives. They can arise in students due to the pedagogical skills of the teacher, forming an interest in this subject;

2) prospectively motivating motives. Cognitive activity is only a means to achieve a goal that is outside the educational activity itself. For example, students develop a motive for learning, because they need to pass the session with excellent marks;

3) cognitive-motivating motives of the disinterested search for knowledge, truth. They appear when using active teaching methods and, having arisen, turn into a factor in the activation of the educational process and the effectiveness of training.

The acquisition of knowledge must be creatively active. It is important that students' activities include the acquisition of knowledge through the use of various sources of information and the ability to work with them. The result of successful completion of the course will be a good knowledge of the basic concepts of the discipline being studied and fluency in the material.

2.3. Educational activities of students

Educational activities are carried out, as a rule, in the interaction of a student (student) and a teacher (teacher). A student can take the position of a learner or learner. In the first case, he is the object of educational activity, in the second - its subject. The position of the learner is most often occupied by a schoolboy (child), the student - by a student (adult). From this follow two models of interaction between the teacher and students - pedagogical, focused on teaching children, and andragogical, aimed at teaching adults.

Unlike a schoolchild, a student has a leading role in the learning process, that is, he is not a learner, but a learner. The student strives for independence and self-realization. He is trained to achieve a specific goal - the application of the knowledge, skills and abilities acquired in the learning process immediately after graduation.

In the traditional pedagogical model of teaching, the dominant position is occupied by the teacher (teaching): he determines the goals, content, methods, means and sources of learning. The trainee (schoolchild) occupies a subordinate position in the model under consideration and does not influence the learning process. His participation in learning activities is reduced to the perception of the social experience transmitted by the educators. The main influence on the student's readiness for learning is exerted by external factors: coercion, pressure from family, society or friends, etc. The main task of the teacher in this model is to create artificial motivation. The goal of the trainees is to memorize as much educational material as possible in order to obtain more knowledge, skills and abilities that are not related to practice.

In the andragogical model, the student is one of the equal subjects of the learning process. The task of the teacher is to assist the student in determining the parameters of learning and searching for information, in selecting the knowledge, skills and abilities he needs; to encourage his desire for learning; create favorable conditions for the student and provide him with the necessary methods and criteria. The main activity of the student is the process of independent search for knowledge, skills and qualities. In this case, the main forms of classes are discussions, solving specific problems, business games, etc. The student plays a leading role in shaping motivation and determining learning goals. The course of study within the framework of the andragogical model is based on the development of certain aspects of the competence of students in order to act more effectively in their professional activities.

2.4. Formation of educational activity of students

For teachers of higher education, it is not so much the analysis of the structure of educational activity that is of interest, but the problem of its formation among students. We are talking about teaching students, especially junior students, how to learn, while the greatest difficulty is the ability to independently select the material to be mastered. The formation of learning activity from a random process should be transformed into a very important task, both for the teacher and for the student himself. The essence of the formation of educational activity of students is to create conditions under which the individual becomes the subject of the learning process.

Description of the process of formation of educational activity, as well as any pedagogical process, researchers associate with the concept of "technology" (from the Greek. techne - art, skill, ability and logos - word, teaching). Technology is a set of methods implemented in any process. Pedagogical technology is a set of rules and their corresponding pedagogical techniques and methods of influencing the development, training and education of students.

Pedagogical technology has its own essential features: goals, i.e. for what it is necessary to apply it; availability of diagnostic tools; patterns of structuring the interaction between the teacher and students, allowing to design the pedagogical process; a system of means and conditions that guarantee the achievement of pedagogical goals; means of analyzing the process and results of the teacher and students. Built on the basis of pedagogical technology, the pedagogical process must guarantee the achievement of the goals set. This is the specificity of pedagogical technology.

Conditions for the formation of educational activities. An analysis of the concept of "pedagogical technology" makes it possible to single out the conditions for the formation of educational activities, such as the diagnosis of the formation of students' educational activities; choice of goals of the teacher's activity; structuring the activities of the teacher in the learning process in accordance with the structure of the educational activities of students; selection and design of means for the formation of educational activities; analysis of the process and results of the formation of educational activities.

1. Before setting goals, the teacher must find out the state of readiness of students for learning, i.e., diagnose the formation of educational activity. In other words, it is important to find out to what extent all its components are formed, i.e. what is the level of development of learning motivation; whether students are able to set goals for themselves, to realize the motives of the teaching as a whole, as well as the goals of individual classes; do they understand the educational task, do they distinguish between educational and practical tasks; what educational skills and abilities they possess; can students ask questions, find arguments, illustrative material (examples); whether they have developed the ability to take notes, summarize, etc.; whether students are able to control their learning activities, evaluate their own actions and the actions of others; whether they have developed the ability to analyze, correct and improve cognitive processes.

Diagnostics of educational activity is necessary precisely at the initial stage of training, in order for the teacher to be able to determine his goals and objectives in organizing the lesson. In addition, knowledge of the capabilities of students in learning activities allows you to manage learning activities and its development. Diagnosis is important not only for the teacher, but also for the student.

2. The definition of goals and the setting of tasks for educational activities depend on the results of diagnostics. The choice of goals and objectives ensures the integrity of educational activities.

When shaping the educational activities of students, the first place is the understanding of the educational goal by students - here we are talking about the processes of goal formation, which predetermine the student's readiness for work. Goal formation is closely connected with the formation of the motives of the teaching. According to the observations of psychologists, motives characterize learning activities as a whole, and goals characterize individual learning activities. Goals without motives do not define learning activities. The motive gives direction to action, and the search for a goal suggests that the action will be performed.

The components of goal formation are singled out: intellectual (the ability to distinguish a practical task from an educational one); motivational (desire to master ways); emotional (satisfaction with activity planning); strong-willed (manifestation of perseverance in achieving the goal). Psychologists also distinguish two features of goal formation: 1) goals are not invented - they are given in objective circumstances; 2) the goal must be specific, it is necessary to determine the conditions for its achievement.

Insufficient success in learning is due to the fact that not every student has the ability to compare the goal and their capabilities. The processes of goal formation also do not always correspond to the increasingly complex tasks of educational activity. Researchers believe that goal setting has two forms: self-determination of the goal in the course of performing activities and goal setting based on requirements and tasks put forward by someone. The second form of goal setting is the leading one, since the student redefines the goal set by the teacher, depending on what motives are leading for him. Therefore, it is necessary that such motives turn out to be educational and cognitive. If the leading motive is cognitive interest, then the teacher's goal will become the student's own goal.

The selection of funds is greatly influenced by the goals of the formation of educational activities, the age characteristics of students and the level of their real learning opportunities. Much also depends on the subject being studied and the specifics of education in an educational institution (secondary school, university, etc.). The general goals of the formation of educational activities include

- development of all components of educational activity (learning motivation, learning activities, self-control, self-assessment); intellectual sphere (thinking in its various forms, cognitive processes, mental operations, learning skills, activation of the mechanisms of independent intellectual activity); motivational (intellectual, cognitive needs, the need to achieve and communicate, the ability to set goals for educational activities and the desire to achieve them) and emotional spheres (harmonious development of various feelings and emotions, the formation of adequate self-esteem, the development of skills to understand one's own emotional states and the reasons that give rise to them overcoming excessive emotional tension and increased anxiety);

- formation of purposefulness, independence in the implementation of educational activities - in the volitional sphere;

- development of creative abilities in the field of pedagogical theory and practice (the ability to formulate problems, find ways to solve them, analyze situations, etc. - in the subject-practical sphere;

- development of value orientations, life position - in the existential sphere;

- the formation of independence of views, judgments, approaches, etc., freedom of choice and definition of educational tasks, ways to solve them, control the results of their activities; development of reflexive processes (analysis of educational and cognitive actions, self-control and self-esteem), the ability to manage one's states (emotional, volitional, motivational, etc.), behavior - in the field of self-regulation.

3. The main condition for the formation of educational activities is the structuring of the interaction between the teacher and the student during classes (i.e., the process of planning and organizing educational activities). The activity of the teacher should be structured in accordance with the formation of the student's educational activity and taking into account the level of development of the latter. When structuring interaction, the teacher needs, firstly, to predict situations of learning activity and, secondly, to develop special tasks that reflect the components of learning activity. As an example, researchers cite the following tasks:

- define your own goals for the lesson (its stage);

- Think about why you want to work in class today;

- determine the importance, significance of the studied material;

- analyze your thoughts, do you have any additional suggestions for studying the educational material;

- formulate your learning objectives (or choose from those offered);

- determine the way to solve your learning problem;

- answer yourself, did you manage to solve your educational problem;

- identify your difficulties during the lesson;

- Evaluate your work (results of tasks);

- ask the teacher questions that you have;

- imagine yourself in the place of a teacher: what would you suggest to get answers to your questions, unsolved problems, etc.

4. The next condition is the selection and design of means for the formation of educational activities. The selection of pedagogical means helps the teacher to achieve the goals of forming educational activities. These tools include: a) the content of educational material and learning objectives; b) methods and forms of education; c) visual, computer and other teaching aids; d) personal and professional qualities of the teacher; e) public opinion of the collective, intra-collective relations.

The following are offered as educational tasks for students: to learn to determine their goals (for the entire lesson or its individual stages); when listening to a teacher, learn to think with him; learn to highlight the most important thoughts in the educational material (first of all - for yourself personally); learn basic note-taking techniques (word abbreviations, symbols, abbreviations, emphasis, etc.); learn to control their mental states and manage them; evaluate their own actions (educational and cognitive); ask questions and formulate them during the lesson or at the end of it; to learn, a little ahead of the teacher, to find their own way of solving a problem or draw a conclusion (to test their cognitive abilities).

5. Another condition is the teacher's analysis of the process and results of the formation of educational activity. Any activity involves the analysis or introspection of the results of actions. When solving the next pedagogical task, the teacher changes the level of formation of educational activity, while he receives or perceives feedback signals that carry information about the results. This information gives an idea of ​​whether the goal has been achieved, whether the learning task has been solved. Analysis (self-analysis) of educational activity is its integral component, the same as setting a goal and applying the means to achieve it.

How can a teacher provide feedback? receive information about the functioning of educational activities? The easiest way is to observe the activities of the teacher in the classroom and then analyze it (or self-observation and introspection). Monitoring the activities of the teacher will provide data on the results of the formation of educational activities by comparing the actions of the teacher with those changes in the educational activities of students that he managed to achieve. The task of observation (or self-observation) of the actions of the teacher is to determine the effectiveness of certain actions, their rationality and expediency (that is, how optimal was the solution of certain pedagogical problems). This will enable the teacher to correct their actions in a timely manner.

On the basis of taking into account the development of the intellectual sphere of students, recommendations have been developed for the analysis (self-analysis) of the teacher's activities in the classroom. To do this, he is asked to answer the following questions.

- To what extent does the training session develop the components of the intellectual sphere in students?

- Do the actions of the teacher in the classroom correspond to the laws of students' mental activity?

- Are the reflexive components of mental activity formed during the lesson?

- To what extent do students develop common methods of mental activity?

- Do students learn during the lesson the methods of logical, semantic processing of educational material?

- Do students learn to evaluate and analyze the work of their comrades, their mental activity?

What comprehension criteria does the teacher use to determine how the material is understood?

- Is collective thinking activity used in the lesson?

- To what extent are elements of creative thinking formed?

- Are students' differences in the main qualities of their intellectual sphere (smartness, flexibility, independence, awareness, etc.) taken into account?

Such recommendations guide the teacher to comprehend their actions and the actions of students, determine the interaction between the teacher and students and become an indicator of how focused the teacher's activity is.

Didactic foundations for the formation of educational activities. Educational activity can be considered as one of the sides of practical activity. It does not exist outside of practical activity, developing only in its process. Having mastered educational activity, a person successfully masters practical activity, therefore, educational activity has an independent meaning for him. Along with the didactic conditions, researchers identify the following didactic foundations for the formation of educational activities.

1. The principle of integrity means that educational activities should be organized in such a way as to ensure the unity of educational and cognitive motives, goals, educational activities, results.

2. Priority of self-study. This is understood as the independent implementation by students of their learning (but not the conduct of independent work as a type of learning activity). The organization of educational activities in accordance with this principle is carried out as the construction of a labor model based on the life experience of the student.

3. The principle of elective learning means giving the student the freedom to determine the goals, forms, methods, sources, means, terms, time, place of learning, evaluation of learning outcomes.

4. The principle of the unity of activity involves ensuring the unity of subject and educational activities. In accordance with this principle, the teaching process should be structured in such a way that it corresponds to the structure of the students' learning activities.

5. The principle of reflection means that both the teacher and the students must be aware of their actions, that is, comprehend all the components of the learning process, as well as their actions to organize it. Reflective processes in students will develop much more efficiently if the teacher teaches them to introspect activities.

A student can master all components of educational activity only with the help of a teacher. The solution to the problem of forming the educational activity of students will be successful if the teacher manages to develop in students such qualities that characterize the individuality and personality of a person: organization, responsibility, purposefulness, independence, initiative, etc.

2.5. Theory of learning and teaching at the university

As we have already said, learning is a purposeful, pre-designed communication, during which the education, upbringing and development of the student is carried out, assimilation by him of certain aspects of the experience of mankind. Learning as a process is a joint activity of the teacher and students (students). The purpose of training is the development of students, the formation of their knowledge, skills and abilities of educational activities.

In order to understand the essence of learning, it is necessary to identify the main components of this process. As the first two components, the interdependent processes of teaching and learning are singled out. As activities, teaching and learning are aimed at mastering a certain content. From here it is possible to differentiate the third element of education - the content of the studied. These components represent the external side of learning. What is the essence of learning, i.e., the inner content?

The most important social function of education is the formation of personality, the source of which is world culture, reflecting all the richness of the experience accumulated by mankind. The content of education is determined by the composition of human culture. Researchers identify elements of this content: knowledge; methods of activity established and derived in experience; creative experience; emotional and value attitude towards the objects under study and reality, including the attitude towards other people and oneself, the needs and motives of social, scientific, professional activities.

Thus, the learning process is a purposeful, socially conditioned and pedagogically organized process of the development of the personality of students, occurring on the basis of mastering systematized scientific knowledge and methods of activity. Learning is presented as a chain of learning situations, the cognitive core of which is educational and cognitive tasks, and the content is the joint activity of the teacher and students, carried out with the help of teaching methods and methods. The principles of learning connect theoretical ideas about learning with pedagogical practice. They are considered as recommendations for the implementation of pedagogical activities and the educational process.

When highlighting the system of principles of education in higher education, the peculiarities of the educational process of universities are taken into account. So, in high school, science is studied, and not the basics of science. Here there is a convergence of independent work of students and research work of teachers. In the activities of teachers of higher education, scientific and educational work are combined. The educational activities of universities are aimed at professionalization. In this regard, the principles of education are formulated, reflecting the features of the educational process in higher education, such as ensuring unity in the scientific and educational activities of students; professional orientation and professional mobility; problematic; emotionality and majority of the whole learning process. Based on the synthesis of these principles, groups of principles of teaching in higher education are distinguished:

- focus of higher education on the development of the personality of a future specialist;

- compliance of the content of university education with modern and predictable trends in the development of science (technology) and production (technology);

- the optimal combination of general, group and individual forms of organization of the educational process at the university;

- rational application of modern methods and means of training at various stages of training specialists;

- compliance of the results of training specialists with the requirements of a specific area of ​​their professional activity, ensuring their competitiveness.

The educational process, the activities of the teacher and students, the result of learning in higher education depend on the methods (from the Greek methodos - the way, the way to move towards the truth) of learning as ways of organizing cognitive activity. The teaching method is understood as a way of interrelated activities of the teacher and students, aimed at solving the problems of education.

There are five teaching methods in the scientific literature. Their classification is built in such a way that in each following method the degree of activity and independence of the trainees increases.

1. The explanatory and illustrative method lies in the fact that students receive knowledge in a lecture, from educational, methodological literature in a "ready" form. In a university, this method involves the transfer of a large amount of information to the student.

2. The reproductive method includes the use of what has been studied on the basis of a sample or rule. Students in the learning process act according to instructions, rules in situations similar to those shown in the example.

3. The method of problematic presentation consists in the use by the teacher of a variety of sources and means. Before presenting the material, the teacher poses a problem, formulates a cognitive task, and then, comparing points of view, different approaches, shows a way to solve it. At the same time, students become participants in scientific research. This approach is widely used in university practice.

4. Partial-search, or heuristic (from the Greek. heurisko - I look for, I open), the method is used in the process of discovering a new one. Its essence lies in the organization by the teacher of an active search for a solution to the cognitive tasks put forward in teaching (or independently formulated). The search for a solution can take place either under the guidance of a teacher, or on the basis of heuristic programs and instructions. This method contributes to the activation of thinking, arousing interest in knowledge at seminars.

5. The research method consists in the fact that after analyzing the material, setting problems and tasks, and briefing, students independently study literature, sources, conduct observations and perform other search activities. This method contributes to the development of students' initiative, independence, creative search in research activities.

Methods of educational work directly develop into methods of scientific research.

Topic 3. EDUCATIONAL CONTENT

3.1. State standard

The content of education is a system of elements of the objective experience of mankind, specially selected and recognized by society (the state), the assimilation of which is necessary for successful activity in a certain area. The content of education is also understood as a system of knowledge, skills and abilities. In addition, the concept of "an educated person" includes such components as development and education.

When selecting criteria for the content of education, one should take into account not only the needs of society in relation to higher education, but also the needs of the individual, i.e., the needs of a person in education. Taking into account these needs, in accordance with paragraph 1 of Art. 10 of the Law on Education, educational programs can be in the following forms: full-time, part-time (evening), part-time - in an educational institution; in the form of family education, self-education, external studies. A combination of various forms of education is allowed.

Article 14 of the Law on Education contains general requirements for the content of education.

1. The content of education is one of the factors of the economic and social progress of society and should be focused on ensuring the self-determination of the individual, creating conditions for its self-realization; development of society; strengthening and improvement of the rule of law.

2. The content of education should provide: a) an adequate world level of the general and professional culture of the society; b) the formation of a student's picture of the world adequate to the modern level of knowledge and the level of the educational program (level of education); c) integration of the individual into the national and world culture; d) the formation of a person and a citizen integrated into contemporary society and aimed at improving this society; e) reproduction and development of the personnel potential of the society.

3. Vocational education at any level should ensure that students receive a profession and appropriate qualifications.

4. The content of education should promote mutual understanding and cooperation between people, nations, regardless of racial, national, ethnic, religious and social affiliation, take into account the diversity of worldview approaches, promote the realization of the right of students to freely choose opinions and beliefs.

5. The content of education in a specific educational institution is determined by the educational program developed, adopted and implemented by this educational institution independently.

State educational authorities ensure the development of exemplary educational programs based on state educational standards.

6. An educational institution, in accordance with its statutory goals and objectives, may implement additional educational programs and provide additional educational services (on a contractual basis) outside the educational programs that determine its status.

7. An educational institution, when implementing educational programs, uses the capabilities of cultural institutions.

The content of education should ensure that students master the social experience of older generations. There are four elements that this experience includes: a) knowledge about nature, society, technology, thinking; b) experience in the implementation of known methods of activity; c) the experience of creative, search activities to solve new problems, the formation of new ways of activity on the basis of already known ones; d) the experience of a value attitude to objects or means of human activity, its manifestation in relation to the surrounding world. In addition, the content of education is designed to provide an individual way of human existence and should include a system of pedagogical tools, firstly, contributing to the development of the student's intellectual sphere and, secondly, contributing to the student's adaptation, his freedom and integration with society.

Each academic discipline should contribute to the mastery of the above elements. The following criteria for selecting the content of education are distinguished: 1) scientific and practical significance; 2) compliance of the content with age capabilities; 3) compliance of the amount of content with the amount of time available; 4) compliance of the content with the existing educational, methodological and material base.

In the Russian Federation, state educational standards have been established, which include federal and regional (national-regional) components, as well as a component of an educational institution (clause 1, article 7 of the Law on Education). The standard is a normative document, which without fail contains: a) the minimum content of the main educational programs; b) the maximum amount of teaching load of students; c) requirements for the level of training of graduates.

The following functions of the educational standard can be distinguished. On the one hand, the standard allows you to assess the level of education of the student. On the other hand, it is designed to provide equal opportunities for education, as well as to encourage everyone to achieve a higher result in obtaining education.

The state educational standard reflects public goals and takes into account the needs of every citizen in education. In connection with this standard of education, the following aspects are provided: a) the allocation of the core of education, which is mandatory for all educational institutions; b) strengthening the importance of the humanitarian aspects of the content of education; c) maintaining attention to the natural-mathematical cycle of subjects; d) orientation of the content of education to universal values. In addition, the requirements of the general development of students, the formation of their educational activities, communication skills, a culture of behavior, and the assimilation of ethical standards have been introduced into the educational standards of universities.

Thus, the content of education, which is determined by the state standard, makes it possible to form not only subject knowledge and skills, but also qualities that determine the development of individuality. Compliance with the requirements of educational standards testifies to the formation of the necessary knowledge, skills and abilities in students, as well as value orientations that ensure the mastery of various types of activities, adaptation to the natural and social environment, the level of general erudition, the formation of a personal attitude to the world around and the assimilation of ethical norms.

The state educational standard is represented by the basic curriculum. In the structure of the basic curriculum of educational institutions, the following are distinguished: a) an invariant part (core), which ensures familiarization with general cultural and nationally significant values, the formation of personal qualities that correspond to social ideals; b) the variable part, which also ensures the individual nature of the development of students, taking into account their individual and personal characteristics. As a result, three types of training sessions are distinguished in the curriculum: 1) compulsory classes, which form the core of education; 2) compulsory classes at the choice of students; 3) extracurricular activities.

The plan is not limited to the description of individual subjects, but is a set of educational areas. This opens up opportunities for creating a variety of curricula with an alternative set of academic disciplines, and also provides intra- and inter-subject communications.

In accordance with the state educational standard, the curriculum of a higher educational institution is divided into federal, national-regional and university components. The federal component ensures the unity of education and includes educational disciplines of general cultural and national importance. The national-regional component provides for the needs and interests of the peoples of the country represented by the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in the field of education. This component includes academic disciplines that reflect the national and regional identity of culture. The university component, which involves both compulsory elective classes and optional classes, reflects the specifics of a particular educational institution and allows it to independently develop and implement educational programs and curricula. The following characteristics of curricula are distinguished:

1) flexibility - it involves the inclusion in the curriculum of several independent, independent courses of academic disciplines;

2) differentiation, i.e., variation in the composition of disciplines and the time for their study, the introduction of freely chosen subjects, electives;

3) integration, which involves the unification of related subjects (for example, psychology, pedagogy and the history of the development of sciences; mathematics and computer science, etc.);

4) unification, when the content and volume of academic disciplines are developed depending on their functional purpose for certain profiles;

5) humanization, which implies different levels of mastering individual subjects by the student, as well as an orientation towards knowledge as a condition for the development of the student.

The educational standard includes a list of information and skills for each academic discipline, which is mandatory for students to master. This list is reviewed and modified as necessary.

The total amount (number of hours) of study time allocated to full-time students for the implementation of the curriculum is calculated for a 54-hour academic week (nine hours a day, excluding Sundays and holidays). On average, no more than 50% of the time of the school week is allocated to the work of students with a teacher in the form of compulsory classroom studies. The rest of the time is intended for independent work, meetings with teachers (individual lessons), consultations on independent study of educational material.

A higher educational institution is allowed to independently determine the form of the curriculum, establish a schedule for the educational process, the presence and duration of examination sessions, the start and end dates of semesters; transfer, if necessary, the study of individual disciplines from one period of study to another, as well as change their volume (provided that the entire range of scientific knowledge provided for by the program is covered) and the ratio of classroom, individual studies, independent work of students; to distribute the volume of certain types of training sessions (lectures, laboratory work, practical and seminar classes) within the scope of classroom activities provided for by the standard curriculum; establish forms of final control for the disciplines introduced by the university, as well as introduce additional classes to improve the cultural and educational level of students.

The unified basis of curricula is the implementation of the principle of continuity, by virtue of which the main studied units of content receive further development and enrichment.

3.2. Learning programs

At the theoretical level, the content of education is presented in curricula; it receives its concrete embodiment in academic disciplines (courses). An academic discipline is a system of scientific knowledge, skills and abilities that allow a student to master the basic principles of science, culture, labor and production. The content of a scientific discipline must be studied in the sequence of its historical emergence. Its presentation should be based on the structure of the current state of the scientific discipline and correspond to the cognitive abilities of students. The content of the academic discipline is implemented and fixed in the curriculum.

A curriculum is a normative document that reveals the content of knowledge, skills and abilities in an academic discipline. It is a logical structure for studying the material, indicating the sequence of topics and questions being studied. The criterion for the success and effectiveness of the learning process is the assimilation of knowledge provided for by the program of the academic discipline.

Researchers single out the functions of the curriculum: descriptive (the program describes the content of the academic discipline); ideological and ideological (the knowledge provided by the program is aimed at the formation of the scientific worldview and spirituality of the student); regulatory, or organizational and methodological (the curriculum organizes the activities of both the teacher in preparation for classes, and the student in independent study of the discipline). The curriculum performs the last function in interaction with programs of other disciplines, which allows creating a common worldview of the student and forming his spiritual and value attitude to the phenomena of reality.

Curricula can be standard, working and copyright. Model curricula are developed on the basis of the requirements of the state educational standard in a particular field of education. They are approved by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation and are advisory in nature.

As social, scientific and technological progress, the development of science and practice periodically arises the need to revise curricula. On the basis of a standard program, working training programs are developed and approved, which must comply with the requirements of the state standard. The work program outlines the national-regional component, takes into account the possibilities of methodological, informational, and technical support for the educational process.

Author's curricula also take into account the requirements of the state standard, but may have a different logical structure for constructing an academic discipline, the author's point of view on the phenomena and processes being studied, and their own approaches to the study of certain theories. Such programs should have external reviews (from experts in the field, teachers, psychologists, methodologists). Such programs are mainly used in the teaching of elective courses.

There are two ways to build curricula: concentric and linear. If the same sections, topics of the curriculum are studied at different levels of education, or there is a return to the already completed educational material at different stages of studying the same discipline, there is a concentric way of deploying the content of educational material. With the linear method, there is no return to the studied sections, topics of the discipline; educational material is presented sequentially, with gradual complication, new knowledge is presented on the basis of already studied material. These two ways of constructing curricula complement each other.

The structure of the curriculum contains three elements: 1) an explanatory note, which defines the main objectives of the academic discipline; 2) the content of the discipline, i.e. the thematic plan, the content of topics, the tasks of their study, basic concepts, skills, types of classes; 3) some guidelines regarding the assessment of knowledge, skills and abilities.

The content of the curricula is reflected in the educational literature, which includes textbooks and teaching aids.

The schedule of studies is a document that ensures the organization of the educational process, a certain mode of operation of the university. It is made up for a semester. The task of developing a schedule is to ensure the methodologically correct order of studying disciplines in a semester, their mutual linking, pedagogically sound sequence and alternation of all types of classes, taking into account the psychological capabilities of students. Scheduling is a complex process that requires a lot of preparatory work, deep knowledge and understanding of curricula and schedules, teaching staff and the entire educational and laboratory base of the university.

The initial data for planning the schedule are: a) the time allotted by the curriculum for studying the subject, and the distribution of hours by type of occupation; b) the number of lecture audiences (the number of lecture streams); c) the number of study groups in the stream; d) the distribution of teachers according to the forms of educational work, the list of lectures and practical classes planned in specialized classes (laboratories); e) pedagogical requirements (alternating technical and humanitarian subjects, the need to observe certain intervals between lectures and practical classes, etc.).

The schedule of classes for the semester must meet three main groups of requirements: methodological, organizational and requirements that ensure independent and research work of students.

The methodological requirements include compliance with the sequence of classes in accordance with the program; the uniformity of the study load of students by week in the semester; scheduling lectures only for the first two to four hours of classes (because after four hours the student's performance drops by 30-35% and the lecture form of education becomes ineffective); alternation of two-hour lectures in the same stream for some psycho-physiological relaxation in the work of students; planning classes that require great nervous or physical stress, causing strong emotions (physical education, work in some types of laboratories), for the last hours; conducting practical classes on each topic not earlier than the next day after the theoretical (lectures); planning classes on the same subject for no more than two hours a day (with the exception of laboratory work).

Organizational requirements provide for a clear distribution of class hours for each teacher, rooms for classes, accounting for the employment of teachers in related courses or faculties, spacing lectures on the same subject in time to ensure the interchangeability of lecturers in case of illness of one of them, lack of free hours in conducting activities during the day.

The requirements for ensuring independent and research work of students mean the spacing of lectures on the same subject for at least one or two days, the provision of intervals between seminars on the same subject of at least one week (for uniformity of load students), planning for one day no more than two practical classes with labor-intensive preparation.

When scheduling training sessions, it is necessary to take into account the wishes of students. The stability of the schedule is ensured by the fact that it is approved by the rector: without his knowledge, no one has the right to make any changes to the schedule.

Topic 4. FORMS OF TRAINING AND METHODOLOGY

Effective education is possible only through the use of various forms and methods of organizing the pedagogical process. The teaching method acts as a way of organizing the process of mastering new knowledge by students, the formation of skills and abilities, the development of their mental (psychological) functions and personal qualities. The concept of "method" characterizes the content, or internal, side of the educational process. Teaching methods are ways of joint activity of teachers and students aimed at achieving their educational goals.

The concept of the form of organization of training reflects the nature of the relationship between the participants in the pedagogical process. The form of learning is associated with the inner, content side of the learning process: the same form can be used in different teaching methods and vice versa. In didactics, the following organizational forms of education are distinguished:

- ways of learning;

- forms of organization of the entire education system;

- forms (types) of learning activities of trainees;

- forms of organization of the current work of the trained groups.

The form as an external side of the organization of the educational process depends on the goals, content, methods and means of training, material conditions, the composition of the participants in the educational process and its other elements. Forms of education are divided according to the number of students, time and place of study.

In didactics, it is customary to single out the forms of learning individual, group, frontal, collective, pair, classroom and extracurricular, classroom and extracurricular, school and extracurricular. The individual form of training implies the interaction of a teacher with one student. In group forms, work is carried out in groups formed on a different basis. The frontal form of training involves the work of a teacher simultaneously with all students at the same pace and with common tasks. The collective form is considered as the work of an integral team, which has its own characteristics of interaction. The paired form of learning involves the main interaction between two trainees. Other forms of education are related to the place of implementation of the classes.

According to didactic goals, the forms of organization of training are divided into theoretical, practical, labor, combined (V. A. Onischuk). There are also three groups of organization of training: individual, collective-group and individual-collective classes (A. V. Khutorsky). Individual classes include tutoring, tutoring, family teaching, self-study. Collective group activities include lessons, lectures, seminars, conferences, competitions, excursions, and business games. Individual-collective classes are projects, scientific, creative weeks, immersions.

4.1. Lecture and methods of lecturing

Lecture (from Latin lektio - reading) is a systematic oral presentation of educational material. Taking into account the goals and place in the educational process, lectures are introductory, installation, current, review and final. Depending on the method of conducting, lectures are distinguished:

- information. They are conducted using an explanatory illustrative method of presentation; this is a traditional type of lectures for higher education;

- problematic. In them, when presenting the material, problematic issues, tasks, situations are used. The process of cognition takes place through scientific research, dialogue, analysis, comparison of different points of view, etc.;

- visual. They involve the visual presentation of material by technical teaching aids, audio and video equipment, multimedia technologies, with a brief commentary on the materials shown;

- binary (lecture-dialogue). They provide for the presentation of the material in the form of a dialogue between two teachers (for example, a scientist and a practitioner, representatives of two scientific directions, etc.);

- Lectures-provocations, i.e. classes with pre-planned mistakes. This is done with the expectation of encouraging students to constantly monitor the information offered to them and search for inaccuracies in it. Diagnosis of knowledge by students and analysis of the mistakes made are carried out at the end of the lecture;

- conference lectures. This type is a scientific and practical lesson with listening to reports and speeches of students on a pre-set problem within the framework of the curriculum. The results are summed up by the teacher, he supplements and clarifies the information, forms the main conclusions;

- lectures-consultations. They present the material in the form of questions and answers or questions, answers and discussions.

Lectures can be subdivided on other grounds. For example, according to common goals, lectures are educational, agitational, propaganda, developing, educating. According to the content, academic and popular science lectures are differentiated. According to the method of influencing listeners, lectures are distinguished that operate at the level of emotions, understandings, and beliefs.

In the structure of lectures, three parts are usually distinguished: introductory, main and final. In the first part, the topic of the lecture is formulated, its plan and tasks are reported, the literature (main and additional) for the lecture is indicated, a connection is established with the previous material, the theoretical and practical significance of the topic is indicated. The main part reveals the content of the problem, substantiates key ideas and provisions, concretizes them, identifies connections, relationships, analyzes phenomena, assesses established practice and scientific research, and reveals development prospects. In the final part, the lecture is summed up, its main provisions are briefly repeated and summarized, conclusions and facts are formulated; here you can also find answers to questions from the audience.

The formation of the ability to competently conduct lectures is one of the practical goals of learning in the course of psychology teaching methods. A prerequisite for achieving this goal is the assimilation of theoretical knowledge about the structure of educational activities, the goals of teaching psychology, the principles of training and education, and finally, knowledge of the forms of interaction between the teacher and the student. Together with the general professional culture of the future psychology teacher, this methodological knowledge creates the basis for the formation of skills to independently prepare, conduct and create their own "methodical piggy bank" in various forms of classes: lectures, seminars, workshops, etc. The process of developing such skills should be considered as one one of the most important tasks in teaching a psychology teacher, because:

1) the formed action is most successfully built and corrected when solving a productive, or creative, task, and not a reproductive one. Reproduction of ready-made methodological developments deprives the student of the opportunity to master the fullness of the operations of the action of methodical design;

2) the condition for the successful preparation of the lesson, which gives ample opportunities for self-correction and self-control in relation to all operations of the action of methodical design, is the widespread use of written language by the student at all stages of drafting an educational lecture. Starting from the stage associated with the choice of the topic of the lecture and the search for an idea for the methodological implementation of the topic, and ending with the last stage - recording the finished version of the lecture - the written text will help the student to cover the entire complex system of actions for organizing a lecture.

There are ready-made plans that are used in the development of educational lectures, they are designed to help the student effectively prepare for the lesson, make fuller use of all available methods and teaching aids. The methodological development of educational lectures is presented below.

4.2. Practical, seminar and laboratory classes

Laboratory and practical classes, workshops, is a form of organization of training in which students perform laboratory and practical tasks under the guidance of a teacher. The venue for such classes is classrooms, laboratories, workshops, training and experimental sites, training and production plants. The didactic goals of practical and laboratory classes are experimental confirmation of the studied theoretical positions; mastering the technique of experiment, the skills of solving practical problems by setting up experiments; the formation of skills to work with various devices, equipment, installations, and other technical means. Practical laboratory exercises are also used to check the degree of assimilation of theoretical material, major sections of the program.

An in-depth study of academic subjects of the choice and desire of students is provided by optional classes. They are aimed at expanding scientific and theoretical knowledge and practical skills. In accordance with educational tasks, electives are distinguished for in-depth study of basic educational subjects; the study of additional disciplines (logic, rhetoric, foreign language); the study of an additional discipline with the acquisition of a specialty (stenography, programming). The focus of an elective may be theoretical, practical or combined.

A study tour is a form of organizing training in a museum, exhibition, production, or natural landscape. The purpose of the tour is to observe and study by students of various objects and phenomena of reality. Excursions are divided according to the objects of observation - production, natural history, local history, literary, geographical, etc.; for educational purposes - thematic and review. Thematic excursions are conducted in connection with the study of one or more topics of the subject, sightseeing tours cover a wider range of topics. According to the place in the section under study, there are introductory (preliminary), current (accompanying) and final (final) excursions.

Collective discussion of the studied issues, reports and abstracts is carried out at seminars. The difference between seminars and other forms of education is that they orient students towards greater independence in educational and cognitive activities. During the seminars, students' knowledge is deepened, systematized and controlled as a result of independent extracurricular work with primary sources, documents, additional literature; their ideological positions are strengthened; value judgments are formed. The methodology for preparing and conducting seminars corresponds to the same learning objectives as in the case of preparing a lecture, but the techniques and lesson plan in this case will look somewhat different.

The most common type of seminars is a seminar-conversation. It is carried out in the form of a detailed conversation according to the plan with a brief introduction and summing up by the teacher. This type of seminar offers preparation for the seminar on all issues of the plan for all students, which allows you to organize an active discussion of the topic. On specific issues of the plan, speeches by individual speakers are heard, which are discussed and supplemented by other participants in the seminar. It is also possible to pre-distribute questions among the participants in the seminar, on which they prepare reports and messages. Directly at the seminar there is a hearing, a discussion of these reports (seminar-hearing).

A discussion seminar involves a collective discussion of a problem in order to establish ways to solve it. The purpose of this kind of classes is to form value judgments, affirm worldview positions, develop students' skills to debate, defend their views and beliefs, express thoughts concisely and clearly.

Course design is a kind of creative activity of students; the most important component of the educational process in a technical university, completing the study of a number of general engineering and special disciplines. During the course design, the skills of an independent approach to solving engineering problems are consolidated and deepened, the skills acquired in practical classes and laboratory work are improved.

The course project is an independent work in which the student develops progressive solutions, applying scientific principles and design methods, using the original standard, normative or promising materials. The subject of course design follows from the tasks of modern production and the prospects for its development. These can be production units, machines, mechanisms, simple engineering structures and systems, technological processes.

The topics of course projects carried out by students for the entire period of study in each specialty are selected in such a way that, together with the graduation project, they form a single system of successively complicated and interconnected projects that contribute to a deeper study of a particular design object. The purpose of design is to create a production facility, a process that is more progressive than the best domestic and foreign analogues.

The tasks of a real course project are to justify the creation (construction) of a new or modernization, reconstruction of an existing production facility based on a technical and economic comparison of objective data, project implementation opportunities: development of a set of design solutions of a technical, organizational, economic and social nature; technical documentation - working drawings for the creation of a design object. Executed creatively, using various scientific and practical sources, a course project is, in essence, a universal indicator of the formation of knowledge and skills acquired by students in the learning process when mastering a complex of certain disciplines.

The student defends the completed course project at the department in front of a commission of several teachers, including the head of design. Protection of course projects completed on the instructions of enterprises is carried out directly at these enterprises. When defending a project, the student learns not only to correctly express his thoughts, but also to defend and defend the put forward decisions, design results, and recommendations with reason.

Industrial practice is a special form of the educational process, which provides students with the opportunity to obtain professional knowledge, skills and abilities directly at the workplace while performing the duties of an employee in accordance with their specialty. The main goal of the production practice is to consolidate the theoretical knowledge of students in the process of mastering production activities.

In the production practice, students get acquainted with the structure of the enterprise, the functions of various services and individual employees, the relationship of workshops and departments, with the main technological processes, auxiliary production. Mastering modern production, the student receives practical knowledge on the organization of labor and production, management, logistics, labor protection and safety, preparation of technical documentation.

Preparation for conducting industrial practice includes the study by the department of specific types of professional work at basic enterprises, workplaces; determination of the list and volume of skills and abilities necessary for future productive activity that each student must master; identification of the level of formation and sufficiency of professional skills; determination of labor quality indicators that characterize the professional training of students in certain workplaces.

Prior to the start of practical training, a student must learn a number of categories, without which his practical training cannot be successful: the purpose of labor at a particular workplace, the signs and properties of a particular labor process (object and means of labor), forms of social interaction of workers in the labor process, functionality the body of the subject of labor in relation to a specific activity, regulatory requirements for working conditions and its results, the specifics and patterns of the formation of professional skills and abilities.

During the production practice, the student must keep a diary in which he records his observations, comments, and various considerations about the flow of the production process. At the same time, he must collect materials for a course or diploma project, select data on that special issue that is provided for development in practice. Students defend the report on industrial practice at the department in front of the commission.

Consultations are intended to provide pedagogically appropriate assistance to students in their independent work in each discipline of the curriculum, as well as in solving various problems of a theoretical or practical nature. Being a kind of feedback, with which you can find out the degree of assimilation of program material by students, consultations help not only students, but also the teacher. Usually, consultations are associated with lectures, seminars and practical classes, laboratory work, preparation for tests and exams.

Consultations are carried out at the request of students or at the initiative of the teacher. You can also set certain days for mandatory consultations, when teachers of the departments specially meet with students, answering their questions on various topics of the course. Students must be accustomed to the idea that consultations must be carefully prepared, work out notes, literature, in order to be able to ask questions on the merits. Consultations should not be turned into coaching students, they should awaken in them the desire to deepen their knowledge.

Questions asked during consultations can be divided into four groups: 1) due to gaps in knowledge or unformed learning skills; 2) caused by inaccurate, inadequate perception and comprehension of the material, incorrectly formed way of activity; 3) aimed at obtaining additional information that expands the boundaries of the training course; 4) problematic, focused on discussion, polemics, clarification of points of view and involving the student's own search activity.

At present, when the importance of independent, individual work of students is increasing significantly, the role of consultations is increasing.

4.3. Methodology for organizing and managing a discussion

A well-organized discussion of the material, such as a discussion, gives a certain effect - a teaching method based on the exchange of views on a specific topic. The point of view of the student expressed during the discussion can reflect both his own opinion and be based on the opinion of others. A well-conducted discussion teaches a deeper understanding of the problem, the ability to defend one's position, but take into account the opinions of others. It is advisable to use discussion in the educational process when students have a significant degree of independent thinking, are able to argue, prove and substantiate their point of view.

Students need to be prepared for the discussion. Trainees should know in advance the topic of discussion; questions proposed for discussion; recommended literature on the topic and issues proposed for discussion; schedule of consultations with teachers; the main requirements of the culture of the dispute, the requirements for the participants in the discussion (to get acquainted with different points of view on the declared topic of the dispute, to determine one's own position).

During the discussion, it is necessary to follow two basic rules: 1) do not transfer the negative attitude of the trainees to one or another way of solving the issues under discussion, i.e. do not be offended by comments; 2) to prove the correctness of his opinion with words, facts and examples.

An essential point of the educational discussion is its critical analysis. To do this, the results of the classes are summarized, the conclusions reached by the participants in the discussion are analyzed, the main points of a correct understanding of the problem are emphasized, the falsity, fallacy of statements, and the inconsistency of individual positions are shown. The speeches of the polemicists are considered in detail, their ability to answer questions, the correctness of the use of concepts, the use of methods of evidence and refutation are evaluated, recommendations are given for further improvement of polemical skills and abilities.

During a discussion, participants in a seminar or debate often find themselves in a difficult position. Below are the most common situations encountered in such disputes.

1. It is difficult to find a worthy answer to the above argument. In such cases, imperceptibly for the opponent, it is necessary to "put off the objection." To this end, questions are raised in connection with the above argument, as if to clarify it. The answer must be started from afar, with something not directly related to the given issue, for example, first to refute the secondary arguments, and then, having gathered strength, to smash the main arguments of the opponent. It is also recommended to use the method of "deferring an objection" in the case when confusion or a nervous situation arises in the group, when all thoughts "disappeared". In order not to give yourself away, you must try to deceive the enemy, but not by persuasion itself, but by voice, intonation.

2. Another variant of a difficult situation is when, during the discussion, the polemicist notices that he has made a mistake. If the error is not noticed, then inaccurate information, an incorrect thought, will remain in the system of conclusions. It is difficult to admit your mistake openly, but you can mitigate the situation, and in some cases correct it with the phrase: "I didn't mean to say that", "Let me clarify ...". These techniques are quite acceptable in the discussion, they do not interfere with the clarification of the truth.

Participants in an educational discussion in the heat of controversy often resort to various dishonest methods and means. Such techniques are mainly based on a good knowledge of the characteristics of psychology, the weaknesses of human nature. As a rule, these tricks contain elements of cunning and outright deception. They show a rude, disrespectful attitude towards the opponent. In a dispute and dispute, such tricks are considered impermissible. Let's consider them in more detail.

1. Production and dissemination of false stereotypes, myths: a) by the method of "brilliant generalizations" (used to distort the actual state of affairs, hide glaring contradictions); b) the method of "sticking labels" (introducing negative stereotypes; discrediting ideas, plans, personality; initiating feelings of prejudice, fear, etc. without an objective assessment or analysis); c) the method of substitution through reinforcement (when the flaws of the problem are called "collapse", "death", "catastrophe", and inaccuracies - "monstrous lies").

2. The linguistic mechanism is a euphemism, that is, a way of speaking when straightforward expressions are replaced by others that soften (as during a war a retreat or even flight is called "leveling the front line").

3. "Juggling cards" - outright disinformation, one-sided coverage of facts, juggling with numbers.

4. The figure of silence (or distraction) is one of the ways of lying, when, wanting to deceive the audience, they deliberately hush up some problems and "inflate" others that are not related to the issue under discussion.

5. Distracting attention by savoring the scandalous chronicle, a detailed description of an incident. This technique is based on the psychological mechanism of projection transfer.

6. Transferring the problem from the "sick" head to the "healthy" one. This method is characterized by a complete absence of facts, but the psychological effect is maximum.

7. Presentation of subjective opinion as a real fact.

8. The game of "authorities" - pulling out quotes and speculative use of the authority of individuals with prestige in a given audience (deliberate distortion of quotes, reference to non-existent books or thoughts of authoritative sources).

9. Reference to testimonies (real, anonymous): "according to one authoritative person", "from an informed source", etc.

10. A game of numbers and details on the principle "any lie will pass if it is equipped with a set of details."

11. "Axiomatic" evidence - a technique designed for thoughtless perception of fabrications, transmitted in the form of "axioms" (for example, "no one is destined to change human nature ...").

12. "Killing through gentleness" - a pharisaic trick of the game of "objectivity", in words recognizing some of the merits of a different point of view, but in reality - an attempt to deceive, destroy, etc.

Finally, some practical recommendations.

First, be psychologically prepared for various kinds of overlays and tricks on the part of opponents in a dispute and debate. Do not always trust the words and arguments of the opponent. Maintain patience and composure.

Secondly, keep in mind that the nature of the tricks used to a certain extent depends on the personality of the opponent, his individual characteristics. So, some students participating in a scientific dispute or discussion “prefer” tricks based on flattery, others most often resort to logical tricks, etc. possible tricks.

And remember that dishonest methods are somehow connected with a deviation from the laws of correct thinking, with a violation of the basic rules that govern the dispute, with the desire to divert the conversation from the subject of discussion.

Topic 5. TEACHING PSYCHOLOGY

5.1. Purpose of Teaching Psychology

The methodology of teaching psychology is a discipline that explores the process of teaching psychology, its patterns, connection with other sciences in order to increase the effectiveness of teaching. The purpose of this discipline is the translation of the theoretical positions of psychology into the plane of specific phenomena. The methodology of teaching psychology helps to answer the questions why to teach (i.e. learning objectives), what to teach (content of learning and education), how to teach (techniques, methods and means of teaching).

So why teach? When embarking on the study of any scientific discipline, one should first of all understand its subject matter. Psychology (from the Greek psyche - soul) is the study of the soul, or, in more scientific terms, of the psyche. However, it must be taken into account that the definition of the subject of psychology has undergone changes depending on which manifestations of the psyche were chosen as the object of study: consciousness, facts of behavior, or unconscious mental processes. Revealing the very concept of the psyche as a special form of reflection by the subject of objective reality, it is important to pay attention to the function of the psyche as a regulator of activity, associated with its ability to reflect both the state of the surrounding world and the state of the subject himself.

Defining the criterion of the mental, it should be noted that, being a special form of reflection as a universal property of matter, the mental reflection is associated, according to the hypothesis of the psychologist A. N. Leontiev, with such a property of living organisms as sensitivity, i. biologically significant. Sensitivity causes the highest form of activity of living organisms - signaling behavior. Considering activity as a directed polymotivated activity of the subject, it is appropriate to dwell in more detail on the main psychological properties of the subject, such as his activity, ability to develop and self-development, and the presence of internal contradictions in him. Since the subject is perceiving and cognizing objective reality, insofar as the object is something that has stable and permanent features perceived by the entire community of subjects, regardless of their individual desires. Thus, the interrelation of the concepts "activity", "subject", "object", "reflection" is traced.

When deciding on the subject of psychology, another problem of a methodological nature arises, called psychophysiological. It is necessary to be able to reveal its essence in the debatable correlation of physiological and mental processes. It is also important to understand why there is no final solution to this problem, despite the assertion in the scientific mind of the materialistic view of the psyche. The psychophysiological problem gives rise to certain difficulties in understanding the subject of psychology. In particular, questions arise whether the psyche arises as a property of the brain or as a function of activity; is it permissible to talk about the materiality of the image as a unit of mental perception; what is meant by an objective method of study in psychology, if the specificity of mental phenomena is their subjectivity.

Students need to form an idea of ​​modern psychology as a branched system of special disciplines or branches of scientific knowledge, the classification of which is possible on various grounds. The most significant among them are two criteria: a) the type (content) of the subject's activity (engineering psychology, legal psychology, etc.); b) the subject himself, the nature of his development and relations with society (age psychology, psychology of individual differences, social psychology, etc.).

Psychology is designed to acquaint students with the basics of general psychology and some socio-psychological disciplines. Students should have a clearly differentiated idea of ​​the subjects and objects of study in both branches of psychological science.

The purpose of teaching psychology in a secondary school is defined as the formation of students' ability to self-knowledge and self-regulation. Teachers note that the knowledge gained has a positive effect not only on the behavior of the child, but also helps him in his educational activities. The teaching of psychology in higher education is based on the fact that students in the future are scientists, teachers, managers, leading specialists from various industrial and other organizations, therefore the structure of the psychology course is focused on providing them with the knowledge and skills in psychology that relate to these roles. and professional direction. These are, in particular, modern scientific and scientific-hypothetical ideas about the nature of mental phenomena, their psychophysical, informational and energy essence; psychology of research activity; psychology of creativity, development, training and education (age and pedagogical); psychology of personality, group and interpersonal communication.

Thus, the goal of teaching psychology in higher education is to provide future researchers and university teachers with knowledge about the patterns of occurrence, features of the functioning of the psyche, the development and formation of the properties and characteristics of the individual as an "elementary part" of society, without orientation in which it is impossible to understand individual human behavior and behavior of people in social groups.

5.2. Methodological features of teaching theoretical and applied psychology

The problems associated with the methodology of teaching psychology have turned out to be undeservedly relegated to the background in modern psychological science, occupying a modest position on the periphery of psychological knowledge. But today the circle of people attending training courses in psychological disciplines is expanding: among them are not only students-psychologists and future teachers, but also students of special courses and faculties of advanced training, leaders, students of senior secondary schools. Consequently, it is possible to predict an increase in the need for knowledge in the methodology of teaching psychology. Meanwhile, as experts in this field note, the level of development of the methods of teaching psychology is far from perfect. Attention is drawn to the weak or insufficient use in the methodology of teaching psychology of the regularities discovered in psychological science, existing approaches. In this regard, there is a big gap that exists today between the degree of validity and use of active methods in the teaching of psychology itself and those of its provisions that are fully implemented only in the scientific research of psychologists, but not in the practice of teaching psychology.

There are different points of view regarding the assessment of the development prospects of this direction and its place in the system of psychological knowledge. Thus, among actively working professional psychologists, there is a widespread belief that it is premature to write methods for teaching psychology. This is due to the significant difficulties that arise when finding an answer to one of the key questions of the methodology "what to teach?" It reflects the problematic, debatable nature of many provisions that form the basis of psychological theory. Methodological problems are closely related to methodological ones: the insufficient level of development of the methodology also blocks the ways of solving the problems of the methodology. Apparently, it is assumed that the methodology of teaching psychology should "wait" until the science of psychology itself reaches the proper level of development and the most important methodological problems are solved. Another possible direction in the development of the methodology is connected with the search for an answer to the question "how to teach?", for example, with the rationale for using a certain system of active methods of teaching psychology. An obstacle here is the insufficient development of the issue of the specifics of psychological knowledge, its internal structure, which must be really taken into account using general didactic approaches. Thus, directions in the development of methodology for teaching psychology are closely dependent on the level of solution of methodological problems of psychological science and, consequently, are in a state of "conservation" for an indefinite period.

Nevertheless, there is another fairly promising direction in the development of problems in the methodology of teaching psychology. It is associated with the rejection of the traditional focus primarily on didactic problems (content, forms, teaching methods, etc.), with a revision of the place of the methodology of teaching psychology in the system of psychological knowledge. Changes in the socio-economic conditions of life in modern society, the renewal of the education system require a qualitatively new level of professionalism of specialists. In this regard, the problem of training highly qualified personnel who are ready theoretically and practically to solve professional problems, who are able to create, apply and adjust the system of professional activity, is of particular importance. The need for continuous improvement of the system of training qualified personnel, their lack of competence put on the agenda the issues of creating a holistic concept of professionalization, improving the forms and process in which it occurs. In the existing system of professional training, the concept of training a teacher-psychologist is not sufficiently developed.

The growing scientific interest in the professional training of young specialists is due to a number of objective problems in their activities, its nature, in the set of tasks to be solved and technical approaches to their solution, in unjustified expectations from other subjects of the educational process. There are discrepancies, inconsistencies between the content of activities, the requirements of the state standard and the actual professional training of specialists during their studies at the university. The research solution of the problem is to find ways and means to eliminate this contradiction. At the same time, the main determinant that determines the development of the professional education of educational psychologists should be the system of needs of society and the state in relation to all education as an integral system.

The complex systemic relationship between the content of vocational education and the content of a specialist's activity is recognized by modern scientists, and it is this connection that determines the logic of modern theoretical approaches and solutions to finding ways to improve the quality of professional training. Currently, there is an active search for the content and technologies of vocational education that can contribute to the effective solution of professional problems. An analysis of the curricula and programs used in this process, as well as the content and scope of the requirements of the state educational standards of the last two generations, show a trend towards finding a flexible balance between the theoretical and applied aspects of education. Apparently, the solution lies somewhere in the middle: the reserve for improving professional training is the convergence of the values ​​of the traditional academic and practical orientations of the content of professional psychological education in order to achieve unity of the theoretical and practical readiness of the teacher-psychologist to solve professional problems.

Undoubtedly, the problem of the correlation between the theoretical and practical components of professional training, which attracts researchers to the greatest extent, is methodologically important, but, from our point of view, not a system-forming one. Beyond the scope of the search remains the problem of determinants that directly determine the filling of practical and theoretical training with specific content, determine the logic of its alignment.

The content and structure of education have only two main determinants - the invariant of the structure of the content of human activity and the invariant of the total object of study. The structure and composition of subjects depend on the ratio of these determinants at different levels of education. At the same time, if the consideration of the invariant structure of human activity has no fundamental discrepancies, although there are different approaches, then the selection of an invariant object of study in the system of higher education requires special attention. The fact is that its selection is connected with the target orientation in this case of the professional training of psychologists, and there are many contradictions here. The training of psychologists in a pedagogical university differs from the training of psychologists carried out in classical universities. So, if the goal in the second case is to train mainly a psychologist-researcher, then in the first case it is a specialist practitioner designed to implement a preventive, warning system of actions aimed at ensuring the full personal and intellectual development of children at each age stage. Therefore, the main goal of the professional training of school psychologists during the period of study at a pedagogical university is not only and not so much to equip the future specialist with fundamental knowledge, although this is important, but to ensure his professional readiness to solve practical problems, the ability to highlight their invariant component.

It should be emphasized that the analysis of the professional training of educational psychologists does not involve the identification of all potential shortcomings in practice, but only that part of them, which in the first place can actually be eliminated as a result of the implementation of the proposed concept.

Thus, in order to improve the quality of professional training of educational psychologists, it is necessary, through the study of the content of the activities of the school psychologist and the analysis of the practical tasks he solves, which are included in the general system of tasks of the educational process of the school, to give a methodological and theoretical justification for improving the content and structure of theoretical and practical training in period of study at the university. At the same time, the professional theoretical and practical training of educational psychologists during their studies at a pedagogical university can be raised to a fundamentally new qualitative level. This will become possible if a set of goals is identified and formulated, the achievement of which is aimed at vocational training; disclosed a set of conditions that determine the target orientation of the educational process of the university; the system of determinants is singled out, which determines the relationship between the general and the special in the target orientation of professional training; if the invariant structure of the content of human activity and the invariant object of study are used as determinants that determine the content and structure of the professional training of educational psychologists; if a system of invariant practical tasks, solved in the professional activity of a school psychologist, is singled out as an invariant object of study, for the solution of which project knowledge and skills are needed; the modeling of the structure and content of professional training was carried out, the basis of which will be the design paradigm; the necessary technological base has been developed for the implementation of the model of theoretical and practical training of psychologists during the period of study at a pedagogical university.

Topic 6. CONTROL AND CORRECTION OF LEARNING ACTIVITIES

6.1. Essence, goals and functions of learning control

Control of students' knowledge is an integral part of the learning process. By definition, control is the ratio of the results achieved to the planned learning objectives. Some teachers have traditionally approached the organization of control, using it mainly for the sake of performance indicators. However, checking students' knowledge should provide information not only about the correctness or incorrectness of the final result of the activity performed, but also about the activity itself, that is, whether the form of actions corresponds to a given stage of assimilation. Properly set control of educational activities allows the teacher to evaluate the knowledge, skills, abilities received by students, provide them with the necessary assistance in time and achieve their learning goals. All this together creates favorable conditions for the development of cognitive abilities of students and the activation of their independent work. On the other hand, well-placed control allows the teacher to see his own successes and failures.

The main purpose of the control of knowledge and skills is to detect achievements, successes of students; in showing them ways to improve, deepen their knowledge and skills in order to create conditions for the subsequent inclusion of students in active creative activity. This goal is primarily related to determining the quality of assimilation of educational material by students, i.e., the level of mastery of knowledge, skills and abilities provided for by the curriculum. Secondly, the concretization of the main goal of control is associated with teaching the methods of mutual control and self-control, the formation of the need for these types of activities. Finally, it involves the education in students of such personality traits as responsibility for the work performed, the manifestation of initiative. If the listed goals of controlling the knowledge and skills of students can be successfully implemented, then we can say that the control performs the following functions:

1) control, which consists in identifying the state of knowledge and skills of students, their level of mental development; studying the degree of assimilation by them of methods of cognitive activity, skills of rational educational work;

2) training, which consists in improving knowledge and skills, their systematization. In the process of checking, students repeat and consolidate the studied material; they not only reproduce previously learned, but also apply knowledge and skills in a new situation;

3) diagnostic, the essence of which is to obtain information about errors, shortcomings and gaps in the knowledge and skills of students and the causes of difficulties in mastering educational material that give rise to them, about the number and nature of errors. The results of diagnostic checks help to choose the most intensive teaching methodology, as well as clarify the direction for further improvement of the content of teaching methods and tools;

4) prognostic, which serves to obtain advanced information about the educational process. As a result of the check, grounds are obtained for predicting the course of a certain segment of the educational process, i.e. whether specific knowledge, skills and abilities are sufficiently formed to master the next portion of the educational material (section, topic);

5) developing, which consists in stimulating the cognitive activity of students, developing their creative abilities. Control has exceptional opportunities in the development of students. In the process of control, not only speech, memory, attention, imagination, will and thinking of students develop, but such personality traits as abilities, inclinations, interests and needs are formed;

6) orienting, the essence of which is to obtain information about the degree of achievement of the learning goal both by individual students and by the group as a whole: how much is learned and how deeply the educational material is studied. Control orients students in their difficulties and achievements;

7) educating, which consists in the formation of students' responsible attitude to learning, discipline, accuracy, honesty. Checking encourages students to more seriously and regularly control themselves when completing assignments; it is a condition for cultivating a firm will, perseverance, and the habit of regular work.

The implementation of the selected functions in practice makes the control more effective. On the other hand, the effectiveness of the educational process itself increases, however, for this, control must be purposeful, objective, comprehensive, regular and individual.

The essence, goals and functions of the control of education in the university are the same as in the secondary school.

6.2. The problem of managing the learning process

In relation to the educational process, management is a purposeful, systematic impact of the teacher on the group of students and the individual student to achieve the desired learning outcomes. But to manage does not mean to suppress or impose on a certain process a course that is contrary to its nature. On the contrary, it means taking into account the nature of the process as much as possible, coordinating each impact on the process with its logic.

Management is a continuous and sequential process that continues throughout the learning process. It begins with the definition of goals and objectives of learning management, and ends with their solution, i.e., the achievement of the goal. Upon reaching the goal, a new goal is set, and the management cycle is repeated. Schematically, the picture of a continuous management process looks like this: goal? action ? result ? new goal. This scheme is applicable to both scientific and educational process.

The management of educational and cognitive activity of students in the learning process is sometimes understood narrowly: as the management of assimilation within the framework of individual cognitive tasks, i.e., at the level of operational management (for example, the process of discovering the unknown in various types of problem situations). In this case, the means of control are "guiding" tasks, hints of different intensity, reformulation of the task, etc. In a broad sense, the management of educational knowledge is interpreted as the process of presenting to students such a system of educational tasks, which provides for a gradual and consistent progress of students in the course of their solution. stages of cognition - from a low level of problematic tasks and cognitive independence to creative, research activities. Thus, a certain level of formation of properties, qualities of knowledge is projected (systematic, dynamic, generalized, etc.). The activity of the teacher is aimed at identifying the conditions for organizing educational work, the observance of which will allow the student to consciously navigate the subject, update the acquired knowledge and skills, and exercise self-control.

The most important condition for organizing the process of managing educational activities is a system of typical educational tasks, the use of which contributes to the purposeful formation of students' skills and needs to systematically use the mandatory minimum of knowledge as a tool for discovering new knowledge, new connections and patterns. Through a system of learning tasks that correspond to specific learning objectives, the teacher creates favorable conditions for the acceptance of such tasks by students, instructs them about the methods of upcoming activities, provides them with timely assistance, encourages their curiosity, a sense of duty and responsibility.

Each act of pedagogical management should make certain changes not only in the nature of the student's activity, but also in the process of becoming a student as a person. To do this, the teacher conducts a thorough analysis of the learning objectives in relation to various learning situations, a specific subject and each of its sections. The learning objectives for each lesson are formed as a definition of typical tasks, for the sake of which the training is organized. Without the definition of such tasks, the goals of the lesson are not constructive enough, their achievement is difficult, they are not amenable to pedagogical control. Without a clear idea of ​​what educational tasks the knowledge is intended to solve, the teacher will not be able to determine what activities the students should perform. It is also difficult to determine the effectiveness of training, to carry out current and final monitoring of the progress and level of assimilation of educational material, to assess the rationality of the chosen option for organizing the educational activities of students and methods of pedagogical management, to make the necessary adjustments to the learning process, to objectively establish the causes of existing gaps in the knowledge and skills of students. . In other words, the teacher must not only have a clear program of what needs to be taught, but also formulate the tasks in which the students will have to use the content being learned.

When developing a training program, the teacher must assess what knowledge, for what purpose and to what extent he intends to form students as a result of studying specific material. To do this, it is necessary to take into account the characteristics of individual types of activities of trainees. The sequence of actions of students, the operational composition of these actions (performing, evaluative and indicative), finding ways to motivate students to participate in cognitive activities are also of significant importance. Determining these parameters of educational activity is the first task of pedagogical management in the structure of education.

The second task is to implement the principle of activity and self-government in the cognitive activity of students. It is implemented in such an organization of training sessions in which the teacher, with the help of programs for providing and organizing educational and cognitive activities, would direct and intensify the process of active, independent and productive work of each student to master the basics of the theory and methods of its application in solving educational and cognitive problems.

6.3. Feedback in learning

Management is an information process characterized by a closed cycle of signal transmission. This process includes control over the behavior of the control object: from the control body (teacher) to the controlled object (student) control signals are received, from the object to the controller (teacher) there are feedback signals that carry information about the actual state of the controlled object. The role of the teacher is to process the information received, comprehend it and develop a decision to make adjustments to the educational process.

The implementation of feedback in relation to the educational process involves the solution of two problems: 1) determining the content of feedback - the allocation of a set of controlled characteristics based on learning objectives and the psychological theory of learning, which is taken as the basis for compiling training programs; 2) determination of the feedback frequency.

In the process of managing the assimilation of knowledge, the teacher needs to establish whether students have learned to generalize and compare facts, draw conclusions, and critically analyze the information received. In addition, he needs to know how students learn the textbook material, whether they have enough time to master it, etc.

For effective management of learning, a theory is needed that considers the learning process as the formation of students' cognitive activity, having a system of independent characteristics of this activity and knowledge of the main stages of its formation as a transition from the plane of social experience to the plane of individual experience. Effective management of the learning process is possible if certain requirements are met, such as the formulation of learning objectives; establishment of the initial level (state) of the controlled process; development of an action program that provides for the main transitional states of the learning process; obtaining information on the state of the learning process for certain parameters (feedback); processing of information received through the feedback channel, development and introduction of corrective actions into the educational process.

An important stage in the management of the learning process is the organization of not only meaningful, but also emotional feedback. Meaningful feedback provides information about the level of assimilation of educational material by students. It is carried out with the help of a frontal and operational individual survey, periodic posing of questions to clarify the understanding and analysis of the tasks performed. Emotional feedback is established by the teacher through feeling the mood of the group, which can be caught only by the behavior of students, the expressions of their faces and eyes, by individual remarks and emotional reactions. Meaningful feedback in unity with emotional feedback gives the teacher information about the level of perception of the material and the cognitive and moral atmosphere of the lesson.

6.4. The content and forms of pedagogical control

According to the theory of didactics, assessment activity is generated by the need of the student or teacher to obtain information about whether the quality of the student's knowledge and skills in the subject meets the requirements of the curriculum. Thus, the purpose of the assessment activity is to control the progress of students and the formation of adequate self-esteem in them. As practice has shown, attempts to partially or completely exclude control from the educational process lead to a decrease in the quality of education. The intensive teaching methods currently being introduced inevitably lead to new searches in the field of improving the quality and effectiveness of pedagogical control and the emergence of its new forms, such as rating.

Due to the versatility of the impact of assessment on the student, it can perform various functions. Thus, assessment can be orienting, influencing the mental work of the student, contributing to his awareness of the process of this work and understanding of his own knowledge; stimulating, influencing the affective-volitional sphere through the experience of success and failure, the formation of claims and intentions, actions and relationships; educating, when under the direct influence of the mark there is an acceleration or slowdown in the pace of mental work, qualitative changes (changes in working methods), a change in the structure of apperception, and a transformation of intellectual mechanisms. Thanks to this, the assessment affects the intellectual and volitional spheres, i.e., the personality of the student as a whole.

Forms of pedagogical control. The control system is formed by exams, tests, oral survey (interview), written tests, abstracts, colloquia, seminars, term papers, laboratory tests, project work, diary entries, observation journals. Each of the forms of pedagogical control has its own characteristics. For example, during an oral survey, not only knowledge is controlled, but oral speech is trained, and pedagogical communication develops. Written work allows you to document the level of knowledge of the material, but requires a lot of time from the teacher. Exams create an additional burden on the psyche of the student. Abstracts contribute to the formation of creative thinking. A skillful combination of different types of control is an indicator of the level of organization of the educational process at school and is one of the important indicators of the teacher's pedagogical qualifications.

By the time of conducting pedagogical control is current, thematic, milestone, final, final. Current control helps to differentiate students into successful and unsuccessful students, motivates learning (survey, control, tasks, checking self-control data). Thematic control is an assessment of the results of a particular topic or section of the program. The milestone control serves to check the educational achievements of each student before the teacher moves on to the next part of the educational material, the assimilation of which is impossible without mastering the previous part. The final control is aimed at summing up the results of the study of the discipline passed, in addition, the student's ability to further study is revealed here. The final control is carried out to compare the obtained results with the required ones. It gives the teacher the information that is necessary for the correction of their own activities. In addition, the final control contributes to the motivation of students in the future.

Rating and mark. The results of the conducted pedagogical control are assessment and mark. Assessment is a method and result that confirms the compliance or inconsistency of the student's knowledge, skills and abilities with the goals and objectives of learning. It involves identifying the causes of poor progress, contributes to the organization of educational activities: the teacher finds out the cause of errors in the answer, tells the student what he should pay attention to when retaking, finishing learning. A mark is a numerical analog of an estimate. The absolutization of the mark leads to formalism and irresponsibility in relation to learning outcomes.

Assessment of knowledge is one of the essential indicators that determine the degree of assimilation of educational material by students, the development of their thinking, independence. In addition, the assessment serves as one of the grounds for deciding on the appointment of a scholarship and its amount (increase for high academic achievements), transfer from course to course, and issuance of a diploma. Evaluation should encourage the student to improve the quality of learning activities.

An important problem of taking into account knowledge is to determine the evaluation criteria, i.e. for which answers to give the highest score or an unsatisfactory mark. In general, the quality of knowledge is judged on the basis of an analysis of various response factors: completeness, depth, systematicity, efficiency, flexibility, generalization, curtailment, concreteness, awareness, strength. The completeness of the answer is measured by knowledge of the program material. Depth is characterized by the totality of significant connections between the studied and correlated phenomena realized by the student. Systematicity lies in the awareness of the hierarchy and sequence of a certain body of knowledge. Efficiency involves the use of a number of situations in which the student can apply his knowledge. Flexibility is manifested in the student's readiness to independently search for ways to solve the problem.

There are general pedagogical assessment methods that reflect a certain level of the quality of knowledge and practical preparedness of a student, i.e. a four-point grading system: "unsatisfactory" - 2, "satisfactory" - 3, "good" - 4 and "excellent" - 5.

An unsatisfactory mark is given if the student showed fragmentary, unsystematized knowledge, could not build an answer to the question (in writing or orally) and answer additional questions.

The grade "satisfactory" is given if the student was able to independently prepare answers to the teacher's questions, but these answers contain serious errors, the answers are incomplete, the logic of presentation is broken, incorrect or incomplete answers are given to additional questions. This mark is also set if the student gave an exhaustive answer to one question of the teacher, but could not answer the second and additional questions (refused to answer or the content of the answer does not correspond to the task).

The grade "good" is set if the student answered the teacher's questions and additional questions in detail, but made inaccuracies or violated the logic of the disclosure of the topic; showed a solid knowledge of the subject with minor inaccuracies, omissions, errors.

Finally, the grade "excellent" is given if the student gave exhaustive, detailed answers to the teacher's questions, showed the ability to confidently operate with the conceptual and categorical apparatus and specific situations, express thoughts logically, and carry out mental operations flexibly and mobilely. The written work of a student applying for such an assessment must be free of errors. In an oral survey, the student's speech must be logically justified and grammatically correct.

The advantage of the described rating scale is its simplicity and, consequently, its widespread use. The disadvantages include, firstly, the teacher's personal understanding of the success of the student's knowledge, when the subjectivity of the teacher "works", his reaction to the current academic performance, attendance, behavior, appearance, demeanor, style of dress and speech of the student, and, secondly , weak differentiating ability (only four degrees of gradation). In this regard, at present, the teacher is faced with the task of increasing the objectivity of assessing the level of knowledge of students in the subject under study in relation to their future activities as a specialist; strengthening the demands on students' knowledge.

Ways to improve the objectivity of pedagogical control. Effective control of the results of educational activities can be carried out with the help of technical means, which allows you to reduce the time for testing knowledge by several times compared to a traditional oral survey. However, most technical means of control have limited capabilities for analyzing student responses to control questions. In particular, a general drawback of computer control is that students are given tasks in an alternative form, which does not exclude the possibility of guessing the correct answer. The probability of guessing decreases if the task contains several answer options, one of which is correct, but in this case the remaining options carry (or may carry) false information, which is undesirable. An increase in the objectivity of monitoring the results of educational activities can be facilitated by the use of standard test programs for technical control or by conducting expert surveys, when the opinions of specialists are evaluated by quantitative methods.

The criterion of objectivity in assessing the results of educational activities can be considered from several angles. Thus, the ethical aspect of objectivity plays the role of moral regulation: they cheat and suggest only where it is not regarded as a violation of educational ethics. A teacher cannot have "favorites" and "unloved" students and evaluate knowledge accordingly. The pursuit of formal indicators leads to an increase in undeserved good grades. The desire to embellish imperfect indicators, the so-called reification (reification) of the indicator, turns into a decrease in the requirements for the quality of education.

The value aspect of the criterion of objectivity touches on the question of the fairness of the assessment: in the minds of students, a biased assessment is associated with an unfair one. The opinion of the teacher is perceived as fair if it is supported by rational arguments, so students need to be convinced of the fairness of the teacher's decision. In the view of students, teachers are divided into "strict" and "kind", since each teacher is guided by his own evaluation criteria and objectivity depends on his teaching experience and personal qualities.

The teacher's decision about what to consider as a criterion for this or that assessment is also determined by psychological factors. The attitude of students to the teacher, his subject, attendance, the nature and quality of the questions asked form the "image" of the student in the mind of the teacher. This is the psychological aspect of the criterion of objectivity.

The subjectivity of the teacher in assessing knowledge is superimposed on the subjectivity of the perception of this assessment by the student. Therefore, in order to achieve objectivity, it is important to have a psychological justification for assessing knowledge. In many cases, the teacher must explain why a certain mark is given. If the argument is convincing, the mark will be perceived by the student as an objective assessment of his knowledge.

6.5. Creation of diagnostic methods that control success and identify the causes of failure in training

With the help of diagnostic methods, the teacher receives data on the state of the pedagogical process, the quality of education and / or education, the training and upbringing of students. Processing, analyzing and evaluating these data in an appropriate way, he can correct and predict the development of the pedagogical process and the formation of students.

At the theoretical and applied levels, diagnostics solves the following problems: what and by what methods to study, how to measure the state of the pedagogical process and the degree of student preparation, how to record and use the results. (Note that in practice, teachers always do this, but only in the XNUMXth century did pedagogical diagnostics take a scientific basis.)

The content and methods of diagnostics of the pedagogical process. In relation to pedagogy, measurements are a complex theoretical and practical problem. A reliable system for measuring the quality of education and its outcomes ("quality" of graduates) would make this process more efficient. Diagnosis (periodic study) is subject to the level of knowledge of students, the degree of their social and mental development, that is, everything that corresponds to the three functions of the educational process: teaching, educating and developing.

The content of the diagnostics is demographic data about the student and his family, health and physical development; cognitive abilities (features of attention, memory, imagination, thinking); characteristics of the emotional-volitional and need-motivational spheres; personality orientation (interests, value relations, self-concept); Finally, behavior and deeds. In addition, the teacher studies his students as a whole as a group, a team: he is interested in interpersonal relations in the group, cohesion, public opinion, unity of values, etc.

There are the following diagnostic methods.

1. Observation. This method is most accessible to the teacher and provides a lot of information about students. Observation consists in collecting, describing facts, cases, and behavioral characteristics of students. The methodology for its implementation requires the definition of the purpose and object of observation (what qualities and features need to be studied), as well as the duration and methods of fixing the results. Observation makes it possible to see the student in natural conditions. The teacher is encouraged to keep a diary, where you can provide a place for recording observations of each student. In a university, as a rule, a subject teacher does not need to keep a diary of observations of students, but the curator of the study group needs to do this to establish contact, knowledge about the merits and problem areas of students, and work effectively with them. The diary of the curator contains a brief psychological description of the student, his functions, leadership qualities, the types of activities performed by the student, his circle work, performance analysis, etc.

2. Questionnaires and other survey methods provide different information about the personal qualities, values, attitudes, motives of the students. According to the form of the questionnaire, there are open (the student himself formulates a free answer) and closed (when you need to choose the appropriate option from the proposed answers). Compiling a questionnaire is not an easy task; it requires determining a list of the student's qualities or other information about him that the teacher needs to know. Questions should be unambiguously understood, understandable and appropriate for the age of the students, but there should not be too many of them. Questionnaires allow you to quickly collect a lot of easily processed information.

3. Conversation is a more flexible way of studying students than a survey. It can be standardized and free. In a standardized conversation, pre-formulated questions are asked in a specific sequence so that they are easier to process. Free conversation allows you to vary questions in order to obtain more accurate, detailed information, but requires a certain skill.

Psychologists recommend asking open-ended questions that encourage free, open-ended responses. The teacher must consciously determine what he wants to know about the student and how best to ask about it. Rough lectures should be avoided, diagnostic conversations should not be confused with educational ones, although in practice this is often combined. It is necessary to behave during the conversation at ease, attentively, respectfully towards students of any age. The student must feel that they are genuinely interested and want to help. When talking, one must not only hear words and intonations, but also see non-verbal signs: gestures, facial expressions, mood. The results of the conversation should be recorded in writing in a short form.

4. To study personal characteristics, analysis of documents (library form, etc.), creative works of students (essays, essays, etc.) are also used.

5. Sociometry is used to identify interpersonal relationships in a group and to detect personal qualities. The sociometric technique developed by J. Moreno is used to diagnose interpersonal and intergroup relations in order to change, improve and improve them. With the help of sociometry, it is possible to study the typology of people's social behavior in the conditions of group activity, to judge the socio-psychological compatibility of members of specific groups.

6. In psychological diagnostics, the psychodiagnostic method, represented by criteria-indicative tests, has become widespread. Their feature is the focus on measuring personality traits, which became possible due to the standardization of the measurement tool, based on the concept of the norm. Tests must meet the requirements of reliability and validity.

7. In exceptional cases, a psychodiagnostic experiment is used as a testing method. This happens mainly when identifying and assessing the desired quality is otherwise impossible.

Organization of diagnostics, registration and use of results. The result of diagnostics can be different in form characteristics of both individual students and the group as a whole.

The developed diagnostic cards, which are a table in which, at the intersection of columns and lines, enter data about each student in an abbreviated and / or coded form, have received wide introduction. This makes this document meaningful, informative and at the same time convenient for review and analysis: horizontally you can see everything about one student, vertically - about the entire group according to one indicator.

The table reflects demographic, medical, psychological and pedagogical data. Medical data includes information about diseases, the degree of physical development of students. Psychological information is abilities, hobbies, interests, dominant personality traits (the main advantage and the main disadvantage), special skills. Pedagogical data - academic performance, behavior, attitude to learning, work, position in the group, relationships with comrades, social activity, etc.

To obtain this information, a set of methods is used, such as a one-time written survey, conversations, analysis of documents and written works, observation, sociometric and projective methods, and questionnaires. The data is used to detect problems in the upbringing, education and development of individual students, groups, to set goals and develop a plan, education programs.

Most of the data should be communicated to students, discussed and work with them on self-development, self-education - this will have a beneficial effect on their self-esteem and attitude towards other people, etc.

It must be remembered that the study of students is not an end in itself, but a means to improve educational work. Based on the diagnostic data, the teacher assesses the state of upbringing of students and formulates possible problems in their further development. On the basis of diagnostic data and other sources, he should be able to highlight the priority tasks of education for a certain period. In this case, the problem should be understood as any shortcoming in the development, upbringing of the student, and the task - a description of the desired state, qualitative change, neoplasm in the personality of the student or group. In pedagogy, this, in fact, is called the pedagogical task. For example, such a task may be the formation of interpersonal skills.

6.6. Criteria-indicative tests (CORTS): essence, technology of creation

A test is a standardized test, a kind of "instrument" that measures or reveals personality traits of interest to the researcher. Tests have the following features: 1) standardized presentation and processing of results; 2) the independence of the results from the influence of the experimental situation and the personality of the psychologist; 3) comparability of individual data with normative data (obtained under the same conditions in a fairly representative group).

The development of tests involves their statistical verification according to the criteria of validity, reliability, homogeneity, differentiating power, reliability and predictability. As accurate diagnostic methods, they are subject to special requirements, such as adaptation to specific conditions; simplicity of formulation and unambiguity of test tasks; limited time for completing tasks; availability of test norms for this test. In addition, they are subject to requirements typical for all psychodiagnostic methods (validity, reliability, unambiguity and accuracy). In addition to these requirements, there are certain strict rules for testing, processing and interpreting the results.

A criterion-oriented test is a psychodiagnostic technique that reveals how much the subject has the knowledge, skills of mental actions necessary and sufficient to perform certain classes of educational or professional tasks. The criterion is the presence or absence of this knowledge. Criteria-oriented testing makes it possible, when analyzing the results, to detect specific shortcomings in the mental development of both individual students and entire groups and to outline measures to eliminate them.

In essence, these tests are a feedback tool in the organization of learning processes. They are constructed on the basis of an analysis of the logical and psychological structure of the selected criterion. Between the method of conducting the test and the criterion, psychological correspondence and relevance are foreseen in advance. The results of testing conducted using this methodology are evaluated not by the order of the test subject in the sample and not in relation to the statistical norm, but in relation to these results to the entire sum of test tasks. Each of the tasks consists of key concepts and terms of the criterion, with which the subject is asked to perform certain logical operations. In this way, individual scores on such tests differ from scores obtained on traditional tests of intelligence and ability.

The first reports of criteria-indicative tests appeared in the West in the early 1960s. Later, the problems of this type of testing were discussed in many monographs and manuals on psychodiagnostics. The results of the application of criterion-orienting tests at school were positively evaluated. However, Western authors of such tests pay insufficient attention to the actual psychological aspects of the methods. Domestic psychologists working in this area were guided in their research by the principle of the unity of the form and content of thinking. It has been shown that an individual's success in working with one subject content (for example, tasks in mathematics) does not mean that he will be equally successful in working with other subject content (for example, tasks in language or biology). In each case, it is possible to detect the specifics of the selection in the subject content of the features necessary for the successful completion of the task. At the same time, success depends not only on previous training, but also on the natural data of the individual.

6.7. The content of the corrective work

Correctional work is a system of special techniques and activities aimed at overcoming or weakening the shortcomings of personality development. The term appeared in the late XNUMXth - early XNUMXth centuries. and for a long time was used in relation to work only with mentally retarded children. In domestic pedagogy, this concept has become broader: correctional work is aimed not only at correcting individual violations, but also at shaping the personality of the student. It is carried out in collaboration. The content of the correctional work is to assist the student in solving the problems and tasks facing him. Accordingly, the main tasks of corrective work are:

- assistance to the student in solving his educational problems;

- changing the student's attitude to the social environment and to himself;

- successful adaptation and overcoming of arising difficulties.

Methods for correcting behavior. Assistance to the student in solving his educational problems consists in diagnosing the formation of the prerequisites for educational activity and is aimed at determining the readiness of a first-year student for a new type of educational activity for him. Unlike school activities, educational activities at the university have a number of specific features. It implies a result orientation; arbitrariness and obligation. Most of the learning tasks faced by the first-year student are aimed at fulfilling a number of conditions, certain requirements, focusing on the rule and pattern. It is these skills that relate to the so-called prerequisites for learning activity, i.e., to those that are not yet fully learning actions, but are necessary to start mastering it. In this regard, in the first year it is advisable to conduct a study of the above skills, on which the success of learning at the beginning of mastering the knowledge and requirements of the school largely depends.

One of the effective methods of organizational and educational influence on the individual and the team is the method of criticism. It has long been known that in a healthy atmosphere of comradely criticism, relations between people are built in the most optimal way, in the team there is no praise of some and nihilation of others, students tend to use collegial methods of work. It should be noted that this method most fully corresponds to the collectivist nature of joint learning activities. Its impact is characterized by the following psychological and pedagogical features.

1. Each person perceives certain facts, events in his own way. His judgments are often subjective, one-sided and erroneous. Maturity is manifested in the fact that, having made mistakes, learn to avoid them in the future.

2. A person does not always see his mistakes, shortcomings, weaknesses, which are more clearly visible from the outside. At the same time, he cannot always correctly assess his positive qualities, his merits. Sometimes they are downplayed, revealing such a personality trait as modesty, or, conversely, exaggerated, showing self-confidence, arrogance. And the virtues themselves, not constrained by certain limits, can turn into disadvantages.

3. A person can be most fully judged not only by what he says about himself, but also by what his close circle knows about him. Therefore, constructive criticism, comments addressed to him, an objective analysis of his views and actions organize and educate him, help to correctly assess himself, develop and show the best socially significant qualities of a person. However, such a judgment about a person is useful not only to him personally, but also to others, since others learn from his mistakes, and try to perceive positive actions and actions.

There is a very real danger in applying this method of organizational influence. Criticism is needed, but it must be socially sustained, that is, one that teaches and corrects the individual, positively affects his consciousness, habits, behavior and activities. Such criticism requires a benevolent, fair and comprehensive analysis of the student's activities. It is necessary, along with the shortcomings, to note the positive aspects of his personality, to indicate ways to correct and eliminate flaws.

Skillfully using this method, the teacher will be able to objectively assess the strengths and weaknesses of the student, notice and support the good and necessary in him in time, warn against mistakes, and help eliminate them. Then there will be more courage in those who criticize and less resentment in those who are criticized. Criticism as a method of organizational influence will fully fulfill its corrective behavior function.

Section II

Topic 7. ACTIVE LEARNING METHODS

7.1. Psychology of active learning methods

In modern didactics, there are various approaches and options for classifying teaching methods (we already cited one of these classifications earlier, see 2.5). This is explained both by the complexity of the object of study itself and by the importance of the methodological equipment of the pedagogical process. The very interpretation of the term "active teaching methods" and concepts similar in content, such as "active socio-psychological learning", "innovative learning", "intensive teaching methods", is also ambiguous.

Here it is appropriate to note the conventionality of the name "active teaching methods", since any training involves activity on the part of the subject (without it, training is generally impossible), however, the degree and content of this activity are not the same and depend on the approaches used. Methods that are directly focused on intervening in the development of a group or individual in order to have a planned impact, and constitute the essence of the active methods of work of a practical psychologist, which are implemented primarily in developmental programs for working with children of different ages. Active methods presuppose not only a serious development of the psychological content of work with children of different ages, but also a deep substantiation of the form of its implementation. So, for example, in working with teenagers, the group form of developing programs is the most effective. The importance of group forms of work does not exclude the possibility of individual work with individual students and, of course, does not detract from the importance of an individual approach to each student in the process of group work.

In psychological and pedagogical research, various levels of student activity are recorded:

1) reproductive-imitative activity, with the help of which the experience of activity is accumulated through the experience of another. Assimilation of samples accompanies a person all his life, but the level of his own activity is insufficient here;

2) search and execution activity represents a higher level, since there is a greater degree of independence here;

3) creative activity - the highest level, since the task itself can be set for students, and new, original ways of solving it are chosen. In the characterization of creativity by psychology, such indicators as novelty, originality, departure from the template, breaking traditions, surprise, expediency, value are singled out.

A multi-level approach to the analysis of the student's activity allows you to see the progress and prospects for its development in the activity. In modern conditions, in order to increase the effectiveness of higher education, active teaching methods are of considerable interest, the essence of which is to create didactic and psychological conditions conducive to the manifestation of intellectual, personal and social activity of students. Active teaching methods mean those methods that implement the setting for a greater activity of the subject in the educational process (compared to traditional approaches), ensuring the intensive development of cognitive motives, interest, and creative abilities.

Understanding learning as a polymorphic, transformative activity, active learning methods (AMT) should be understood as methods that make it possible to form learning as a productive creative activity that provides students with the opportunity to achieve a socially valuable product in conditions of both joint and individual learning activities.

Among modern AMOs, three groups of methods can be distinguished, the most interesting in terms of their use in teaching psychology in order to control the formation of different types of thinking (subject-situational, visual-figurative, conceptual). These are methods of programmed learning, problem learning, interactive (communicative) learning. Each of these groups of methods creates its inherent tools of influence, which express the essence of the method and the boundaries of its influence (as a means of controlling the process of developing the cognitive activity of students). Thus, the system of programmed learning methods includes a dosed program step, an algorithm; problem learning - problem situation, heuristic programs; interactive learning - collective discussions, simulation and business games, role-playing exercises and trainings, situation analysis and game design in the process of collective problem solving.

Without going into the history of the development of these methods, we note that each of them arose as an attempt to overcome the limitations of traditional teaching methods with a newly created active method. There are a number of important advantages in each of these methods, including traditional teaching. The continuity of didactic systems is a general pattern in the development of the theory and practice of teaching. Systems are not denied, but evolve to more perfect ones. The main thing is that each of these approaches introduces its own necessary element into the formation of cognitive activity. So, the algorithm streamlines the action, contributes to its logic and consistency. Programming contributes to the independent movement of the student along the main highway of knowledge, the rapid receipt of feedback. Problematic (when the emphasis is on the personality of the student involved in a problem situation) and collective forms of work (when the student himself is in the center of learning management in his real interactions and relationships with other participants in the educational process) activate mental and emotional processes, develop creative abilities.

The implementation of the requirements of active methods of teaching psychology in the conditions of joint educational activity (i.e., through the organization of a system of educational interactions between a teacher and students and students' interactions with each other) is due to the peculiarities of its content as a humanitarian discipline. As is known, the center of humanitarian cognition is the cognition not of a thing, but of a person (subject-subject relations). Based on the characteristics of humanitarian knowledge, the goal of teaching psychology (both for specialist psychologists and for people mastering psychology in the system of teaching pedagogical activity) is the theoretical and practical mastery of knowledge and methods of building communication and interaction with people in various conditions of their life. The peculiarity of psychological knowledge lies in the unity of knowledge and action. The unity of methods of psychological cognition and methods of action is realized in order to achieve the unity of cognition of other people and oneself. Education in psychology is aimed not only at mastering the ways of transforming the behavior and way of thinking of other people, but also at the ability to transform oneself. Methods of active learning only in the system can provide management of all forms of cognitive activity associated with the assimilation of psychological knowledge and the achievement of the goal of teaching psychology, the complexity of which lies in the special fusion of methods of cognition and transformation of behavior, thoughts of other people and oneself.

There are the following main ways to increase the activity of the student and the effectiveness of the educational process (in relation to all disciplines):

1) strengthening the student's educational motivation due to internal and external motives (stimulus motives);

2) creating conditions for the formation of new and higher forms of motivation (the desire for self-actualization, self-expression and self-knowledge of the individual in the learning process);

3) providing the student with new, more effective, means for the implementation of installations for the active mastery of new activities, knowledge and skills;

4) ensuring greater compliance of organizational forms and means of training with its content;

5) increasing the intensity of the student's mental work through a more rational use of the time of the lesson, intensification of communication between the student and the teacher and students among themselves;

6) ensuring a scientifically based selection of the material to be assimilated based on its logical analysis and the allocation of the main (invariant) content;

7) comprehensive consideration of the age capabilities and individual characteristics of students.

None of the known methods can equally use all of the above techniques. In specific variants of active learning methods, the emphasis is on one or more methods to improve the effectiveness of learning. The activation of educational activity is understood as the purposeful activity of the teacher, aimed at developing and using such forms, content, techniques and teaching aids that would increase the student's creative activity in the assimilation and application of knowledge and skills, as well as in the formation of the ability to predict a personal and professional situation and make independent decisions.

7.2. Programmed learning methods

There is an opinion that elements of programmed learning could be encountered in ancient times. As evidence, the dialogue of Socrates (427 - ca. 347 BC) with a boy, described by the outstanding thinker of Antiquity Plato (469-399 BC), described by the outstanding thinker of Antiquity, Plato (XNUMX-XNUMX BC) about how you can calculate the area of ​​a quadrilateral. In this dialogue, Socrates, skillfully using heuristic conversation, forced the interlocutor to immediately evaluate each answer to the question asked, demanded the correction of mistakes made, emphasized the logical connections between the individual steps on the path from ignorance to knowledge, taught to think independently and critically, while maintaining a suitable for the boy the pace of work. To complete the list of the most important features of the modern concept of programmed learning, Socratic heuristics lacks only two: self-control and a gradual increase in the level of complexity of the student's work by rationally reducing the number of leading instructions.

Programmed learning (software) emerged in the early 1960s. based on new didactic, psychological, cybernetic ideas. The name of the method comes from the term "program" taken from the dictionary of electronic computing technology, denoting a system of sequential actions (operations), the execution of which leads to a pre-planned result. The programmed approach is based on three ideas about learning: as a management process, an information process, and an individualized process.

Software methods are aimed at improving the efficiency of managing the educational process by structuring objective knowledge (clarification and operationalization of goals, objectives, methods of solution, forms of encouragement and control in relation to the subject content of knowledge), a significant increase in the proportion of independent work of students (carried out at an individual pace and under control). ).

The theoretical foundations of any software are the following general principles: a) dividing the material into small, closely related parts (steps, portions); b) activation of the activity of students studying the programmed text; c) immediate assessment of each student's answer; d) individualization of the pace and content of the teaching; e) empirical verification (verification) of programmed texts.

Programmed texts (educational programs) can be:

- linear (each student learns the same sequence of training doses for all - steps, portions);

- branched (each student comes to a given learning goal in a different way, depending on their individual characteristics);

- adaptive (programs provide for the possibility of transition to less or more difficult sections (branches) of the program, and this transition takes place on the basis of taking into account all the previous answers of the student).

The complexity of the program material increases according to the principle from simple to complex, both in the questions themselves and in the answers associated with them (selective or constructed). In each case, the direct and feedback of the teacher with the students is carried out using special tools (programmed teaching aids of various types, a computer)

It should be noted that programming training is not a universal method. Programming is most amenable to disciplines, the content of which can be algorithmized, when it is necessary to develop automated skills, strong unambiguous knowledge and skills. For studying material, the fragmentation of which into portions leads to a violation of integrity, as well as for figurative, emotional material, software is unsuitable, since it limits the possibilities of organizing collective activities, deprives the perception of emotionality, and reduces the role of the teacher.

Programmed learning has stimulated the development and application of technical training aids (TUT), information technology training (ITO). The latter are defined as a set of electronic means and methods of their functioning used to implement learning activities. At the II International Congress of UNESCO "Education and Informatics" (1996), information technologies were declared a strategic resource of education.

The effectiveness of the use of scientific and information technology (SIT) tools in the training of university specialists largely depends on the success of solving methodological problems related to the information content and method of using automated learning systems (ATS). It is advisable to consider the AES used in a specific curriculum as software and methodological complexes (PMC) - a set of software and hardware tools and teaching methods implemented with their use, designed to solve specific problems of the educational process. There is a close relationship between teaching methods, methodological content and pedagogical purpose of PMC of one type or another. In modern conditions, it is possible to create software and methodological training complexes as a set of training fragments, united by algorithmic means that set the direction of learning.

There are various types of PMC: modeling of a process or phenomenon; modeling the functioning of a technical system (training in its use and (or) management); expert PMK; collections and generators of tasks; reference information systems; game training programs; integrated learning systems. Thus, the PMC for supporting a lecture course is a sequential creation of illustrative fragments (text materials, static and dynamic images, audio and video fragments, control tasks, etc.), the composition of which is determined by the purpose of the lesson. Accordingly, the PMC should include software and hardware tools that allow you to effectively prepare the necessary materials (scanners, graphics editors, animation graphics) and display lecture information with specialized multimedia tools. Of particular interest is the implementation of this type of PMC with the provision of feedback from the students in the classroom.

Test and control PMK are designed to implement the function of controlling the assimilation of knowledge at various stages of training: from current control to the final assessment of the student's readiness. In accordance with the specifics and objectives of the control, as well as the specifics of the subject area, the creation of the SMC should be preceded by the following development stages: 1) the formation of test tasks and questions that provide a reliable assessment; 2) the choice of the survey algorithm and methods of presenting tasks to the student; 3) choice of method for processing statistical data of evaluation;

4) determination of a system of rules that ensure decision-making on the level of knowledge. Approaches and methods for solving these problems can be different.

The creation of electronic textbooks is a task that is methodically similar to the task of creating an ordinary high-quality textbook, which includes not only theoretical sections, but also practical examples, tasks, guidelines for studying the discipline. The industrialization of education, i.e. its computerization and the accompanying technologization, allows you to create and use new models of learning and testing the effectiveness of its content (for example, software). Computerization of the educational process has other positive possibilities.

The changing role and place of the teacher in training and education should be taken into account. It is necessary to determine the optimal combination of computers with other teaching aids (primarily with a textbook); to find ways to eliminate the possible overload and fatigue of students working with the display, as well as to maintain the necessary emotional and psychological environment in the classroom, stimulating communication between students; a rational combination of individual and collective forms of organization of educational activities.

7.3. Problem-Based Learning Methods

The origins of problem-based learning can already be seen in the heuristic conversations of the greatest ancient Greek philosopher and teacher Socrates, who, with the help of questions and the logic of constructing a conversation, led his students to contradictions and consistently led them to the necessary conclusion. The basis of modern problem-based learning is the idea of ​​the famous Russian psychologist Sergei Leonidovich Rubinshtein (1889-1960) about the method of developing consciousness through the resolution of cognitive problems that contain contradictions, therefore problem-based learning is revealed through the setting by the teacher and the resolution of the student (schoolchild, student) of a problematic issue, tasks, situations.

The main task of modern education is seen in mastering the methodology of creative knowledge and transformation of reality by specialists. Creativity is characterized primarily by the discovery of something new: new objects, knowledge, problems, methods for their solution. In the process of creativity, a person manifests such qualities as originality of thinking, the ability to see the problem, the speed of orientation in new conditions, intuition, that is, everything that is connected with the solution of non-standard tasks. Problem-based learning (PbT), which is considered as one of the most effective means of solving such complex problems as the development of cognitive activity, independence and creative thinking, meets this condition and direction of learning. In this regard, problem-based learning as a creative process is presented in the form of solving non-standard scientific and educational problems using non-standard methods.

The key concept of PbO - educational problem situation - means the mental state of the mental interaction of a student, a group of students with a problem under the guidance of a teacher. A problem is a complex theoretical or practical issue that contains a hidden contradiction and causes different (often opposite) positions in its solution. The educational problem situation is characterized by: a) the type of contradiction identified by the teacher together with the students; b) the presence of known methods for solving such problems;

c) lack of new data or theoretical knowledge;

d) the capabilities of trainees in the performance of the assigned task. An average level task (not too difficult and not too easy) will not cause a problem situation.

Problem situations are subdivided on a number of grounds, such as the field of scientific knowledge, or discipline (mathematics, history, psychology, etc.); focus on searching for something new (new knowledge, methods of action, transfer of known knowledge and methods of action to new conditions); level of problem (depending on the severity of contradictions). The problem situation has pedagogical value, provided that in the process of completing the educational task it allows you to separate the known from the unknown (sought) and encourages students to desire to resolve the contradiction that has arisen. It is important that the content side of the problem situation is of interest to students and, accordingly, an incentive to search for new knowledge and methods of activity.

For a specific psychological content, a special methodological development of various types of problem situations is important, including different groups and subgroups of tasks involving the reproduction of knowledge, simple mental operations, complex mental operations (argumentation, explanation), communication of knowledge and composition (abstract, summary, original scientific text) , productive thinking (solving problem situations). The solution of these problems can be carried out at all training sessions (lectures, seminars, in the workshop and during independent work of students). Problem situations of the third type lead students to group reports, collective discussions, group evaluation of joint decisions. This helps to move on to self-study in a particular area of ​​psychological knowledge.

The most significant moment of the problem learning situation is the starting point - the introduction to the problem. They share two tactics of constructing a problem situation:

a) "from knowledge to the problem." Moving to the problem from the subject content of knowledge ("consumption" of ready-made achievements of science) does not sufficiently contribute to the development of students' skills and abilities of independent scientific research;

b) "from problem to knowledge". The movement away from the subjective experience of the audience, which is included in the logic of solving a scientific problem, prompting the search for ways and means of solving it, purposefully forms an active subject of cognitive activity.

Different tactics of introduction to the problem ultimately determine greater or lesser opportunities for students to develop the ability to see the problem and the success of the formation of other components of the analysis and problem solving.

The psychological mechanism of the processes occurring in PbO is as follows. When faced with a new, contradictory, incomprehensible problem, a person in conditions of intellectual difficulty arises a state of bewilderment, surprise. Further, the thought process goes according to the scheme: hypotheses? their rationale? examination. The student either independently carries out a mental search (discovery of the unknown), or with the help of a teacher. Most problem situations can be reduced to cases of lack or excess of theoretical or factual information (there are problem situations with uncertainty of conditions, with contradictory, missing, redundant, partially incorrect data, etc.). The problematic situation on the basis of analysis is transformed into a problematic task that arouses interest: "How to resolve this contradiction?" A series of problem questions transforms the problem task into a solution search model, where various ways, means and methods of solution are considered. This is followed by the stages of problem solving, verification (verification) of the results obtained, comparison with the initial hypothesis, systematization and generalization of the acquired knowledge and skills. Thus, the problem method involves the following steps: problem situation ? problem task? solution search model ? solution. In domestic pedagogy, there are three main methods of PbO:

1) problematic presentation of educational material in a monologue lecture mode, when the teacher poses problematic questions, builds problematic tasks and solves them himself, and students are mentally involved in the process of finding a solution;

2) partial search activity (during problematic seminars, practical classes, heuristic conversations). It gradually introduces students to independent problem solving under the guidance of a teacher, who makes up a system of problematic questions (possible "tips", leading questions) that cause students' intellectual difficulties and purposeful mental search;

3) independent research activity.

The greatest efficiency of the problematic approach is realized through SRRS (student research work) and UIRS (student research work), during which the student goes through all stages of the formation of professional thinking. In each case, the main goal is the development of creative skills, the formation of creative professionally oriented thinking.

They highlight the main conditions for the success of PbO, such as providing sufficient motivation that can arouse students' interest in the content of the problem; ensuring the feasibility of working with the problems that arise at each stage (the rational ratio of the known and the unknown); significance, importance in the educational and professional plan for the student of the information obtained in solving the problem; implementation of PbO with a democratic style of communication between the teacher and students, aimed at maintaining the cognitive, mental activity of students. At the same time, the teacher requires a lot of methodological work related to the design of educational material for the development of problem situations (presenting them in the form of problematic tasks, questions and topics). The system of practical tasks associated with the use of PbO should reflect the ideological aspects of the course being studied, provide an increasingly complex sequence of presentation of material, the possibility of differentiating learning, objective control and self-control, provide for the use of visualization, joint learning activities. Applying PbO, the teacher needs to know not only the general structure of problem situations that determine the learning strategy, but also their typology, to know how to resolve cognitive contradictions.

The use of PbO is associated with objective difficulties: it is a special selection of educational material, and the creation of a "bank" of problem situations, and a lot of time spent (preparing for classes, creating a problem situation and providing an opportunity for each student to solve it independently).

Not every material can serve as the basis for creating problem situations. Non-problematic elements of the material include all specific information with digital and quantitative data, dates, names, etc. Problems solved according to a model, a known method, algorithm, as well as training tasks for consolidating knowledge and developing skills are also non-problematic.

PbO methods based on the individual process of learning put the motives and methods of mental activity of the personality of the student included in the problem situation at the center of organization and management. In the conditions of both individual and joint educational activities, PbO is one of the most promising areas for the development of the creative abilities of students, the manifestation of their intellectual, personal and social activity, which is so necessary for a modern specialist.

7.4. Interactive teaching methods

Interactive (from the English interaction - interaction, mutual influence) include such teaching and personality-developing methods that are built on purposeful, specially organized group (intergroup) activities, feedback between all participants. Compared to traditional technologies in interactive learning, the roles of the teacher (teacher, lecturer) and students (pupils, students) are filled with new content. By organizing interactions and relationships, the teacher puts the student himself in the center of learning management in his real interactions with other participants in the educational process.

Based on the fact that learning is a social, collective process, and not purely individual, the tools of influence in the system of interactive methods are represented by group teaching methods. The active group method (AGM) is usually understood as any way of the planned activation of communicative processes in the study group, regardless of the content of the assigned tasks (educational, cognitive, creative, psycho-correctional). AGM is conditionally combined into three main blocks:

1) discussion methods (group discussion, analysis of cases from practice, analysis of situations of moral choice, modeling of practical situations, case method, etc.);

2) game methods: a) didactic, simulation and creative games, including business (managerial) ones; b) role-playing games (behavioral learning, game psychotherapy, psychodramatic correction); c) brainstorming; d) counterplay (transactional method of understanding communicative behavior);

3) sensitive training (training of interpersonal sensitivity and perception of oneself as a psychophysical unity).

Interactive technologies stimulate the development of creative abilities as a result of active joint learning activities. It should be especially noted that activity is not a spontaneous manifestation of a person, but a social formation that draws resources from communication and activity. As studies show, activity in cooperation by a person is always regarded very highly. Joint activities for trainees are necessary not only for the exchange of information, gaining experience. The main thing is that a person "looks" at another person as in a mirror and thereby correlates a lot in himself. In this regard, it is necessary to note the socializing function of interactive teaching methods. The activity of trainees has social significance, the success of the common cause depends on it. This is a school of collective relations, awakening in students the whole range of experiences related to competition and leadership, relationships with people, solving professional and personal problems.

Business games. In recent years, learning methods have become more and more popular. In the practice of higher education, simulation business games based on psychological and pedagogical principles are successfully used. A business game (BI) is a form of activity in a conditional setting aimed at recreating the subject and social content of future professional activity. By creating in training an imitation of specific conditions and dynamics of professional activity, as well as actions and relations of specialists, DI serves as a means of developing theoretical and practical thinking, updating, applying and consolidating knowledge, mastering professional norms and rules for the relationship of future specialists.

Methodically correctly constructed business games serve as an effective learning tool. They can be carried out before the presentation of the lecture material, after it, or the entire educational process can be organized on the basis of DI. It should be noted that when relying on existing knowledge, the business game is more qualitative and meaningful.

The main components of DI are the scenario, game environment and regulations. The scenario includes a description of the gaming organization, the rules of the game and a description of the professional environment. The rules fix the composition and description of the roles of the participants in the game, the materials regulating the activities of the players (methodologies, orders, job descriptions for each of the roles). The main tool of the game is the behavior of the participants. The correct choice of the time mode of the game and the recreation of the real situation is very important. The rules of the game determine the general requirements for the game mode and instructions.

To achieve the set educational goals at the stages of development and implementation of DI, the following interdependent psychological and pedagogical principles should be observed:

a) simulation of the content of professional activity, specific conditions and dynamics of production;

b) recreating problem situations that are typical for a given professional activity through a system of game tasks that contain some contradictions and cause students a state of difficulty;

c) joint activities of participants in the conditions of subject-subject interaction of the production functions of specialists simulated in the game;

d) dialogical communication and interaction of partners in the game as a necessary condition for solving educational problems, preparing and making agreed decisions (in a situation of ambiguous response to the same information of game participants);

e) the duality of game learning activity (DI solves "serious" tasks of developing the personality of a specialist, teaching professional and social competence in a game form, which allows students to intellectually and emotionally "free themselves", show creative initiative).

According to the level of complexity, business games are divided into the following types: 1) "analysis of specific production and professional situations"; 2) "role-playing"; 3) a full-scale business game that imitates professional activities and the consequences of professional decisions (often using a computer to calculate and analyze the immediate and long-term consequences of decisions).

The experience accumulated by universities (and schools) indicates that educational games can be successfully applied in the study of a wide variety of disciplines. Business games have their advantages, disadvantages, certain areas of application. The game form of learning activity has many advantages over traditional learning technology. This is the great efficiency of the educational process, and the high activity and efficiency of students, and the intensification of interpersonal communication, and the presence of vivid emotional experiences, and the provision of conditions for the emergence of cognitive-professional motivation and creative orientation of the individual. However, not any content of professional activity is suitable for game modeling, but only that which contains problems and cannot be assimilated individually. The negative side of DI is associated with an insufficiently deep understanding of their essence, primarily as a pedagogical phenomenon, the main thing in which is not the external form, but complex psychological and pedagogical factors that act through it and thanks to it. The use of DI requires the teacher to have serious training in special areas.

Interactive technologies, combined with problematic nature, are of particular value in teaching psychology. Education in psychology is aimed at achieving the unity of knowledge and action, that is, mastering the methods of psychological knowledge of other people and oneself and the practical implementation of methods for building interactions in order to transform the behavior and way of thinking of other people and oneself. The complexity of achieving the goal of psychology lies in the special interweaving of methods of cognition and transformation, cognitive and personality-transforming types of relationships.

Topic 8. MANAGEMENT OF STUDENTS' INDEPENDENT WORK

8.1. Features of the organization of work with literature

Work with literature is organized by the teacher: the student reads the recommended or self-selected text in extracurricular time. Control over the literature read is carried out in the classroom or outside the classroom. The text, as a rule, is subject to the topic of the lesson. The perception of the text is provided by the methodical simplicity of writing and the abundance of terminology. The teacher should know and take into account the content of the recommended scientific literature and correlate it with the level of students' preparation. When selecting literature, the functional style, the relevance of the topic for a particular group of students also matter.

In the course of independent work, students need to more deeply study interrelated problems and issues affecting the topics of the classes. Independent work skills (it is assumed that the student has mastered the technique of personal work, the ability to work with a book, the skills to refine lectures and prepare for them, the ability to control the psychological aspects of their activities) guarantee an active and creative attitude to the learning process, the ability to achieve their goals. Students should understand that independent cognitive activity, rationally organized and systematically performed, not only has a positive impact on the quality of knowledge and the development of skills and abilities of educational work, but also disciplines, brings up a serious attitude to studies, the need for knowledge, interest in learning.

Usually, independent work of students involves the development of abstracts, the performance of computational and graphic tasks, computational work, modeling and other creative tasks in accordance with the curriculum (thematic plan for studying the discipline). The main goal of the teacher is to teach students the methods of independent work with educational material. At the same time, achieving the goals of effective work of students with literature is, of course, impossible without live communication and advice from the teaching staff.

The material to be studied independently by students is outlined when developing the curriculum. The pedagogical practice of universities in organizing independent work under the guidance of a teacher indicates that the material allocated for independent study must meet the following requirements:

a) be presented in the textbook quite fully and with examples. The presence of a sufficient amount of literature, teaching aids, teaching materials, samples of equipment on the chosen subject is an indispensable and indispensable condition for the success of such classes;

b) contain information that deepens the knowledge gained at the lecture;

c) if possible, do not introduce new concepts, but expand ideas about already learned concepts and definitions;

d) contain problematic, not yet fully resolved issues;

e) require persistent in-depth work and reflection.

The initial volume of educational material taken out for one hour of independent work should not exceed the volume that the teacher would have planned for one hour of a lecture (practical, group or other lesson) on this topic. The duration of independent work under the guidance of a teacher can be from two to four hours. It is believed that for two hours of independent work it is possible to single out separate paragraphs or a topic in the textbook with a volume of no more than 20 pages of technical text.

The task for independent work should be issued in advance so that students have time to search the library for the necessary educational materials (textbooks, manuals, etc.). Simultaneously with the preparation of the task, the teacher develops a lesson plan, which is the main working and reporting document.

To control the assimilation of educational material, it is advisable to conduct a group interview or discussion of the studied material, test work, etc. at the next lesson. Such events, if properly organized, allow not only to assess students' knowledge of the material, but to deepen and consolidate it.

Diploma design is the final stage in the preparation of a specialist, his professional development - it is also a test of the ability to work with scientific literature. When completing a graduation project, the student must demonstrate the ability to competently navigate the theoretical and applied sections of the main, major disciplines, the ability to actively use the acquired knowledge, including in the field of computerization, work with various literature, use modern methods of analysis and feasibility calculations, the ability to set up an experiment and use modern research methods, justify engineering solutions, predicting their consequences.

The topics of graduation projects are determined by the graduating departments, as a rule, taking into account the needs of production, by order of specific enterprises. The student is given the right to choose a topic. He can himself propose the topic of the graduation project with the necessary justification for the expediency of its development.

In the assignment for the implementation of the graduation project, the initial data (objects of observation, research, etc.) are issued, as well as the methodology for collecting materials, the main literature on the topic of design, a list of issues to be developed on the economy and organization of labor and production, on labor protection and environment, civil defense, an indicative list of graphic materials is recommended. The task for the diploma design is made by the teacher - project manager and approved by the head of the department.

The process of diploma design takes place in a logical sequence through such stages as the study of source materials and data for design, the implementation of the actual design of a production or scientific facility, quality control and project evaluation.

Complete independent development of new, especially complex, themes (systems) may be unbearable for a student both due to the level of his training, and due to the fact that the solution of such problems requires the joint collective efforts of highly qualified workers. However, a graduate student is obliged to study as much as possible everything new that has appeared in theory and practice, and, to the extent possible, use these achievements in his project. Experience shows that the most capable students independently and deeply develop individual issues of a complex system, especially in cases where the development of a common theme is carried out by the team of an enterprise or scientific institution.

Graduation projects are defended at a meeting of the State Attestation Commission (SAC). The Chairman of the SAC is appointed by the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation from among the specialists of the graduating department, leading specialists of the given university, as well as representatives of industry or prominent scientists. The personal composition of the SAC is approved by the rector of the university, the candidacy of the chairman of the SAC is selected at a meeting of the academic council of the university and approved by the founder of the university.

The defense of the graduation project should consist of a summary of the essence of the work performed, reasoned arguments in defense of their decisions, clear answers to the questions of the SAC members. In conclusion, we note that the defense of graduation projects allows us to evaluate not only the quality of specialist training, but also the pedagogical activity of the department as a whole.

8.2. Independent work of students

Independent work is a type of learning activity performed by a student without direct contact with a teacher or managed by a teacher indirectly through special learning materials; an integral mandatory link in the learning process, which primarily provides for the individual work of students in accordance with the instructions of the teacher or textbook, training program.

In modern didactics, independent work of students is considered, on the one hand, as a type of educational work carried out without direct intervention, but under the guidance of a teacher, and on the other hand, as a means of involving students in independent cognitive activity, forming their methods of organizing such activities. The effect of independent work of students can be obtained only when it is organized and implemented in the educational process as an integral system that permeates all stages of student education at the university.

Types of independent work of students. According to the particular didactic purpose, four types of independent work can be distinguished.

1st type. The formation of the trainees' skills to identify in the external plan what is required of them, based on the activity algorithm given to them and the premises for this activity contained in the assignment condition. In this case, the cognitive activity of the trainees consists in recognizing the objects of a given field of knowledge during the repeated perception of information about them or actions with them.

As independent work of this type, homework is most often used: work with a textbook, lecture notes, etc. Common to independent work of the first type is that all the data of the desired, as well as the method of performing the task itself, must be presented explicitly or directly in the task itself, or in the corresponding instructions.

2nd type. Formation of knowledge-copies and knowledge that allows solving typical problems. In this case, the cognitive activity of the trainees consists in pure reproduction and partial reconstruction, transformation of the structure and content of previously military educational information, which implies the need to analyze this description of the object, various ways to complete the task, choose the most correct of them or sequentially determine the logically following one after another methods solutions.

Independent work of this type includes separate stages of laboratory work and practical exercises, standard course projects, as well as specially prepared homework assignments with algorithmic instructions. The peculiarity of the work of this group is that in the assignment it is necessary to communicate the idea, the principle of the solution and put forward the requirement for the students to develop this principle or idea in a way (methods) in relation to these conditions.

3rd type. Formation of students' knowledge underlying the solution of non-standard tasks. The cognitive activity of trainees in solving such problems consists in accumulating and manifesting in the external plan a new experience for them on the basis of previously acquired formalized experience (actions according to a known algorithm) by transferring knowledge, skills and abilities. Tasks of this type involve the search, formulation and implementation of the idea of ​​a solution, which always goes beyond the limits of the past formalized experience and requires the student to vary the conditions of the task and previously learned educational information, considering them from a new angle. Independent work of the third type should put forward the requirement to analyze situations unfamiliar to students and generate subjectively new information. Typical for independent work of students of the third type are term papers and diploma projects.

4th type. Creation of prerequisites for creative activity. The cognitive activity of students in the performance of these works consists in deep penetration into the essence of the object under study, the establishment of new connections and relationships necessary to find new, previously unknown principles, ideas, and generate new information. This type of independent work is usually implemented when performing research assignments, including term papers and graduation projects.

Organization of independent work of students. In the process of independent activity, the student must learn to identify cognitive tasks, choose ways to solve them, perform operations to control the correctness of solving the task, improve the skills of implementing theoretical knowledge. The formation of skills and abilities of independent work of students can proceed both on a conscious and on an intuitive basis. In the first case, the initial basis for the correct organization of activities is a clear understanding of the goals, objectives, forms, methods of work, conscious control over its process and results. In the second case, a vague understanding prevails, the action of habits formed under the influence of mechanical repetitions, imitation, etc.

Independent work of a student under the guidance of a teacher proceeds in the form of business interaction: the student receives direct instructions, recommendations from the teacher on the organization of independent activity, and the teacher performs the function of management through accounting, control and correction of erroneous actions. Based on modern didactics, the teacher must establish the required type of independent work of students and determine the necessary degree of its inclusion in the study of their discipline.

The direct organization of independent work of students proceeds in two stages. The first stage is the period of initial organization, which requires the teacher to be directly involved in the activities of the students, with the discovery and indication of the causes of errors. The second stage is the period of self-organization, when the direct participation of the teacher in the process of self-formation of students' knowledge is not required.

In the organization of independent work of students, it is especially important to correctly determine the volume and structure of the content of educational material submitted for independent study, as well as the necessary methodological support for independent work of students. The latter, as a rule, includes a work program (observations, study of primary sources, etc.), variant tasks, non-standard individual tasks for each student, tools for their implementation. The various methodological manuals currently used for independent work of students are usually informational in nature. The student must be oriented towards creative activity in the context of the discipline. Therefore, fundamentally new methodological developments are needed.

Principles of organization of independent work of students. Analyzing the situation with independent work of students that has developed in universities, V. A. Kan-Kalik puts forward his thoughts on the principles on which such student activity should be based. When planning independent work on a particular course, first of all, it is necessary to single out its so-called fundamental tree, which includes the main system of methodological, theoretical knowledge that needs to be submitted for mandatory lecture study. So, from a 100-hour course, the fundamental volume will take up half of it. Further, as derivatives of this "fundamental tree", it is proposed to form various types of independent work of students, providing for them topics, the nature of the study, forms, venue, variable methods of implementation, a control and accounting system, as well as various reporting methods. According to Kan-Kalik, without such a system, not a single type of independent work of students will give an educational and professional effect.[1]

The success of independent work is primarily determined by the degree of preparedness of the student. At its core, independent work involves the maximum activity of students in various aspects: the organization of mental work, the search for information, the desire to turn knowledge into beliefs. The psychological prerequisites for the development of students' independence lie in their academic success, positive attitude towards it, interest and enthusiasm for the subject, understanding that with the proper organization of independent work, skills and experience in creative activity are acquired.

One of the conditions for the regulation of human activity as the main prerequisite for the success of any type of activity is mental self-regulation, which is a closed loop of regulation. This is an information process, the carriers of which are various mental forms of reflection of reality. General patterns of self-regulation in an individual form, depending on specific conditions, as well as on the nature of nervous activity, personal qualities of a person and his system of organizing his actions, are formed in the process of education and self-education. Creating a system of independent work of students, it is necessary, firstly, to teach them how to study [2] (this should be done from the first classes at the university, for example, in the course of introduction to the specialty) and, secondly, to familiarize them with the psychophysiological foundations of mental labor, technology his scientific organization.

Rules for the rational organization of independent work of students. The intensity of educational work especially increases in conditions of rapid switching from one type of educational activity to another, as well as with unexpected changes in educational situations (actions) in the process of manifestation of high emotionality and its change in the course of training.

A high degree of mental stress with low physical activity can lead to a kind of pathology - changes in autonomic functions (increased heart rate), high blood pressure, hormonal changes, and sometimes drastic changes that reach a state of stress. Mental overload, especially in situations where a student studies independently, without the teacher's control, can lead to exhaustion of the nervous system, deterioration of memory and attention, loss of interest in learning and social work. Physical exercise, rational nutrition, the correct mode of study work, and the use of rational methods of work help to cope with mental overload.

With regard to the organization of independent work, it is useful for both the teacher and students to know the rules for the rational organization of mental work formulated by the largest Russian scientist N. A. Vvedensky (1852-1922).

1. You need to enter the work not immediately, not in a jerk, but gradually drawn into it. Physiologically, this is justified by the fact that the basis of any activity is the formation of a dynamic stereotype - a relatively stable system of conditioned reflex connections formed by repeated repetition of the same environmental influences on the senses.

2. It is necessary to develop a rhythm of work, an even distribution of work throughout the day, week, month and year. Rhythm serves as a means of mental stimulation of a person and plays an exceptionally high role in his life.

3. It is necessary to follow the sequence in solving any cases.

4. It is reasonable to combine the alternation of work and rest.

5. Finally, an important rule of fruitful mental activity is the social significance of labor.

Over time, the skills of the culture of mental work turn into habits and become a natural need of the individual. Internal composure and organization are the result of a well-organized work regime, strong-willed manifestations and systematic self-control.

Independent work as part of the educational activities of students. Independent work is a special, highest degree of learning activity. It is due to individual psychological differences of the student and personal characteristics and requires a high level of self-awareness, reflectivity. Independent work can be carried out both outside the classroom (at home, in the laboratory), and in the classroom in written or oral form.

Independent work of students is an integral part of educational work and is aimed at consolidating and deepening the acquired knowledge and skills, searching for and acquiring new knowledge, including using automated learning systems, as well as completing training tasks, preparing for upcoming classes, tests and exams. This type of activity of students is organized, provided and controlled by the relevant departments.

Independent work is intended not only for mastering each discipline, but also for the formation of independent work skills in general, in educational, scientific, professional activities, the ability to take responsibility, independently solve a problem, find constructive solutions, get out of a crisis situation, etc. The importance of independent work goes far beyond the scope of a single subject, and therefore graduating departments should develop a strategy for the formation of a system of skills and abilities of independent work. At the same time, one should proceed from the level of independence of applicants and the requirements for the level of independence of graduates, so that a sufficient level is achieved over the entire period of study.

According to the new educational paradigm, regardless of the specialization and nature of the work, any novice specialist must have fundamental knowledge, professional skills and skills in their field, experience in creative and research activities to solve new problems, social and evaluation activities. The last two components of education are formed in the process of independent work of students. In addition, the task of the departments is to develop differentiated criteria for independence depending on the specialty and type of activity (researcher, designer, designer, technologist, repairman, manager, etc.).

The main features of the organization of training at the university are the specifics of the applied methods of educational work and the degree of independence of the trainees. The teacher only directs the cognitive activity of the student, who himself carries out cognitive activity. Independent work completes the tasks of all types of educational work. No knowledge that is not backed up by independent activity can become the true property of a person. In addition, independent work has an educational value: it forms independence not only as a set of skills and abilities, but also as a character trait that plays a significant role in the personality structure of a modern highly qualified specialist. Therefore, in each university, in each course, material is carefully selected for independent work of students under the guidance of teachers. The forms of such work can be different - these are different types of homework. Universities draw up schedules of independent work for the semester with the application of semester curricula and curricula. Schedules stimulate, organize, make rational use of time. The work should be systematically supervised by teachers. The basis of independent work is a scientific and theoretical course, a complex of knowledge gained by students. When distributing tasks, students receive instructions for their implementation, guidelines, manuals, a list of necessary literature.

Features of group independent work of students. In a higher educational institution, various types of individual independent work are combined, such as preparation for lectures, seminars, laboratory work, tests, exams, the implementation of abstracts, assignments, term papers and projects, and at the last, final stage, the completion of a graduation project. The teaching staff of the university can make independent work more effective if students are organized in pairs or in groups of three. Group work enhances the factor of motivation and mutual intellectual activity, increases the efficiency of students' cognitive activity due to mutual control and self-control.

The participation of a partner significantly restructures the student's psychology. In the case of individual training, the student subjectively evaluates his activity as complete and complete, but such an assessment may be erroneous. In group individual work, a group self-examination takes place, followed by correction by the teacher. This second link of independent learning activity ensures the effectiveness of the work as a whole. With a sufficiently high level of independent work, the student himself can perform an individual part of the work and demonstrate it to a fellow student partner.

Technology of organization of independent work of students. The ratio of time allotted for classroom and independent work is 1: 3,5 all over the world. This proportion is based on the huge didactic potential of this type of student learning activity. Independent work contributes to the deepening and expansion of knowledge, the formation of interest in cognitive activity, mastery of the methods of the process of cognition, and the development of cognitive abilities. In accordance with this, independent work of students becomes one of the main reserves for increasing the efficiency of training young specialists at the university.

Independent work is carried out using supporting didactic materials designed to correct the work of students and improve its quality. Modern requirements for the teaching process suggest that the teams of the departments develop in a timely manner: a) a system of tasks for independent work; b) topics of abstracts and reports; c) instructions and guidelines for performing laboratory work, training exercises, homework, etc.; d) topics of term papers, course and diploma projects; e) lists of mandatory and additional literature.

Independent work includes reproducing and creative processes in the student's activity. Depending on this, three levels of independent activity of students are distinguished: 1) reproductive (training); 2) reconstructive; 3) creative, search.

For the organization and successful functioning of independent work of students, it is necessary, firstly, an integrated approach to the organization of such activities in all forms of classroom work, secondly, a combination of all levels (types) of independent work, thirdly, ensuring control over the quality of performance (requirements , consultations) and, finally, forms of control.

Activation of independent work of students. Independent work is carried out by students in different parts of the learning process: when obtaining new knowledge, consolidating it, repeating and testing it. The systematic reduction of the direct assistance of the teacher serves as a means of increasing the creative activity of students.

The effectiveness of students' creative activity depends on the organization of classes and the nature of the teacher's influence. Pedagogical literature describes and practically applies various methods of activating students' independent work. Here are the most effective ones.

1. Teaching students the methods of independent work (temporary guidelines for the implementation of independent work to develop the skills of planning a time budget; communication of reflective knowledge necessary for introspection and self-assessment).

2. A convincing demonstration of the need to master the proposed educational material for the upcoming educational and professional activities in introductory lectures, guidelines and manuals.

3. Problematic presentation of the material, reproducing the typical ways of real reasoning used in science and technology.

4. Application of operational formulations of laws and definitions in order to establish an unambiguous connection between theory and practice.

5. Use of active learning methods (case analysis, discussions, group and pair work, collective discussion of difficult issues, business games).

6. Development and familiarization of students with the structural-logical scheme of the discipline and its elements; video application.

7. Issuance of guidelines to undergraduate students containing a detailed algorithm; gradual reduction of the explanatory part from course to course in order to accustom students to greater independence.

8. Development of comprehensive teaching aids for independent work, combining theoretical material, guidelines and tasks for solving.

9. Development of teaching aids of an interdisciplinary nature.

10. Individualization of homework and laboratory work, and in group work - its clear distribution among group members.

11. Introducing difficulties into typical tasks, issuing tasks with redundant data.

12. Control questions for the lecture stream after each lecture.

13. Students reading a fragment of a lecture (15-20 minutes) with the preliminary preparation of it with the help of a teacher.

14. Assigning the status of student consultants to the most advanced and capable of them; providing such students with comprehensive assistance.

15. Development and implementation of collective teaching methods, group, pair work.

Ways to improve the efficiency of students' independent work. The leading scientists and teachers of Russian universities see the way out to a new quality of training in the reorientation of curricula to the widespread use of independent work, including in junior courses. In this regard, certain constructive proposals deserve attention, such as:

- organization of individual training plans with the involvement of students in research work and, if possible, in real design on the orders of enterprises;

- inclusion of independent work of students in the curriculum and schedule of classes with the organization of individual consultations at the departments;

- creation of a complex of educational and teaching aids for the implementation of independent work of students;

- development of a system of integrated inter-departmental assignments;

- orientation of lecture courses for independent work;

- rating method of control of independent work of students;

- collegial relations between teachers and students;

- development of tasks involving non-standard solutions;

- individual consultations of the teacher and recalculation of his teaching load, taking into account the independent work of students;

- conducting forms of lectures such as lectures-conversations, lectures-discussions, where the speakers and co-speakers are the students themselves, and the teacher acts as a leader. Such classes involve a preliminary independent study of each specific topic by the speakers using textbooks, consultations with the teacher and the use of additional literature.

On the whole, the orientation of the educational process towards independent work and increasing its efficiency presupposes, firstly, an increase in the number of hours spent on independent work of students; secondly, the organization of permanent consultations and advisory services, the issuance of a set of tasks for independent work of students immediately or in stages; thirdly, the creation of an educational, methodological and material and technical base in universities (textbooks, teaching aids, computer classes), which makes it possible to independently master the discipline; fourthly, the availability of laboratories and workshops for self-fulfillment of a laboratory workshop; fifthly, the organization of constant (better than rating) control, which allows minimizing traditional control procedures and, at the expense of session time, increasing the time budget for students' independent work; fifthly, the abolition of most of the established forms of practical and laboratory classes in order to free up time for independent work and maintenance of counseling centers.

8.3. Features of the organization of independent work in distance learning

Teaching materials for independent work with part-time students are methodically organized in such a way as to compensate for the lack of contact with the teacher and, therefore, entrust them with the functions of managing students' independent work. The set of tasks should provide the possibility of individual choice and determination of the amount of material necessary to achieve the learning goal. Tasks intended for independent work should be active and creative, stimulate the search for independent solutions. Mastering the techniques of independent work is a prerequisite for the development of self-education skills.

There are the following types of independent work of part-time students: laboratory work, independent work in the classroom, homework, home reading, etc. Wide opportunities for independent work on educational material are opened up using computers and the Internet. Their use in independent work by distance learning students allows, firstly, to expand the information base of students; secondly, to increase their activity, from passive "absorbers of information" to turn into its "getters"; thirdly, to develop their ability to analyze and generalize, improve coherence, breadth and depth of thinking; fourthly, to facilitate the assimilation of abstract material, to present it in the form of concrete images; fifthly, to accustom students to accuracy, accuracy, sequence of actions and, finally, to develop independence.

In general, the orientation of the educational process at the university towards the independent work of students in the correspondence department and increasing its effectiveness involves: 1) increasing hours for self-education of students; 2) organizing ongoing consultations, issuing sets of assignments for independent work in advance or in stages; 3) creation of educational, methodological and material and technical base of the university (textbooks, educational and teaching aids, computer classes, etc.), which allow one to independently master the discipline;

4) development of distance and open education systems;

5) the availability of laboratories and special classrooms for independent work of part-time students, etc.

When developing tasks for independent work of students of the correspondence department, teachers should be guided by the requirement of profiling their discipline in accordance with the student's specialty. This allows us to formulate a number of clear requirements for the professional orientation of the discipline at the university:

1) the selection and presentation of material should ensure the achievement of the goals set out in the qualification profile, and understanding the importance of this discipline for the future profession;

2) the material of the tasks should be methodological, understandable and serve as a means of developing generalized skills;

3) in the theoretical part of any discipline, a fundamental core of knowledge should be singled out. Identification and demonstration of multiple connections between the "cores" will help to create in the minds of students a scientific picture of the world and a modern methodology of cognition;

4) when drawing up tasks and assignments, one should formulate their content in the context of the specialty, as well as teach students to form a mental model of an object and justify the choice of a calculation scheme.

Independent work of students, performed in extracurricular activities on the topics of the course in accordance with the educational and thematic plan, is an integral part of all parts of the learning process. This means that the independent work of part-time students must be carefully planned, provided with teaching materials and methodological guidance. Of exceptional importance for the proper organization of students' independent work is the rational organization of all the preparatory work that precedes the students' fulfillment of the educational task on their own. In this regard, the organization of independent work of part-time students does not reduce the leading role of the teacher. The correct organization of independent mental work requires the teacher to familiarize part-time students with the topics of the course intended for independent study, advice on the use of rational methods of mastering knowledge, recommendations on the use of relevant basic and additional literature.

Modern textbooks on the discipline, reference to dictionaries and reference books, the use of teaching aids developed at the department, questions for self-control provide enough opportunities for students to work independently. At the same time, for independent study of the topics of the discipline, a certain system is needed that facilitates the process of independent mastery of extensive material and allows it to be internally ordered. In the process of independent study of the topics of the discipline, part-time students are recommended to:

1) to study in more depth the conceptual and categorical apparatus (the main general and particular concepts with which the phenomena under study are described);

2) to accurately classify the studied phenomena and identify the relationships between them;

3) generalize and present these dependencies in the most rational form for perception and memorization (a visual representation of systematized representations makes it possible to capture the acquired knowledge in the mind more productively and for a long time);

4) to consolidate knowledge in the field of the studied discipline by their practical application in the process of communicative communication, decision-making.

Section III

Topic 9. TEACHER IN THE PEDAGOGICAL PROCESS

9.1. General regulatory components of the pedagogical process and psychological and pedagogical problems

The pedagogical process is a movement from the goals of education to its results by ensuring the unity of education and upbringing. The most important characteristic of the pedagogical process is its integrity (the synthetic quality of the pedagogical process, which characterizes the highest level of its development, the result of the stimulating conscious actions of the subjects participating in it), emphasizing the subordination of all its constituent processes to a single goal.

The pedagogical process is presented as a system of five interrelated elements: 1) the purpose of learning (C) (i.e. why to teach); 2) the content of educational information (C) (what to teach); 3) methods, teaching methods, means of pedagogical communication (M) (how to teach); 4) teacher (P); 5) student (U). The pedagogical process as a way of organizing educational relations consists in the purposeful selection and use of external factors for the development of participants. Wherever the pedagogical process takes place, no matter what teacher creates it, it will have the same structure.

The pedagogical goal is the prediction by the teacher and the student of the results of their interactions in the form of generalized mental formations, in accordance with which all other components of the pedagogical process are then correlated. The coincidence of the goals of the teacher and the student is the most important condition for the success of the pedagogical process.

The principles of the pedagogical process are intended to determine the main directions for achieving the goal. In the context of a holistic pedagogical process, it is advisable to single out two groups of principles: the organization of the pedagogical process and the management of the activities of pupils.

The content of the pedagogical process is part of the experience of generations (a system of scientific knowledge, practical skills, as well as philosophical and moral and aesthetic ideas in the field of social relations, ideology, production, labor, science, culture), which is transmitted in the form of information to students to achieve the set goal. It is carefully selected, subjected to pedagogical analysis, generalized, evaluated from the point of view of the worldview, brought into line with the age capabilities of the students.

The core of the organizational and managerial complex of the pedagogical process is the methods, means and forms of pedagogical communication. Methods act as an ordered way of organizing the interrelated activities of the teacher and students to achieve certain educational goals. In unity with the methods, the means of training and education are used as materialized subject methods of working with content. Forms of organization of the pedagogical process give it a logical completeness.

The subjects and objects of the pedagogical process are the teacher and the student, who form an integral dynamic system.

Management of the pedagogical process. In practice, the interaction of the main structural components of the pedagogical process is filled with personal content, acts through the consciousness, will, emotions, individuality of teachers and students. However, in order for the pedagogical process to "work", a component such as management is needed. In relation to the pedagogical process, management is a purposeful, systematic influence of a teacher on an individual student and a group of students to achieve the desired learning outcomes. When managing the pedagogical process, like any other, freedom (but not suppression) is a recognized necessity.

The following distinguishing features of the management of the pedagogical process in the university are distinguished:

1) conscious and planned influence, which is always preferable to spontaneous regulation;

2) the presence of cause-and-effect relationships between the control subsystem (teacher) and the control object (student);

3) dynamism or the ability of the controlled subsystem to move from one qualitative state to another;

4) reliability, i.e., the ability of the control system to perform specified functions under certain process conditions;

5) stability - the ability of the system to keep moving along the intended trajectory, to maintain the mode of operation (despite various external and internal disturbances).

The control process is both cyclic and continuous, which is created by the synchronous and sequential execution of many control cycles. Schematically, the picture of a continuous management process looks like this: goal? action ? result ? new goal.

Effective management of the learning process is possible if the following requirements are met: 1) the formulation of learning objectives; 2) establishing the initial level of the controlled process; 3) development of an action program that provides for the main transitional states of the learning process; 4) obtaining, by certain parameters, information about the state of the learning process (feedback); 5) processing of information received through the feedback channel, development and introduction of corrective actions. The management of the pedagogical process also provides for the determination of the place of each participant in it, its functions, rights and obligations, the creation of favorable conditions for the best performance of tasks.

The management process consists of preparatory, main and final stages (logical links), including interrelated components. At the preparatory stage, the following tasks are solved: goal setting; information support (diagnosing the characteristics of trainees and diagnosing conditions); formulation of tasks depending on the purpose and characteristics of students; achievement forecasting; designing and planning the development of the process to achieve the goal. The stage of the implementation of the pedagogical process (implementation of the project) includes setting and explaining the goals and objectives of the upcoming activities; interaction between teachers and students; use of the intended methods, means and forms of pedagogical communication; creation of favorable conditions; implementation of various measures to stimulate the activities of trainees, control over the progress of the process. At the final stage, the results achieved are analyzed and the results are summed up. Pedagogical diagnostics makes it possible to establish, with the help of special methods, the state of "health" (i.e., efficiency) of the pedagogical process, both as a whole and in its individual parts.

The effectiveness of the pedagogical process is due to the presence of constant feedback, which allows the teacher to receive timely information about the compliance of the results obtained with the planned tasks. The unit of the pedagogical process, for the solution of which pedagogical interaction is organized at each of its stages, is the pedagogical task (the pedagogical situation of training and education, characterized by the interaction of teachers and pupils, correlated with the purpose of the activity and the conditions for its implementation). Tasks of different classes, types and levels of complexity have a common property: they are tasks of social management. The pedagogical process is presented as a chain of educational situations, the cognitive core of which is educational and cognitive tasks, and the content is the joint activity of the teacher and students in solving the problem with the involvement of various means of cognition and teaching methods. Any cognitive task is contradictory in nature. The solution of the contradiction between the achieved and the unknown arouses interest, gives rise to the desire for vigorous activity and is the driving force of the pedagogical process. At the same time, it is always necessary to take into account that the originality and complexity of learning as a control system lies primarily in the fact that the controlled object, that is, the process of learning, assimilation, is always carried out by a specific person.

9.2. The personality of the teacher in the educational process

The social significance of pedagogical activity makes special demands on the personality of the teacher (teacher, lecturer), his intellectual potential and moral character. Historically, each theory of education and upbringing puts forward its own requirements for the personality and activity of the teacher. So, for the modern stage of education, it is important not only and not so much to teach a certain (certain) amount of knowledge, but to cultivate the desire and ability to acquire this knowledge and use it. This actual requirement radically changes the role of the teacher. Today, a university teacher is required to do more than be a carrier and "transmitter" of scientific information ("subject teacher"). It is advisable to become an organizer of the cognitive activity of students, their independent work, scientific creativity.

If the pedagogical process is, first of all, the interaction of individuals, then the teacher himself becomes the main means of influence as a person, and not only as a specialist with the necessary knowledge and skills. The human qualities of a teacher, exactingness to himself and others play a decisive role in his activities and professional qualities.

The pedagogical profession refers to professions of the type "person - person" with the characteristics of a person characteristic of this professional scheme. The structure of the professionally necessary qualities of a teacher can be represented by blocks of objective (professional knowledge, professional skills, psychological and pedagogical knowledge) and subjective characteristics (psychological positions, attitudes, personal characteristics). The psychological portrait of a teacher of any academic discipline includes the following structural components:

1) the individual qualities of a person, that is, his characteristics as an individual (temperament, inclinations, etc.); 2) personal qualities, i.e., his features as a person (the social essence of a person); 3) communicative (interactive) qualities; 4) status-positional, i.e., features of the position, role, relationships in the team; 5) activity (professional-subject); 6) external behavioral indicators.

In the structure of general pedagogical abilities, three groups are distinguished:

1) personal abilities associated with the implementation of the educational function of the teacher (perceptual abilities, pedagogical imagination, the ability to self-regulate mental processes, emotional sphere and behavior);

2) organizational and communication skills associated with the implementation of the organizational function and communication (communication skills, pedagogical tact, organizational, suggestive abilities);

3) didactic abilities associated with the transfer of information to students, the formation of active, independent, creative thinking in them (the ability to transfer information to children, expressive speech abilities, academic (cognitive) abilities, distribution of attention).

At the basis of certain pedagogical actions, the teacher activates not one, but a group of abilities.

Pedagogical culture. Pedagogical culture is understood as a part of the general culture of a person, which can be considered as a dynamic system of pedagogical values, methods of activity and professional behavior of a teacher. This is the level of education through which professional knowledge is transmitted. There are four groups of components of pedagogical culture.

1. The pedagogical position and professional and personal qualities of a teacher are a personal attitude to certain aspects of reality, manifested in appropriate behavior. A pedagogical position is a certain moral choice that a teacher makes. It is characterized by two sides: ideological (the teacher's awareness of the social significance of the profession, conviction in the correctness of the choice, orientation to humanistic principles) and behavioral (the teacher's ability to be responsible for the decisions made, create conditions for self-realization of the student's personality). The pedagogical position is realized through the personal and professional qualities of the teacher, his interests and spiritual needs. It includes the orientation of the individual, moral qualities, attitude to pedagogical work.

2. Pedagogical knowledge and attitude to it, as well as thinking. Knowledge can be methodological, theoretical, general pedagogical, applied (that is, knowledge in certain areas of the pedagogical process), private applied (knowledge in individual disciplines). Attitude to knowledge is determined by the level of thinking. Pedagogical thinking includes critical thinking (the need to analyze your interaction with the student); creative creative orientation of thinking; problem-variant thinking.

3. Professional skills and creative nature of pedagogical activity. Allocate such groups of skills as information skills (the ability to select and structure information); ability to set goals and plan educational activities; organizational skills; communication skills; ability to conduct analysis and introspection; possession of pedagogical equipment, etc.

The indicators of the experience of creative activity are, firstly, a pronounced ability to analyze the situation from the position of a student and, secondly, the ability to create new elements of pedagogical knowledge and ideas, to develop a method and means that are different from traditional ones.

4. Personal self-regulation and culture of professional behavior (primarily pedagogical tact). Self-regulation is behavior in accordance with pedagogical requirements, activity in the direction of meeting the needs and interests of students. It is implemented through normative (a set of knowledge, concepts and requirements for the teacher's personality), regulatory (feelings, attitudes, beliefs implemented by the teacher in his behavior) and activity-behavioral components (implementation of volitional processes in the direction of controlling and correcting one's behavior).

The degree of formation of the components of pedagogical culture is characterized by three types of its levels: high (professional-creative), professional-adaptive and low (reproductive-professional).

Creative pedagogical individuality is always mediated by the personal qualities of the teacher, which in the teaching profession are inseparable from professional ones. The results of special studies record changes in students' ideas about the ideal of a teacher, an authoritative teacher and the sources of this authority.[3] The importance of the teacher's personal qualities has increased and, accordingly, the contribution of other ("instrumental") qualities necessary for the teacher's activity has decreased. In the personality of the teacher, students reject the low level of culture, ignorance, intolerance, falsehood, humiliation of the dignity of the student, arrogance, cruelty, anger, aggressiveness. On the contrary, they highly value purely human qualities, such as benevolence, tact, broad outlook, enthusiasm for the subject taught and knowledge of it, interest in the student's personality, respect, tolerance, understanding, sociability, justice.

Advanced pedagogical practice transfers the educational process to the level of interpersonal relationships, i.e. turns it into interaction, dialogue as a source of personal growth for both participants in the process. The pedagogical process embodies the specific dialectics of the subjective and the objective. On the one hand, a strictly objective analysis of pedagogical phenomena is assumed here, on the other hand, this analysis is subjective by the personality of the teacher as the bearer of a certain creative individuality, which, in turn, is objectified by the conditions of influence in the same psychological and pedagogical situation and other things being equal. from different teachers. Thus, this subjective factor is of great importance in the creative process of the teacher.

9.3. The problem of styles of pedagogical activity

Pedagogical activity, like any other, is characterized by a certain style. The style of pedagogical activity is a stable system of methods, methods of activity, manners of behavior of the teacher, manifested in different conditions of its existence, professionally developed, but associated with his individuality. The style is determined by the specifics of the activity, the individual psychological characteristics of its subjects - the teacher (teacher) and students (pupils, students). In the psychological and pedagogical literature, there are a large number of classifications of styles of teachers' activities. Consider two such classifications.

I. The first experimental psychological study of leadership styles was carried out in 1938 by the German psychologist Kurt Lewin. Without going into the essence of the experiment, we will give a brief description of the authoritarian, democratic, conniving styles of pedagogical activity identified by him.

1. The authoritarian style is characterized by a general tendency towards strict and comprehensive control, the sole solution of issues related to the life of both the class team and each student. Based on their own attitudes, the teacher determines the position and goals of interaction, indicates ways to complete the task. In assessing the activities and personality of students, the teacher of the authoritarian style is stereotypical and subjective, he underestimates the importance of students' independence and initiative. This style is implemented through the tactics of dictate and guardianship, the tone of the order. Students' opposition to the teacher's imperious pressure most often leads to the emergence of stable conflict situations. Such a style erects an impenetrable wall in communication and relationships, semantic and emotional barriers between the teacher and students (“it’s better not to mess with such a person”).

Although, in general, this style of pedagogical communication deserves a negative assessment, modern social psychology rightly notes that there are such circumstances and tasks when the authoritarian style will be the most appropriate.

2. The main feature of the conniving (or liberal) leadership style is that the teacher seeks to minimally engage in activities (withdraw himself), which is explained by the laying down of responsibility for its results. Such teachers formally perform their functional duties, limited only to teaching. This style involves non-interference tactics, which are based on indifference and disinterest in students. The liberal style does not formulate the proper requirements for students, does not see the need for a gradual complication of the requirements in the educational process, and therefore cannot count on the prospects for the advancement of students, being content with minimal achievements.

Special studies and pedagogical practice convincingly show that this is the most harmful and destructive style for business. It gives rise to the uncertainty of the expectations of students (schoolchildren, students), causes tension and anxiety in them. In communication and relationships with teachers, students gradually either take the path of familiarity (“This is his own guy, he won’t put a “deuce” anyway”), or the path of complete alienation (“It’s not interesting with such a teacher, no matter how you do it - everything will do! ").

3. With a democratic style, the teacher is focused on increasing the role of the student in interaction, on involving everyone in solving common problems. The main feature of this style is mutual acceptance and mutual orientation. Teachers who profess this style are characterized by an active-positive attitude towards students, an adequate assessment of their capabilities, successes and failures, a deep understanding of the student, the goals and motives of his behavior, and the ability to predict the development of his personality. As a result, students develop confidence in themselves and their abilities, sociability, trust in relationships, group cohesion. A teacher who owns this style consciously sets tasks for students, avoids negative attitudes, he is objective in assessments, versatile and proactive in communication.

The most effective way to solve pedagogical problems is precisely the democratic style, in which the teacher takes into account the individual characteristics of students, their personal experience, the specifics of their needs and capabilities. Such a style can be developed by a person who has a high level of professional self-awareness, capable of constant analysis of his behavior and adequate self-esteem.

This classification of leadership styles can be considered universal.

II. Another classification based on the distinction between styles of pedagogical work has the following grounds: a) the content characteristics of the style (the teacher's orientation towards the process or result of his work, assessment of the stages of his work); b) dynamic characteristics of the style (flexibility, stability, switchability, etc.); c) performance (level of knowledge, skills, interest in learning). On the basis of these criteria, the individual styles of the teacher's activity are distinguished: emotional-improvisational (EIS); emotional-methodical (EMS); reasoning-improvisational (RIS); reasoning-methodical (RMS).

1. Teachers with EIS are distinguished by a predominant orientation towards the learning process. Such a teacher builds an explanation of the educational material in a logical and interesting way, but he often lacks dialogical contact with students. In addition, he focuses on a number of strong students, bypassing the rest. Lessons run at a fast pace. EIS teachers do not allow students to formulate an answer on their own. Teachers with a similar style of pedagogical activity are characterized by insufficiently adequate planning of the educational process. As a rule, the most interesting educational material is worked out in their lessons, and less interesting is given for homework. Control over the activities of students by such teachers is insufficient. EIS teachers use a large arsenal of various teaching methods, often practice group discussions, and stimulate spontaneous statements of students. A teacher who masters this style of activity is characterized by intuitiveness, often expressed in the inability to analyze the features and effectiveness of their activities in the lesson. In relation to students, such a teacher is sensitive and attentive.

2. A teacher with EMS is characterized by an orientation towards the process and result of learning, adequate planning of the educational process, high efficiency, control of the knowledge and skills of all students, the use of various types of work in the classroom and collective discussions. Using a rich arsenal of methodological techniques, teachers with EMS seek, first of all, to interest students in the subject itself, without abusing bright, but superficial images.

3. Teachers with RIS are characterized by an orientation towards the process and results of learning, adequate planning of educational activities, a combination of intuitiveness and reflexivity. Teachers with RIS show less ingenuity in the selection and variation of teaching methods, they are not always able to provide a high pace of work, practice collective discussions less often, prefer to influence students indirectly (through prompts, clarifications, etc.), giving them the opportunity to draw up in detail answer. Such teachers are traditional and cautious in their actions.

4. Teachers with RMS focus primarily on learning outcomes and adequate planning of the educational process, showing conservatism in the use of means and methods of pedagogical activity. High methodicalness (systematic consolidation, repetition, control of students' knowledge) is combined with a standard set of teaching methods used, a preference for the reproductive activity of students, and rare group discussions. During the interview, teachers with RMS address a small number of students, giving everyone enough time to respond, with particular attention paid to weak students. Teachers of this style are generally characterized by reflexivity.

A particular teacher can hardly be unambiguously assigned to any one of the listed types. The master teacher's style of leadership may have expedient variability. The optimal individual style is such a style of pedagogical activity that allows you to make the most of the strengths of the teacher and, if possible, compensate for the weaknesses of his temperament, character, abilities and personality as a whole. For each professional teacher, the most important task is to develop their own individual style in pedagogical activity with a consistently positive type of relationship between students and teachers.

9.4. Interaction of subjects of the educational process

Pedagogical interaction is a deliberate contact (long-term or temporary) between the teacher and students, which results in mutual changes in their behavior, activities and relationships. Pedagogical interaction is an essential characteristic of the pedagogical process, which is a specially organized interaction of teachers and students, regarding the content of education using the means of training and education (pedagogical means) in order to solve the problems of education aimed at meeting both the needs of society and the individual himself in his development and self-development.

Pedagogical interaction is a broader concept than "pedagogical influence", "pedagogical influence", "pedagogical attitude". Being a consequence of the interaction of teachers and students, pedagogical interaction includes in unity the pedagogical influence, its active perception and assimilation by the pupil and the latter's own activity, manifested in response direct or indirect influences on the teacher and on himself (self-education). Pedagogical interaction always has two interdependent components - pedagogical influence and the response of the student (pupil, student). Influences can be direct and indirect, differ in direction, content and forms of presentation, the presence or absence of feedback, etc. etc.

There are the following types of pedagogical interactions: actually pedagogical (relations between educators and pupils); mutual (relationships with adults and peers); subject (relations of pupils with objects of material culture); self-relationship (relationship to oneself).

The effect of pedagogical interaction depends on the content and methods of the impact itself, as well as on the individual psychological characteristics of the subjects of the educational process. With optimal pedagogical communication, the following main functions of interaction between the teacher and the student are distinguished:

- constructive, manifested in the discussion and explanation of the content of knowledge and the practical significance of the subject;

- organizational, which is implemented through the organization of joint educational activities of the teacher and the student, mutual personal awareness and common responsibility for the success of educational activities;

- communicative and stimulating, which is a combination of various forms of educational and cognitive activity (individual, group, frontal), organization of mutual assistance for the purpose of pedagogical cooperation, awareness of students about what they need to know, understand in class, what to learn;

- informational and educational, realized through showing the connection of the subject with practice for the correct understanding of the world and orientation of the student in the events of public life; through the mobility of the level of information capacity of training sessions and its completeness in combination with the emotional presentation of the educational material, relying on the visual-sensory sphere of the trainees;

- emotional-corrective, which is implemented in the learning process through the principles of "open prospects" and "winning" learning in the course of changing the types of learning activities, a trusting relationship between the teacher and the student;

- control and evaluation, manifested in the organization of mutual control of the teacher and the student, joint summing up, self-control and self-assessment.

The integral structure of interaction between students and teachers is formed by subject-object and subject-subject relations. The first type of relationship ("subject-object") characterizes the student's attitude to the discipline he is studying, the second type ("subject-subject") - to other students. In the system of these relations, the relationship between all its components is important, such as the attitude of students to the goals and content of education; the relationship of students with each other and with teachers; conditions in which the learning process takes place.

Requirements for participants in the pedagogical process. Since the educational process is a specific form of subject-subject relations, it is quite obvious that both participants in this process contribute to it. Each participant in the educational process within the framework of a student-centered approach, which assumes that the student with his individual psychological, age, gender and national characteristics is at the center of education and upbringing, is subject to appropriate requirements. Let's list them.

Requirements for a teacher:

1) the creation of conditions for the safe manifestation of the personality of each student in various educational situations, which requires the teacher, first of all, to be not in the traditional position of a teacher-informer, a source of knowledge and controller, but in the position of a leading partner, helping the self-development of the student's personality;

2) the development of the internal motivational sphere of the student, the formation of his own cognitive need not only in obtaining and assimilating new knowledge, but also in developing generalized methods of educational activity, the ability to enjoy and satisfy knowledge;

3) a large internal work of the teacher on personal and professional self-development (development of creative potential, which allows to adequately solve the general task of training and development, taking into account the individual characteristics of each student and study group).

Student Requirements:

1) the activity of the student, his readiness for educational activities;

2) coordination of external (primarily achievement motives) and internal (cognitive) motives;

3) greater independence of the student, a certain level of self-regulation and self-awareness (goal setting, self-control and self-esteem).

A common feature of the interaction of the subjects of the educational process is the transformation of the positions of the individual both in relation to the learned content and to their own interactions. This is expressed in a change in value attitudes, semantic guidelines, goals of learning and ways of interaction and relationships between participants in training. The change in the position of the individual mediates the transition of students to a new level of learning activities and to new forms of interaction with the teacher and with other students. The system of educational interactions between a teacher and students determines the nature of students' interactions with each other.

9.5. Pedagogical activity and its psychological characteristics

Pedagogical activity is a special kind of social (professional) activity, which is aimed at realizing the goals of education.

Traditionally, the main types of pedagogical activity carried out in a holistic pedagogical process are training and education. Training carried out within the framework of any organizational form usually has strict time limits, a strictly defined goal and options for achieving it. The most important criterion for the effectiveness of training is the achievement of the learning goal. Educational work, also carried out within the framework of any organizational form, does not pursue the direct achievement of the goal, since it is unattainable within the time limits of the organizational form. In educational work, one can only provide for the consistent solution of specific tasks oriented towards a goal. The most important criterion for the effective solution of educational problems is positive changes in the minds of pupils, manifested in emotional reactions, behavior and activities. It is also difficult to single out the result of the activity of the teacher-educator in a developing personality.

The identification of the specifics of the main types of pedagogical activity shows that teaching and education in their dialectical unity take place in the activities of a teacher of any specialty. The goals of training and education are an external component in relation to the system of training and education: they are set by society, which determines the effectiveness of the functioning of this system.

Principles of implementation and functions of pedagogical activity. Pedagogical activity is guided by principles that determine the basic requirements for the organization, content, forms and methods of pedagogical activity and are considered as ways to achieve pedagogical goals, taking into account the laws of the educational process. The principles formed by didactics for secondary schools (visibility of learning, activity and consciousness, strength, systematicity and consistency, accessibility, problematic learning, the unity of educational, developmental and upbringing functions of learning) do not contradict the principles of teaching at a university. However, the need to reflect the specific features of the educational process in higher education made it possible to single out the following groups of principles:

1) the focus of higher education on the development of the personality of a future specialist;

2) compliance of the content of university education with modern and predictable trends in the development of science (technology) and production (technology);

3) the optimal combination of general, group and individual forms of organization of the educational process at the university;

4) rational application of modern methods and means of training at various stages of training specialists;

5) compliance of the results of training specialists with the requirements that are imposed by a specific area of ​​their professional activity, ensuring their competitiveness.

The main content of the activity of a university teacher is to perform the following functions: teaching, educational, developing, organizational, research, psychological preparation (the process of forming people's internal readiness to overcome the difficulties encountered on their way).

The requirement of psychologization of the educational process becomes especially important in modern conditions. In the programs of training and education of students (pupils, students), the emphasis is on the development of mental qualities (psychological and pedagogical task), which will allow the student to gain knowledge and skills. It is also important not only to draw the teacher's attention to professional reflection, but also to teach him how to do it. Without the use of psychological knowledge, it is impossible to develop a comprehensive preparedness and readiness of students for successful professional activities, to ensure a high level of their education and upbringing, the unity of theoretical and practical training, taking into account the profile of the university and the specialization of graduates. These and other factors require an increase in the level of training of teachers.

The functions listed above are interrelated. The most specific for a university teacher is a combination of pedagogical work (which encourages deep generalization and systematization of the material) and scientific work (research activity enriches the inner world of the teacher, develops his creative potential, increases the scientific level of knowledge, and allows students to be involved in research work).

The structure of pedagogical activity. For the effective performance of pedagogical functions, it is important for a modern teacher to be aware of the structure of pedagogical activity, the relationship of its main components, with the help of which it is carried out, pedagogical actions, professionally important skills and psychological qualities (PSP and C) necessary for its implementation. In contrast to the understanding of activity accepted in psychology as a multi-level system, the components of which are the goal, motives, actions and results, in relation to pedagogical activity, the approach of identifying its components as relatively independent functional activities of the teacher prevails. Let's consider both approaches.

1. In the structure of pedagogical activity, the following components are distinguished (with the corresponding abilities that are manifested in skills):

- constructive activity - constructive and meaningful (selection and composition of educational material, planning and construction of the pedagogical process), constructive and operational (planning one's own actions and the actions of students) and constructive and material (designing the educational and material base of the pedagogical process);

- organizational activity - the implementation of a system of actions aimed at the active inclusion of students in various activities, the organization of joint activities, self-organization of the teacher's own activities at the university;

- communicative activity - the establishment of pedagogically expedient relations between the teacher and pupils, other teachers, parents, members of the public;

- gnostic component - a system of knowledge and skills of a teacher, as well as certain properties of cognitive activity that affect its effectiveness;

- control and evaluation (reflexive) component.

All components, or functional types, of activity are manifested in the work of a teacher of any specialty.

2. In psychology, it is customary to analyze activity in the unity of its structural components, such as goal, motive, actions (operations), result.

The system-forming characteristic of activity, including pedagogical activity, is the goal. If the motive is an internal motivating cause of activity, then the goal is the anticipation in thinking of the result of the activity and the ways of its implementation. In other words, the goal is an "ideal" subject of activity and is directly related to the motives of activity. The general strategic goal (the formation of a harmoniously developed personality) is achieved by solving specific tasks of training and education in various areas. The main functional unit, with the help of which all the properties of pedagogical activity are manifested, is the pedagogical action as a unity of goals and content. The pedagogical action of the teacher first appears in the form of a cognitive task. Based on the available knowledge, the teacher theoretically correlates the means, the subject and the expected result of his action. The cognitive task, being solved psychologically, then passes into the form of a practical transformational act. The activity of the teacher-educator by its nature is the process of solving many problems of various types, classes and levels. The search for effective new solutions to pedagogical problems is associated with the creativity of the teacher.

When analyzing the activity of a teacher, various models can be used, but it is important to remember that pedagogical activity is a joint one, not an individual one. The object of pedagogical activity is also specific - the student's personality with its inherent individual qualities, which is under the influence of many factors and people that transform it. In this regard, the problems of the teacher's creative potential and the possibilities of overcoming pedagogical stereotypes, the professionalism of the teacher, his psychological readiness, the improvement of the qualifications of teachers, their readiness for developmental education systems, susceptibility to innovative processes, etc.

Topic 10. PEDAGOGICAL COMMUNICATION IN THE STRUCTURE OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS

10.1. Communication as an activity

Historically, communication between people arose and developed primarily directly in joint labor activity. To unite efforts and organize joint activities, people needed to understand its meaning, their place and their role in it, as well as skillfully cooperate with other participants. And this was possible only through communication with partners using words, gestures, facial expressions and other verbal and non-verbal means.

In most cases, interpersonal communication is woven into a particular activity, acts as its essential and integral attribute, an important condition for its success. Outside the communication of people with each other, not only labor processes are unthinkable, but also teaching, playing and many other activities. The type and nature of the activity served by communication have a certain influence on the content, form and features of the flow of the process of communication between its participants.

Since any activity involves a specific distribution of roles between the participants, giving them certain rights and obligations, the communication of a particular teacher with his students will differ significantly from the communication of this teacher in a circle of peers in leisure game activities. So, the lesson will be dominated by business communication, which is aimed at helping students learn new concepts, master more complex skills and abilities. The teacher here acts as a competent specialist and organizer of students' activities, legally responsible to their students, their parents and society for the quality of their work. Along with this, communication can proceed as an independent process that does not serve any activity. Through this communication, the satisfaction of a person's need for contact with other people occurs, as a result of which conditions are created under which the inner world of one person is revealed to another.

Activity and communication can be considered as two approximately equivalent categories, reflecting two sides of a person's social existence. Communication can be represented as a side of activity, acting as its prerequisite, condition, internal or external factor. But the opposite is also true: activity can serve as a prerequisite, condition or factor of communication. Therefore, communication can be considered both as a special kind of activity and as one of the attributes of this or that activity. At the same time, along with material communication, which provides that the spiritual activity of the subject is aimed only at managing his practical actions, there is also spiritual communication, the purpose of which is the spiritual unity of partners, the achievement of their spiritual community.

Pedagogical communication is a specific form of communication that has its own characteristics and at the same time obeys the general psychological patterns inherent in communication as a form of human interaction with other people, including communicative, interactive and perceptual components. Pedagogical communication is a set of means and methods that ensure the implementation of the goals and objectives of education and training and determine the nature of the interaction between the teacher and students.

Research in the field of educational psychology shows that a significant part of pedagogical difficulties are due not so much to shortcomings in the scientific and methodological training of teachers as to the deformation of the sphere of professional and pedagogical communication. An analysis of the very first professional steps of teachers reveals a phenomenon that could be called pedagogical imprinting (instant imprinting): the results of the very first contacts with students determine the choice of the direction in which the further evolution of professional and pedagogical communication will go. Moreover, such an evolution can unfold from a passive-informational style to an authoritarian-monologic or confidential-dialogical style.

10.2. Communication motives

According to the concept of activity developed by the outstanding Soviet psychologist A. N. Leontiev (1903-1979), activity consists of a set of actions and operations, and the main difference between one activity and another lies in the specifics of their objects. To analyze an activity means to find out its motives, to describe the varieties of actions and operations that make up this activity. The motives of activity can be both conscious and unconscious. The action is motivated by a conscious goal, that is, by the result that can be obtained by this action.

As a communicative activity, communication can be represented as a process of human activity aimed at another person (at his feelings, motives, actions), expressed through various communicative means (words, gestures, facial expressions) and prompted by appropriate motives (to know another person as a person) to realize a particular communicative need (to make contact with another person, to attach a partner to one's values). Communicative actions are the activity of a person in relation to another person, pursuing certain goals: to convey information, change behavior, influence the feelings of a partner. Communicative operations are ways of carrying out communicative actions.

Motives of pedagogical communication. Since activity in communication is aimed at a communication partner, it can be argued that the subject of communicative activity is another person - a communication partner. Moreover, the subject of activity in communication can be not just an abstract partner, but one or another feature of a particular person acting as a communication partner. This is especially important to take into account when analyzing the communication of a teacher with his pupils, since their interaction is always specific.

Obviously, the student is attracted or repelled not just by a person with a teaching diploma, but by a specific person. So, in communication with one teacher, the subject of the student's communicative activity can be the teacher's high competence in a particular field of knowledge. The student is attracted by the erudition and erudition of the teacher, his ability to solve any mathematical problem or analyze this or that historical situation. Therefore, as an internal motivation for communication between a student and such a teacher, cognitive motives will primarily act: the student enters into communication in order to learn something new and interesting, to check the level of his competence in a certain field of knowledge, to learn how to solve more complex problems.

In communication with another teacher, the high morality, responsiveness of the teacher, his ability to understand the inner world of his pupil and provide him with the necessary help and support in solving his personal issues can serve as the subject of the student's communicative activity. Most likely, the student in communicative activity with this teacher will be motivated mainly by moral motives. Since the student enters into communication not so much in order to learn something interesting, to master any new ways of intellectual and practical activity, he will be attracted by the teacher's pedagogical tact, respect for his (student's) personality, interest in his fate.

For pedagogical analysis, the moral meaning of communication between the teacher and pupils, the pedagogical expediency of the methods and techniques used by the teacher, as well as those moral neoplasms that are formed in the process of their communication, are of decisive importance. It is important that the teacher not only pays attention to the outwardly visible manifestations of the activity of his wards, but also understands the reasons for this activity, sees the motives that encourage students to commit this or that act, and takes care of the moral meanings of these actions.

10.3. Anatomy of a Dialogue

Dialogue is the most common type of communicative activity; he organizes interpersonal communication of equal partners with equal activity. The nature of the dialogue depends on the personalities who lead it.

As a complex social phenomenon, dialogue can only be known from the standpoint of a systematic approach. Methodological analysis of the essence of the dialogue reveals its nature, polemical character, variety of forms, dialectics of the main components. The characteristic of the structure of the dialogue is represented by dialogic relations, dialogic positions of the subjects of communication, the subject of the dialogue, the actions of the dialogue, etc. The epistemological aspect of the dialogue is manifested in the cognitive value of its various forms. The logical aspect of the dialogue puts it forward as a form of thinking of two interacting subjects. The sociological aspect of dialogue refers primarily to its social nature, to the role of dialogue as a principle of social interaction at the interpersonal, personal-group and personal-mass levels. The linguistic aspect of the system characteristics of the dialogue reveals its essence as the principle of speech, verbal creativity of interacting people. Finally, from the standpoint of the psychological aspect, the dialogue is presented as mutual influence, interaction, mutual psychological "event".

The essence of the characteristics of dialogue as a principle of social interaction is revealed in the originality of the performance of those psychotechnical actions that constitute the essence of this form of communication. This originality lies in the conjugation and simultaneity of the action-influence of one partner on the other and the action-reflection as a response "move"; in the changeability of the positions of the influencing and reflecting; in mutual intellectual-volitional activity; in the exchange nature of actions. Thus, dialogue as a principle of communicative activity determines the nature of ideological communication as a consistent change in the qualities of the subject and object of partners. For a real dialogue, the following conditions are necessary: ​​1) the desire and readiness of the two partners to express their position in relation to the current problem; 2) willingness to accept and evaluate the partner's position; 3) readiness for active and offensive interaction; 4) the partners have a common basis and certain differences in solving the problem under discussion.

The basis of the dialogue is the problem and the difference in positions on its solution. Dialogue can be viewed as a system of question-answer interaction, where there is a change in the positions of the questioner and the answerer. By its nature, the dialogue can represent an intellectual competition, a battle of ideas, a clash of thoughts, etc.

There are several modifications to the dialogue. Let's consider them in more detail.

Self-critical dialogue is an internal self-communication for the purpose of self-evaluation, introspection. Critical introspection as a form of internal dialogue provides self-esteem through the interaction of two "I". Self-critical dialogue develops before or after critical dialogue. If a person seeks to become the initiator of a critical dialogue, then, preparing for communication, he enters into a dialogue with his second "I". In the course of such an internal dialogue, a self-assessment of one's right to take the initiative in a critical dialogue takes place. Sometimes the internal self-critical dialogue preceding the critical one is in the nature of a diagnosis and a prognosis for the development of the subsequent stage of communication. In a self-critical dialogue, the positions and actions of the individual are evaluated from the side of the inner "I". Also, the object of evaluation can be critical assessments of other people.

Self-critical dialogue is a condition for self-knowledge, a pattern of successful managerial work. It can be not only internal, but also external. In this case, this type of dialogue acts as a principle of managerial communication or stimulating the activity of other people.

Critical dialogue is a communicative and evaluative action in relation to the negative phenomena or aspects of another person, his activities, as well as the whole variety of social life. In a critical dialogue, one can single out such phases as posing the problem, analyzing the causes that gave rise to it, assessing the actions that led to the negative consequences of the problem, constructively proposing or stating a position on solving the problem, responding to the criticized or supporting the position of the criticizing others.

Critical dialogue is effective if it combines dialectical negation with positive coverage of the problem that is the object of criticism. A necessary condition for a critical dialogue is the observance of the moral and ethical requirements for it: honesty, disinterestedness of the participants, mutual respect and mutual understanding of the positions of the parties participating in such a dialogue. It is also essential that the criticized person not be assigned a position that he does not share, that the meaning of his words and views is not distorted, that individual ideas are not “pulled out” from the general context, and that the human dignity of the criticized person is not humiliated.

Critical dialogue must be built on the principles of mutual exactingness and trust. Important conditions for such a dialogue are frankness and openness. Conducting a critical dialogue requires not only serious intellectual and analytical mobilization, but also psychological readiness for its implementation.

In a critical dialogue, it is possible to manifest such forms of reaction from the criticized side as resistance, a decisive rebuff, an emotional outburst, etc. In terms of its psychological qualities, a critical dialogue is a method of psychological unmasking of the negative qualities of a person. Such unmasking most often leads to the emotional and psychological mobilization of the criticized. One must be ready for this, one should take into account both the possible lines of development of the critical dialogue situation and the psychological characteristics of the person being criticized.

Critical dialogue is an "open-ended drama" that is often difficult to predict accurately. But, using a clear system of argumentation, its impeccability, finding the right tone of interaction with the criticized, it is possible to make a critical dialogue a normal form of managerial communication.

Discussion as a form of dialogue involves managerial communication based on arguments and arguments in order to find the truth through a comprehensive comparison of various opinions. The essence of action in the discussion is to defend or refute the thesis. When you move a thesis, the participants in the discussion dialogue proceed from three technological conditions: a) the thesis must be clearly formulated and clear to the opponent; b) it must remain unchanged during the entire dialogue; c) it should not contain logical contradictions.

The discussion as a complex socio-technological system of dialogic communication sets three groups of interrelated tasks for its leader: 1) in relation to the problem; 2) in relation to a group of participants; 3) in relation to each individual participant. The solution of these problems requires the teacher to choose adequate means. Based on the correlation of tasks and means of their implementation, a psychotechnical program of actions for the leader of the discussion is formed.

10.4. Positions, roles in communication

Performing certain social functions, a person follows the social role that he is implementing at the moment. The implementation of different functions will be associated with different behavior of the same person. He will have to behave not only the way he wants, but the way the environment "wants": society, class, sports team, communication partner, etc. Thus, a social role is a normatively approved, expected human behavior under certain circumstances.

There are four types of social roles: formal, intragroup, interpersonal and individual. Let's consider them in more detail.

1. A formal role is understood as a line of behavior that a person builds in accordance with the expectations of society he has learned when performing a specific social function.

Each of us in the process of life forms certain ideas about how certain representatives of society should behave: parents, kindergarten teachers, school teachers, salespeople, doctors, bosses and subordinates. The fact that such ideas are necessarily formed in every person is evidenced by the children's games "to mom and dad", "to school", "to the hospital", "to the store" ... In these games, we can see not only "affectionate mother ", "debauchery father", "strict teacher", "rude salesman", but also the attitude of children to "what is good and what is bad". Children have a positive attitude towards the kind characters of their games and condemn many of the negative manifestations of their "heroes". Therefore, as we grow older, each of us has a pretty good idea of ​​what others around him can expect from him if he begins to perform a specific social function. Each performer of a particular social function will take into account these expectations and, to a certain extent, strive to meet them.

It should be noted that going beyond the formal role in the performance of a certain social function can be interpreted by the surrounding people as tactlessness, bad manners, intemperance or stupidity.

A characteristic feature of formal roles in the process of interaction between a teacher and a student is that quite often many requirements for the performance of specific social functions (school director or rector, subject teacher, class teacher or curator) are reflected in various regulatory documents: laws, charters, orders , rules. For example, the behavior of the head of an educational institution is regulated by the Law on Education, the charter of the educational institution, orders of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation, and other regulatory documents. The behavior of teachers and students, schoolchildren and teachers is also regulated by the provisions of the charters, internal regulations, orders and other documents.

Thus, the performance of formal roles is due to the fact that the performer knows certain requirements of society for the performance of specific social functions and seeks to take these requirements into account when performing a particular function.

2. An intra-group role is understood as a line of conduct that a person builds with members of a particular group on the basis of the relationships that have developed in it. Each person goes through various groups and collectives during his life. In each of the groups, he behaves far from the same. The formation of one or another intra-group role of a particular person depends on a number of factors: the characteristics of his intellectual, physical and moral development, character traits, competence in various fields of activity, the characteristics of this group. So, strong will, desire for leadership, high competence contribute to strengthening a person in the role of a group leader. On the contrary, lack of will, indecision, low competence are an obstacle to the role of a leader. High sociability contributes to the fact that a person easily comes into contact, easily establishes relationships with others and, because of this, is able to take the role of an interesting storyteller in a group, a kind of joker, become the soul of the company. A well-formed sense of justice, the desire to protect the weak, the ability to reasonably defend one's views and beliefs can become a prerequisite for establishing a person as a sage, protector and arbiter.

It is also essential that the members of the group memorize the roles of its members and wait for confirmation of these roles during subsequent contacts. However, this does not mean that a person should perform the same role all his life. On the contrary, the transition to other groups and collectives is often associated with a change in intra-group roles. For example, a teacher who does not have a relationship with students in one school has the opportunity to change this situation when moving to another school. True, for this he needs not only to change his place of work, but first of all to subject himself to a thorough analysis of the features of his interaction with students, to see the reasons for the formation of undesirable relationships, to set himself up for a different style of communication with them. And most importantly - to be able to realize their ideas in a new team.

Thus, the performance of intra-group roles is due to the fact that the group "remembers" the background of the relationship of its members, and the performer knows about this and seeks to take this into account in communicating with members of this group.

The behavior of a person in a group can be set by certain orders, instructions and rules. There is also a normative component in the communication between the teacher and students: the teacher acts as an authorized representative of the education system, who has the right to train and educate students. However, its intra-group role should not be limited to the normative side. After all, students are not so much interested in the formal right of a person with a teaching diploma to explain new material to them, to ask and evaluate their knowledge, but to the very personality of the teacher, his ability to be an interesting storyteller, a skillful organizer of their activities, a defender of their interests.

3. An interpersonal role is a line of behavior that we build in communication with a familiar person based on the relationship that has developed between us. There is always a certain prehistory of the relationship between two people. Having not yet made contact, the interlocutors are already building a possible line of behavior with each other, taking into account previous relationships.

The prehistory of people's relationships can be relatively small (at the level of one or two meetings) and relatively recent (for example, yesterday's acquaintance). But even in this case, when waiting for new contacts with a person or when meeting with him unexpectedly, the interlocutors necessarily build their behavior taking into account previous relationships. If, however, people's relationships develop over a number of years, then their interpersonal roles will certainly reflect the most diverse features of their relationships, taking into account both bright and dark "spots" of their previous contacts. At the same time, many important features of their past meetings will be known only to these two and hidden from strangers, so their interpersonal roles, which can be played not only one on one, but also against the background of the group, will remain a mystery to others.

4. An individual role is understood as the behavior that a person builds in accordance with his own expectations. Each of us has a set of ideas about ourselves, which are formed as a result of communication, first of all, with people who are significant to us. These perceptions can be both positive and negative. The concept of self is experienced differently by each person. A person's experiences regarding his inherent character traits, inclinations, and abilities can be both positive and negative. A person either accepts himself with a plus sign, considers his character traits and other features as virtues, believes that he is in order or at least no worse than others. Or he perceives himself with a minus sign, worries that he has many shortcomings, that he is not like everyone else. A person adjusts himself to a certain line of behavior, and this, to a certain extent, predetermines his actions in specific situations.

Obviously, each teacher also plays a variety of individual roles in which he seeks to assert himself in his ability to successfully interact with his students and colleagues, in his ability to solve the tasks he faces in teaching and educating students. Thus, the performance of an individual role is connected with the fact that a person adjusts himself to a certain line of behavior, and this largely determines his actions in specific situations.

10.5. The formal aspect of pedagogical communication

According to the culturological view of education, the child is considered as a subject, which is not only a product, but also a creator and successor of culture. Education is understood as purposeful, built on different foundations, reflecting the nature of the child and the nature of personality development, organized by a professional teacher, the ascent of the child to the culture of his contemporary society, his entry with the help of a teacher into the context of culture and the development of the ability to live in modern society, consciously build his life. worthy of a man. In the process of entry of a teacher and a student into the context of culture, the interaction of these subjects is of particular importance, the nature of which should be thought out and regulated by the teacher as a professional in the field of education and upbringing.

Subject-subject interaction is a special relationship in which the teacher and his student perceive each other as equal partners in communication. However, such an equal perception does not at all mean the similarity and similarity of their opinions. On the contrary, equality allows each of them to have their own opinion, different from the opposite side, as well as the right of both the teacher and his student to uphold and defend this opinion in their dialogue. Thanks to this, each of them has the opportunity to reveal and broadcast their individual "I" to a communication partner. It follows from this that the communication of a teacher with his pupils should be carried out at the level of modern cultural achievements, not so much because the teacher should be an example for his pupils, but because the very interaction with children is a recreation of culture. Each teacher, as a representative of society, humanity, the world of adults, at every moment of his interaction with students, recreates the cultural version of interaction with the world.

Consideration of communication as the interaction of subjects suggests that the teacher always communicates with an individual and unique personality, an active participant in the joint process, who is a partner of the teacher in their common cause. And although a student, a parent of a student, and a work colleague can be a partner of a teacher, each of them must be considered as an interlocutor, accomplice, creator.

According to L. I. Bozhovich, awareness of oneself as a subject, an independent "I" occurs in the second year of a child's life. “The central neoplasm that arises towards the end of early childhood is the “I system” and the need to act on one’s own, born from this neoplasm.” Then, at the age of three, “the child identifies himself as a subject in the world of objects that he can influence and which he can change . Here the child is already aware of his “I” and demands the opportunity to show his activity (“I myself!”). Later, at the age of seven, the child becomes aware of himself as a social being and his place in the system of social relations accessible to him. "Consequently, the concept of" subject "is applicable to every child of school age, and even more so to every adult.

Communication is a subject-subject interaction, and, according to M. S. Kagan, it is such only as long as the subject retains its subjectivity in relationships with other subjects, and this latter focuses on its partner precisely as a partner in joint activities , i.e. as a subject, but not as an object.[4] This communication as a specific type of human activity differs from various kinds of actions and operations performed by the subject with the object, as well as from communication, where information is transmitted from the sender to the recipient. The question arises: is it possible to consider the expressions encountered in everyday life "communication with a book", "communication with a TV set", "communication with a computer" as legitimate? It is obvious that, in these cases, it is legitimate to speak not about communication as the interaction of real subjects, but about the transfer of information embedded in a book, television plot or computer program. In some cases, we can talk about the communication of real subjects, specific individuals through television or computer networks. For example, an interview with a famous scientist on live television or on the Internet.

If, when transmitting a message, information flows only in one direction and its amount decreases in the process of moving from the sender to the recipient, then in communication the information circulates between the partners and, since both of them are equally active, the information does not decrease, but increases, enriches, expands in the process of its communication. circulation. Accordingly, there is an enrichment of each of the communication partners. It is appropriate to recall the words of B. Shaw here: “If you have an apple and I have an apple, and if we exchange these apples, then you and I will have one apple each. And if you have an idea and I have an idea and we exchange these ideas, then each of us will have two ideas."

Practice shows that not every appeal of one person to another, in particular, not every appeal of a teacher to his student, as well as a student to a teacher, can be considered communication. After all, sometimes the teacher speaks, but the student does not hear, as he is busy with other work. And sometimes the teacher "broadcasts" so loudly and so "correctly" that the students deliberately do not want to hear their mentor. Obviously, the condition for transforming influence into interpersonal communication is the ability to perceive a partner as a subject, i.e. as a person with a certain life experience, who has managed to create his own value system, which has the right to his point of view, even if the life experience of the student’s personality is several times less than that of the teacher, and his system of values ​​does not coincide with that of the teacher. Such a perception of the student as a subject, the ability to hear, see and understand him require a certain position from the teacher, as well as some spiritual efforts and professional skills. This is especially characteristic of humanistic pedagogy, the interest in which is constantly growing on the part of Russian teachers.

As you know, in schools with a humanistic orientation, the emphasis in teaching is shifting from the transfer of knowledge to the creation of pedagogical conditions for the development of the creative potential of each student. Therefore, the nature of the educational process is changing in the direction of focusing on the characteristics of the student's personality, the maximum consideration of his individual capabilities, abilities, interests.

Humanistic communication is dialogical, i.e. based on dialogue, has many meanings or different meanings. Communication through dialogue is considered as a condition for the implementation of subject-subject relations. It does not involve an exchange of information in turn, but a joint search for common positions, understanding of the partner’s points of view, respect for other opinions, mutual complementarity of the positions of the participants in communication, the correlation of which is the goal of the dialogue. In a dialogue, each message, each message is designed for its interpretation by the interlocutor and return back in an enriched, interpreted form for further similar processing by another partner.

A monologue, unlike a dialogue, involves the use of separate messages sent from the source of information to its consumer. Monologue communication implies the dominance in the interaction of a single meaning, a single will of one of the participants in communication (for example, a teacher), which must be unconditionally accepted by the other participants (students). Consequently, if in monologue communication only one of the participants is active, directing his activity to another participant, who may be less active and even passive, then in dialogic communication all participants, all subjects of communication are active.

It is important to note that in the system of dialogic communication, the activity of the teacher is directed both to the personality of the communication partner and to the subject of communication, which can be educational tasks, theorems, historical facts, features of literary heroes, etc. This is one of the essential pedagogical meanings of dialogic communication, its humanistic character. In such communication, the teacher certainly takes into account the personal characteristics of the student: his interests, abilities, mood at the time of interaction. Along with this, entering into a dialogue regarding certain historical events or natural phenomena, the teacher and student may not agree with the point of view of the partner and enter into polemics. However, in dialogic communication they do not hurt each other's personal characteristics, do not offend or offend the personal dignity of the partner and, therefore, do not create conditions for mutual injections and insults.

One should not confuse monologue communication as a way of interacting with partners and a monologue as a way of presenting educational material by a teacher or student. Indeed, in the educational process of the school (both higher and secondary), the monologue as one of the didactic techniques occupies a certain place and is widely used by teachers, especially in such organizational forms of education as a lecture and a seminar. Similarly, in the educational process, the transmission of a message takes place as an information connection of the teacher with each of his students (schoolchildren or students). This is especially true for the correspondence form of education and the distance form of education that has recently become widespread.

Obviously, when we talk about pedagogical activity, we should not be talking about reducing the meaning of each pedagogical action only to communication-dialogue, but about clearly understanding in which cases it is possible to optimally use a simple message, a monologue, and in what is the most effective dialogue as a direct interaction of all subjects of the pedagogical process. It is important that the teacher does not consider his students as passive objects of his efforts, but approaches them as active participants in the collaborative learning process. Then any information coming from him will acquire personal meaning for each student. After all, this is not just some abstract information, but information “for me”. It comes not from some faceless source (for example, from a speaker), but from "my" teacher, who is interested in bringing it to my understanding, helping me in its assimilation and application.

Human relationships, including in the educational process, should be built on a subject-subject basis, when both parties communicate on an equal footing, as individuals, as equal participants in the communication process. If this condition is met, non-role contact "teacher - student" is established, but interpersonal contact, as a result of which a dialogue arises, and hence the greatest susceptibility and openness to the influence of one participant in communication on another. An optimal basis is created for positive changes in each of the participants in communication. Thus, the replacement of inter-role communication with interpersonal communication contributes to the departure from formalism and dogmatism in teaching. But the transition from a directive-imperative to a democratic, equal way of communication, from monologue to dialogic communication will never happen if both parties involved are not ready for it. For this type of communication to become a reality, it is necessary to develop a humanistic communicative core of the personality[5] both for the teacher and the student.

Whether pedagogical communication will be optimal depends on the teacher, on the level of his pedagogical skills and communicative culture. To establish positive relationships with students, the teacher must show goodwill and respect for each of the participants in the educational process. Studies show that teachers who emphasize their own "I" show formalism in relation to students, superficial involvement in learning situations, authoritarianism, emphasize their own superiority and impose their own ways of behavior. Teachers with centralization "I am different" showed a steady desire to build communication on an equal footing and develop it in a dialogic form. Such interaction objectively contributes to the humanization of the "teacher-student" relationship and all education in general.

10.6. Levels of communication (conventional, manipulative, standardized, game and business). Contact and feedback in pedagogical communication

The levels of communication are understood as certain behavioral manifestations that make it possible to judge the features and nature of the interaction of communication partners. Thus, the conventional level assumes that communication partners reach a certain unspoken agreement and adhere to these rules in relationships.

Quite often, communication at a conventional level is carried out with people with whom we systematically meet, but whom we prefer to keep at a certain distance. For example, quite a few city dwellers limit contact with their housemates or even upstairs to a certain set of phrases like "Good morning!" - "Hello!", "Good weather today!" - "Yes, it's nice to go outside!", "Well, be healthy!" - "Goodbye!". People, as it were, pay a certain courtesy to their neighbors (after all, they talked to each other). At the same time, such communication is carried out within the framework of a “concluded convention”, under the terms of which you can greet each other, you can talk about the weather and other uncertain things, but you can’t invade a number of areas: talk about work, personal life, family relationships. Conventional communication is when I pretend that "this does not concern me", that "it is none of my business."

At the manipulative level, at least one of the partners is trying to resort to various tricks and tricks in order to obtain some benefit for himself. Regardless of the techniques used, all manipulators have something in common: thanks to their manipulations, they force their communication partner to take steps that are beneficial to them. Manipulation is deception. But not the usual, primitive deception, but a more subtle game.

The American psychologist E. Shostrom, in his book "Anti-Carnegie, or the Man-Manipulator", claims that almost every person resorts to manipulation in certain situations of his life in order to achieve this or that good for himself. Describing various methods of manipulation, the author identifies four types of manipulative systems: active, passive, competitive and indifferent manipulator.

An active manipulator is distinguished by the use of active methods of influencing a communication partner. He is energetic and proactive. He always has questions and suggestions to the partner, there are options for the necessary actions and decisions. He himself seeks and, as a rule, finds opportunities to meet with a partner in order to solve his problems. An active manipulator makes the most of his social position: director, boss, teacher, trustee, parent, senior in age or rank. The philosophy of an active manipulator is to dominate and dominate at any cost, to build communication with a partner by adding "from above". Therefore, he quite often uses the attributes of an authoritarian style of influence: an orderly tone, a stern voice, an angry look, categorical statements, threats of punishment or other consequences undesirable for a partner.

An active manipulator can be not only an adult, but also a schoolchild or even a preschooler who skillfully uses active methods of influencing his peers, teachers or parents.

A passive manipulator is the exact opposite of an active manipulator. He receives his winnings not due to active pressure on the partner, not due to the extension "from above", but due to playing the extension "from below". A passive manipulator appears before a partner either helpless, or stupid, or stupid. With all his appearance, he makes it clear that he now has very difficult problems, that he is unhappy, that he does not have enough abilities or strength to cope with a specific educational task or life situation. Demonstrating his lethargy, pessimism and passivity, such a manipulator encourages his more active partner (peer or adult) to think and work for himself, and therefore for himself.

A competitive manipulator chooses a fairly flexible tactic for interacting with his partners. For him, life is a constant tournament, consisting of a series of victories and defeats. In this life, he assigns himself the role of a vigilant fighter, carefully studying the strengths and weaknesses of his communication partners. And depending on the characteristics of a particular partner, he skillfully uses active or, on the contrary, passive methods of interaction with him. If the partner is weak, then the competing manipulator vigorously uses active methods of influence, but if the partner is a strong opponent, then passive methods of interaction are used. The main thing is to get your winnings and achieve the desired result, and the means of achievement are not essential for such a manipulator.

The indifferent manipulator "plays" indifference and indifference. With all his appearance, he demonstrates that he is little concerned about the events taking place, that the people around him are not interested, that he is indifferent to a particular communication partner and is ready to easily part with him. In fact, this indifference is artificial, feigned. And the events taking place, and the people around, and a specific communication partner are far from being indifferent to such a manipulator. The manipulation of indifference is just started with a specific goal - to keep the partner near you, to force him to persuade himself, to subdue him.

Thus, manipulation in communication is called a system of actions of one partner in relation to another in order to obtain a certain benefit. This is a rather skillful game, clever fakes and tricks. Manipulation in communication is the dexterity of behavior carried out with the help of words, facial expressions, gestures and other means of communication.

We can talk about two fundamentally important features of manipulative communication. The first is the presence of a win, which the manipulator seeks in communicating with a specific partner. Such a win can be something material, for example, this or that thing that the manipulator liked, which he wants to get "as a gift." Something worldly can also act as a win: a special attitude of a communication partner to a manipulator, support in solving some specific issues, the opportunity to get in touch with the right people, avoiding responsibility, and much more. It can also be a certain psychological benefit, which allows the manipulator to play a joke on a communication partner with impunity, put him in an awkward position, inflict hidden "shots", and have psychological confidence. The second sign is special manipulative techniques, manipulations, with the help of which the manipulator directs the partner's behavior in the right direction or tries to appear before the partner in a favorable light for himself.

Observations show that a significant number of people use manipulation in communicating with each other. Teachers and schoolchildren are no exception in this sense. More than 60% of the teachers and students we interviewed responded that they often have to resort to manipulating their communication partners. The most frequently cited reasons for using manipulation by students were: "To evade an answer", "To get a higher grade", "To help one's classmate", "To help out the class". Teachers turned to manipulation for other purposes: "To ensure a working environment in the classroom", "To stop violations of discipline", "In order to interest students." Despite the fact that the reasons that encourage teachers and students to use manipulation differ significantly, the very fact of manipulation by adults and children remains. Therefore, the phenomenon of manipulation is of particular interest for professional communication. Consider some of the features of various manipulations.

Depending on the complexity of manipulative techniques, simple and complex manipulations can be distinguished. Simple manipulations are a small action or a simple system of manipulative techniques. Such manipulations are started in order to distract the communication partner from an undesirable problem for the manipulator, to switch his attention to another object. Complex manipulations are a rather subtle game, a skillful interweaving of various manipulative techniques. The main purpose of the manipulation is carefully hidden, disguised with the help of various means. It is an interesting combination of words and actions, setting the stage for the decisive step, for which the manipulator takes diversionary moves. Such a step may be the appeal of the manipulator with a request, which, after such a subtle game, it will be difficult for him to refuse. It can also be an act that puts the partner in a difficult position.

Both simple and complex manipulations differ in the nature of the gain obtained as a result of manipulation, the benefit derived by the manipulator. On this basis, one can speak of selfish, disinterested (harmless) and noble manipulations.

Selfish manipulations are aimed at obtaining by the manipulator a certain material benefit for themselves. Any items that are significant for the manipulator, money, tickets to a particular event, and something else can act as a win.

Selfless (harmless) manipulations are obvious actions where the manipulator does not really try to hide his goals, his desire to get a certain gain. Here, the manipulator, as a rule, plays openly: he says compliments, smiles, does what the partner likes. At the same time, he perfectly understands that his intention is clear to the partner, that the partner sees the true purpose of compliments and smiles, sees the goal that the manipulator is striving for. But the manipulator is also aware that the partner will not be offended by him, will not mind the manipulator winning, especially if he plays well. Therefore, the manipulator plays almost without disguise, giving pleasure to both himself and his partner. Well, if you fail to get the desired win, then you can safely disperse without resentment and anger at your partner, because there are still many opportunities for new attempts ahead. Sometimes the manipulator exposes his goals and reveals his tricks only after receiving his winnings. However, these manipulations can also be considered disinterested, since the manipulator did not want harm to his partner, but started his actions for the sake of a joke or the desire to teach a partner a certain life lesson.

Noble manipulations are actions by which the manipulator pursues noble goals: to protect the weak, to help build relationships, to protect against negative actions, to help overcome any personal flaw. Here, the goals of manipulation are not exposed and not shown to the partner, and manipulative techniques are performed sincerely and skillfully. And the more skillful the game is, the more sincerely the winning is accepted, which is recorded not only in the asset of the manipulator, but also in the asset of his "victim".

The standardized level of communication is otherwise known as mask contact. When communicating at this level, at least one of the partners seeks to hide his true state, as if to hide his face behind an imaginary mask. Trying to somehow protect himself from unwanted contacts, or at least limit them, a person tries to "put on a mask", that is, to hide his true state behind some known standard.

One of the masks that allows you to limit communication with an unwanted partner can be a "jester mask". For example, hiding behind such a mask, the student will react to the teacher's suggestions to engage in educational work with frivolous remarks, jokes, grins and other attributes of buffoonery, so the teacher will experience serious difficulties in communicating with the student in such a mask.

It is also possible to use other masks. Thus, the "tiger mask" allows you to demonstrate aggressiveness and keep your partner at a distance. You can hide behind the "hare mask" so as not to incur anger or ridicule from a stronger partner. The "mask of timidity", "mask of obedience", "mask of obsequiousness" can serve the same purpose.

The contact of masks means a restriction imposed on the participation of one's own personality in the dialogue, since instead of oneself a person offers a partner to communicate with one or another mask. True communication with a partner in a mask will not work. Therefore, if we want to communicate with a person, and not with a mask, then we must achieve the removal of the mask.

A feature of the game level of communication is that we go out to it with those people with whom communication gives us pleasant feelings. At the game level, a person wants to be interesting for his partner, he wants to impress him, to please him. Unlike the manipulative level, where the manipulator is indifferent or unfriendly to his interlocutor, communication at the game level is based on indifference to the partner, on a certain sympathy for him, the desire to continue communication with him, which comes out on top here: it brings joy to both partners and the game is accepted by both parties. In this game, there can be exchanges not only of "strokes", but also of "pricks". However, these "shots" are peaceful in nature, easily recognized by partners and forgive each other.

At the business level, for communication partners, business or mental activity, competence in jointly resolved issues, and the ability to do business come to the fore. When communicating at a business level, the "I" of a person, as it were, recedes into the background, and the business, the attitude towards it, comes to the fore. From communication at the business level, people endure not only the visible fruits of joint activities in the form of created material or spiritual values, but also persistent feelings of mutual trust, affection, warmth. And sometimes, on the contrary, hostility and antipathy towards each other.

In real situations, partners usually do not think about the level at which their communication takes place, and, as a rule, this process takes place at several levels. At the same time, one of the partners may not be interested in informing the other about his true intentions. In order not to get into trouble, the teacher must be able to recognize the level of communication, to find adequate ways of behavior.

Communication contains all those regulatory and substantive aspects that are characteristic of activity in general. The specificity of the structural and content characteristics of communication lies in the fact that the incentive-evaluative component in communication will exist as informing the subject of other participants in communication about his intentions, motives, aspirations, expectations, states that arise in the course of communication, as the ability of the subject to openly demonstrate his individuality, personal characteristics, moral preferences. Such a process in communication will be called a contact, expressing the degree of information "openness" and "closedness" of a person for a partner.

At the same time, since any individual is characterized by a tendency to preserve his internal integrity and correct efforts in a situation of activity implementation, there is another aspect of interaction that is realized as feedback. Feedback in communication is understood as the process of obtaining by its participants information about the course of communication, about the changes that have occurred in the situation of interaction or in the partner himself as a result of the activity of the subject, about how these changes correlate with his needs or with predictable, desired results, focus to receive this information and the ability to restructure the interaction in accordance with it. Moreover, the feedback will depend not only on the one who perceives, but also on the partner, since he can influence this information, determining the degree of "openness" or "closedness", which can significantly affect the effectiveness of the mutual influence process.

Since the participants in communication are active subjects, the processes of contact and feedback that organize communication are necessary for both one and the other participant in communication. Moreover, if for one participant in communication this is contact information, then for another it also acts as feedback, and vice versa.

Based on the analysis of the specifics of pedagogical communication, it can be assumed that contact in the process of pedagogical communication will act as a special quality of the teacher, as the ability to openly demonstrate to others, including students, their individuality, to inform students about themselves, their states, preferences, aspirations, positions, attitudes. The openness of the teacher (contact) will probably create the opportunity for students to predict the actions of the teacher, determine his possible attitudes towards the student and his act, and increase the communicative competence of students.

Feedback in pedagogical communication should be expressed in the teacher's sensitivity to external influences (information coming from students and containing their reaction to the teacher's actions) as the teacher's ability to establish an information flow about the changes taking place in the lesson for children, as a result of his activity, about their emotional states that arise in the process of interaction, and the ability of the teacher to change their behavior, rebuild the meaningful characteristics of the interaction, taking into account the information coming from the students.

10.7. Individual features and strategies of pedagogical communication

Individual communication style can be considered at different levels. At the first level - as a style of communication reactions, containing individual characteristics of speech reactions, for example, impulsivity, speed, loudness, timbre of speech, an individual spectrum of phonemes, etc. At the second level - as an operational characteristic of communication. As communication operations, we consider statements and actions that serve to establish contact. The degree of communication tension depends on the combination of temperaments in a couple, the personal qualities of partners, interpersonal relationships, communication skills, the time that partners have to perform activities, the significance that activities have for them, etc. The higher the level of tension, the greater the requirements activity imposes on the psychodynamic and personal properties of a person. This explains why the same person in different situations, communication operations are associated with different levels of individual properties.

The third level of individual communication style is target. Subject-subject relations in joint activities are formed on the basis of the connection "subject - subject - object". Communication operations themselves can now simultaneously act as intermediate goals to achieve a certain substantive result. This function is performed by interpersonal relationships that are established in the group to achieve a more common goal.

The choice of methods of action in joint activities depends on the volume of the given operations, on what operations and actions the partners own, on the characteristics of the individual style of activity. The contribution of each participant to joint activity depends not only on the mutual adaptation of interpersonal relations, but also on the opportunities that joint activity provides for the individual style of objective activity of each. It can be assumed that mutual adaptation mediates the individual style of activity unfolding in joint activity.

Strategies of pedagogical communication. A strategy should be understood as a conscious choice of stylistic and content characteristics of an activity, determined not only by the peculiarities of the situation in which it unfolds, but also by the personal preferences of the subject (K. A. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya). Moreover, apparently, this is a characteristic of the organizational and operational side of activity, i.e. the content of strategies is determined by the nature of the forecast, which exists as the desired results and changes in the situation, and the nature of feedback as the ability of the subject to respond to information coming through the feedback channel.

Any strategy of pedagogical communication acquires certain embodiments in specific conditions, which can determine the nature of the interaction between the participants in communication. Thus, the nature of relations with students of teachers with the strategy of pedagogical communication "Facade" is distinguished by a rather large formalism, a desire to organize stereotypical role-playing interaction. Such teachers build management of students' activities in a command-prescriptive style. They are very demanding on strict discipline in the classroom, using threats. Teaching is conducted by them in the form of a monologue (they avoid dialogues with students), after which there can only be a survey of what they heard. Such a teacher eschews personal contact, replacing open, "contact" and spontaneous interaction with subject, business, closed communication.

A teacher with such a communication strategy behaves in such a way as if only he were a full-fledged subject and bearer of the truth, the student for him is only an object of application of forces. Such a teacher seeks to form clearly defined knowledge and skills, i.e., introduces students to normative knowledge, methods of action, and value orientations. He constantly strives to get standard, correct answers from students. His forms of work in the classroom are not very diverse. He mainly uses a frontal survey of homework, an explanation of new material. When evaluating students, such a teacher does not have a qualitative characteristic of the activities of students. Such a teacher strives to work according to a pre-created lesson plan, avoiding any deviations, lyrical digressions, improvisations. He does not encourage questions from students that are not on the topic of the lesson. In general, such a teacher shows indifference to pupils and their characteristics.

Most often, as a means of influencing students, teachers with this strategy use punishment and censure, thereby suppressing the initiative of students. Due to the fact that the feedback process is essentially represented in the interaction of such a teacher with students, he easily captures and evaluates the state of the student, however, his own reactions are subject only to business, formally correct goals. He is indifferent to any events outside the class; everything that does not concern the lesson, as it were, does not interest him; his relationships are subordinated to the pedagogical process, to the cause. Such a teacher avoids personal contacts with students, therefore, they do not form a trusting relationship with such a teacher, they experience wariness, alienation towards him, which sometimes results in conflict situations.

The work of teachers with the Arena pedagogical communication strategy is characterized by the fact that they are not prone to petty care of the educational activities of their wards, they stimulate their creativity more. This is achieved through the use of a dialogic form of work, i.e., when reasoning, the teacher involves students in a dialogue, posing a problem to them or asking leading questions. In the classroom, such a teacher has a friendly atmosphere. He does not skimp on encouragement and positive feedback on the actions of his students, orienting them to a positive perspective. Such a teacher uses various forms of work: written, oral answers, work in a group or pair, creative tasks, mini-essays, defense of their own projects, development of any topics, use of demonstration material, such as showing videos, paintings, reproductions, etc. He uses these forms so that all students can realize themselves and excel, depending on their individual characteristics. In case of difficulty in answering, such teachers try to cheer up the student, to help him express his thoughts (even if they are incorrect). They aim for students to reason for themselves rather than using standard textbook answers.

A teacher with such a communication strategy can express his own attitude to current events, his vision of the problem, reports on his own state and emotions. He is able to deviate from the lesson plan, change its course, if the current situation requires it. Such a teacher encourages questions, allows "lyrical digressions" from the lesson. He shows interest in children, is interested in their opinion, tries to take into account their individual characteristics. It is dominated by a qualitative assessment of the activities of students. The openness of such teachers, on the one hand, and the ability to capture and take into account the state of children, on the other hand, help the teacher to easily establish contact relations with students, create an experience of trust and comfort in the latter, and this can be an additional positive stimulation for learning. Such a teacher often stimulates spontaneity, and through it, creativity. He does not order, but creates conditions for the students themselves to want to do what is needed according to the logic of the educational process.

Teachers with the "Blind Zone" pedagogical communication strategy are too busy realizing their goals, demonstrating their own states, relationships and claims. They often do not notice the states of students, their reactions to the behavior of the teacher, they attribute their own states to students, which contributes to the emergence of conflict situations. Such teachers are aloof from the life that their students live. Their pupils do not get the opportunity to fully express themselves, because the teacher, knowing more, tries to tell, finish for the student, or, prompting in case of difficulties, gets so carried away that he forgets what he asked the student before. In this case, students remain misunderstood, thereby not realizing their need for self-expression, for their own intellectual activity. Such teachers do not use punishments, but also do not resort to frequent rewards. The teacher is busy with himself and his thoughts. In this situation, students do not satisfy the need for security or self-acceptance, which gives rise to discomfort and a state of frustration. Children are an object to which such a teacher can realize his openness, and the state of the students at this moment is of little interest to him.

Relationship problems. In the course of communication, its participants not only perceive and understand each other, not only exchange information, but also interact, i.e. plan common activities, exchange actions, develop forms and norms of joint actions. When describing certain situations of communication, we most often use the terms of actions, for example: "we came to a consensus", "he put pressure on me, but I did not succumb", "we stomped on the spot", etc. Meanwhile, speech it is about communication, not about struggle, and the fact that it is conveyed by such phrases is usually not embellishment, but the main meaning that partners saw in communication.

Interaction in communication is a system of mutually conditioned actions of communication partners aimed at mutual changes in their behavior, activities, relationships, attitudes, etc., in order to ensure the effectiveness of communication and develop a unified strategy. In the process of interaction, everyone seeks to focus on their goals and the goals of the partner. Depending on the degree of consideration in the interaction of these goals, the following behavioral strategies are distinguished:

- cooperation, which implies the maximum achievement by the participants of the interaction of their goals;

- counteraction, which involves focusing only on one's own goals without taking into account the goals of the partner;

- a compromise involving a private, intermediate (often temporary) achievement of the partners' goals for the sake of maintaining conditional equality and maintaining relations;

- Compliance, which involves sacrificing one's own needs in order to achieve the partner's goals;

- avoidance (avoidance), which involves avoiding contact, refusing to strive to achieve one's goals in order to exclude the gain of another.

None of these strategies are good or bad. It all depends on the specific situation of communication, on the goals set by the partners, and a number of other factors.

10.8. Barriers of pedagogical communication

Any information is a way of suggesting something. However, often we are witnesses of a counter psychological activity called counter-suggestion, that is, a person, as it were, defends himself from the inexorable action of another person's speech. The counter-suggestion mechanism erects communicative barriers on the way of speech, information, which are psychological barriers to adequate information between communication partners. There are the following types of communication barriers.

1. Barrier "authority". Dividing all people into authoritative and non-authoritative, a person trusts only the first and refuses to trust others. Thus, trust and distrust are, as it were, personified and depend not on the characteristics of the transmitted information, but on the one who speaks. For example, the elderly do not listen well to the advice of the young.

Attributing a person to an authoritative one depends on the social position (status), belonging to a real "authoritative" group; from an attractive appearance, a benevolent attitude towards the addressee of the impact (smile, friendliness, ease of handling, etc.); from competence; sincerity.

2. Barrier "avoidance". A person avoids sources of influence, avoids contact with the interlocutor. If it is impossible to evade, then he makes every effort not to perceive the message (inattentive, does not listen, does not look at the interlocutor, uses any pretext to end the conversation). Sometimes they avoid not only sources of information, but also certain situations (for example, the desire to close their eyes while watching "terrible places" from horror films).

Most often, the avoidance barrier appears in varying degrees of inattention, therefore, only by controlling the attention of the interlocutor, the audience, this type of communication barrier can be overcome. The main thing at the same time is to solve two interrelated problems: to attract attention and keep it. Our attention is most influenced by the following factors: the relevance and importance of information, its novelty, non-standard presentation, surprise, intensity of information transfer, sonority of the voice and its modulation.

3. Barrier "misunderstanding". Often the source of information is trustworthy, authoritative, but the information "does not reach" (we do not hear, we do not see, we do not understand). Why is this happening and how can these problems be solved? Usually there are four barriers of misunderstanding: phonetic, semantic, stylistic, logical.

A phonetic (from phoneme - sound) barrier of misunderstanding occurs when they speak a foreign language, or use a lot of foreign words or special terminology, or speak quickly, indistinctly and with an accent. The semantic (from semantics - the semantic meaning of words) barrier of misunderstanding arises when the language is phonetically "ours", but according to the transmitted meaning "foreign". For example, such a barrier occurs when a word has not one, but several meanings; or "semantic" fields are different for different people; or slang words, secret languages, images often used in any group, examples are used. To overcome this barrier, it is necessary, firstly, to speak as simply as possible, and secondly, to agree in advance on the same understanding of some key words, concepts, etc. (if necessary, explain them at the beginning of the conversation).

The stylistic (from stylistics - style of presentation, correspondence of form and content) barrier of misunderstanding occurs when the style of presentation is inappropriate, too heavy, too lightweight, in general, does not correspond to the content, so the listener does not understand it or refuses, does not want to understand. With certain reservations, it can be recognized that style is the relation of the form of a message to its content. Therefore, the main thing when overcoming this barrier is to correctly structure the transmitted information.

The logical barrier of misunderstanding. If a person, from our point of view, says or does something contrary to the rules of logic, then we not only refuse to understand him, but also emotionally perceive him negatively. At the same time, we implicitly assume that there is only one logic - the correct one, that is, ours. However, it is no secret to anyone that there are different logics - female, childish, age, etc. Each person thinks, lives and acts according to his own logic, but in communication, unless these logics are correlated or if a person does not have a clear th idea of ​​the partner's logic, there is a barrier of logical misunderstanding. Overcoming the logical barrier is possible:

a) when taking into account the logic and life position of the interlocutor. To do this, it is necessary to roughly imagine the position of the partner, the interlocutor (who he is, what he came with, what positions he takes, etc.), as well as individual and social role characteristics, since the acceptability or unacceptability of this or that logic for the partner mainly depends from its original direction;

b) with correct argumentation. There are different types of argumentation: increasing, when the strength of the arguments increases by the end of communication (it is advisable to turn to it when the interlocutor is highly interested in the conversation and at his high educational level), and decreasing, when the strength of the arguments weakens by the end of the message (it is advisable to turn to it if necessary). arouse attention and interest even with a low educational level of the interlocutor).

Thus, communication barriers are not the result of a conscious, arbitrary and directed protection from the impact of information. Their action is contradictory. The system of barriers is a kind of automated security: in case of a peculiar operation of a security alarm, the approaches to a person are automatically blocked. Otherwise, the human brain and psyche simply could not withstand the collapse of information. However, sometimes barriers play a negative role. So, hard-to-set, but necessary information is not perceived or perceived with distortions, incompletely, and a person who knows the solution, but does not have authority, may not be heard at all. This contradiction can be resolved by knowing the socio-psychological characteristics of communication barriers and ways to overcome them.

10.9. The problem of educational conflicts and ways to prevent them

Conflict (from lat. conflictus - clash) is a clash of oppositely directed goals, interests, positions, opinions or views of opponents or subjects of interaction. Conflicts may be hidden or overt, but they are always based on a lack of agreement. Therefore, the conflict is defined as the lack of agreement between two or more parties - individuals or groups.

Observations show that 80% of conflicts arise apart from the desire of their participants. This happens because of the peculiarities of our psyche, and also due to the fact that most people either do not know about these features or do not attach importance to them.

The main role in the emergence of conflicts is played by the so-called conflictogens - words, actions (or inaction) that contribute to the emergence and development of the conflict, i.e., leading to conflict directly.

There are the following main types of conflicts.

1. An intrapersonal conflict is a state of dissatisfaction of a person with any circumstances of his life, associated with the presence of conflicting interests, aspirations, needs that give rise to affects and stresses. Here, the participants in the conflict are not people, but various psychological factors of the inner world of the individual, often seeming or being incompatible: needs, motives, values, feelings, etc. This conflict can be functional or dysfunctional, depending on how and what decision a person accept and accept it at all.

2. Interpersonal conflict is an intractable contradiction that arises between people and is caused by the incompatibility of their views, interests, goals, needs. In pedagogical practice, the main types of interpersonal conflicts are "student-student", "student-teacher", "teacher-teacher" conflicts.

Student-student conflict. Most of the conflicts among students arise because of claims for leadership in microgroups. Interpersonal conflicts can arise between an established leader and a member of a microgroup gaining authority as a leader. Conflict situations can arise when the leaders of microgroups interact, each of which can claim recognition of his authority by the group as a whole. Leaders can draw their supporters into conflicts, expanding the scope of interpersonal conflict. Conflict situations between students are eliminated by the head of the group (class), who must find (sometimes together with parents) for each leader his own specific area of ​​leadership.

Random interpersonal conflicts occur between girls and boys due to displays of personal superiority, cynicism, lack of empathy for others, and between individual elementary school students. In higher education, occasional conflicts between students and female students, despite the fact that they are past adolescence, occur for the same reasons. Students can evaluate their own and others' position in the conflict and, depending on their assessment, accept or not accept it.

The student-teacher conflict. Interpersonal conflicts between students and teachers arise in the senior classes and in the first years of the university due to the problems of adolescence. Society, parents and teachers set an important task for a young person to realize professional self-determination, and not only in the internal plan in the form of a dream, an intention to become someone in the future, but in terms of a real choice. A conflict in this case may arise if the positions of the teacher and the student are opposite.

In the lower grades, the teacher for the student is the same indisputable authority as the parents, so interpersonal conflicts do not arise. In adolescence, a personality change occurs, the position "I am an adult" is defended, which contributes to the creation of conflict situations with the teacher. In high school, students strive for autonomy, openly defend the right to be themselves, independently resolve issues that concern them personally, have their own attachments, as well as their own views on what is happening around him. At this age, the reaction to tactless remarks becomes much sharper and can lead to conflicts in any form. Since the appropriation of forms of culture (education) and the development of adulthood (various forms of independence and naturalness) fall on the first year of the university, conflicts are possible related to the student's adaptation in this educational institution.

Conflicts between teacher and students may arise due to unfair assessments. In such cases, the whole class can be drawn into the conflict, speaking on the side of the student. Some teachers follow two opposing strategies in evaluating students' knowledge. One is expressed in underestimated requirements for establishing favorable relations with students, the other - in overstated requirements in order to prepare students for university entrance. Both strategies are potentially conflicting. Overestimated grades wean good students from active learning, underestimated ones are perceived by the class as the teacher's arbitrariness. A fair assessment of students' knowledge is necessary.

Conflict "teacher - teacher". Conflict situations among teachers arise not only because of the peculiarity of temperament and character, but also in cases of a low level of personality development. There are several options for behavior among teachers:

a) the rivalry of a teacher, who is only reaching a high level of professional activity, with previously recognized authorities. Such a teacher can spread negative information about recognized authorities who have been working successfully with students for a long time. As a result, an unhealthy rivalry begins, fraught with interpersonal conflicts;

b) behavior that emphasizes the degree of superiority of experienced teachers over young ones, when teachers with experience allow themselves to condescendingly teach their young colleagues, express dissatisfaction with their methods, and impose their methodology as a model;

c) the creation by some teachers of a favorable impression of themselves not by productive activity, but by imitation of it, participation in various public events, self-promotion, etc.

3. Intergroup conflict. An educational institution consists of many formal and informal groups, between which conflicts can arise, for example, between management and performers, between students, between informal groups within a study group, between administration and a trade union. Unfortunately, disagreements between higher and lower levels of government, in particular between school management and teachers, or between teachers and students, are a frequent example of intergroup conflict. This is a prime example of dysfunctional conflict.

Intergroup conflicts are due to the incompatibility of goals in the struggle for limited resources, that is, the presence of real competition, as well as the emergence of social competition. This type of conflict is accompanied by the following manifestations:

a) "deindividualization", when members of the group do not perceive other people as individuals, original personalities, but perceive them as members of another group to which negative behavior is attributed. Deindividuation facilitates the manifestation of aggressiveness towards other groups;

b) social, intergroup comparison, during which they evaluate their group more highly and positively, increase their prestige and at the same time belittle, devalue the other group, give it a negative assessment (“they are villains, they are stupid, they are backward”, etc.) . Social comparison can initiate conflicts, as well as support, "justify oneself" in the conflict, because in order to win, one must evaluate oneself as a "positive group that does the right thing" and negatively evaluate the other group. Often, group leaders tend to partially or completely isolate themselves from information from a foreign side about a foreign group ("iron curtain"), then it is easier to maintain a conflict between their own and foreign groups. Sharing real information about each other is helpful in smoothing out conflict;

c) group attribution, when members of the group tend to believe that it is "an outside group that is responsible for negative events." The explanation of the causes of events differs sharply for "one's own" and "alien" groups. Thus, internal causes are attributed to the positive behavior of one's own group and the negative behavior of the other group ("we do the right thing because we are good", "they do it badly because they are bad"). The negative behavior of one's own group and the positive behavior of the other group are explained by external causes, external circumstances. For example, "attacks" of one's own group (negative, aggressive behavior) are explained by external reasons ("we were forced by circumstances"), and attacks by opponents are explained by internal reasons ("they are bad people"). Constructive positive actions of a foreign group are assessed as outwardly conditioned (“they had no other choice, circumstances forced them to agree to a “world” agreement”) or are sometimes perceived as a catch, “a military trick” (“something is wrong here, you can’t trust them peace proposals). Even a split within one's own group in such a manifestation is inclined to be explained by the actions of a "foreign" group, which "harm us, conspire against us."

In pedagogical practice, this type of conflict manifests itself in different ways. Many educators believe that the only reason for it is the dissimilarity of characters. However, a deeper analysis shows that such conflicts, as a rule, are based on objective reasons. Most often, this is how the struggle for limited resources manifests itself: everyone believes that it is he who needs the resources, and not the other. Conflicts arise between the teacher and the student, for example, when the student is convinced that the teacher makes excessive demands on him, and the teacher believes that the student does not want to work at full strength.

Researchers distinguish quite a lot of different types of conflicts, since there is no hard line between different types, and in pedagogical practice conflicts arise both organizational-vertical and interpersonal at the same time, as well as horizontally open and intergroup, etc. The conflicts that were considered earlier are carried out as positive and negative features).

Causes and ways of overcoming conflicts. In modern pedagogical practice, the causes of conflicts are as diverse as the conflicts themselves. It is possible to single out the objective reasons and their perception by teachers and students. Objective reasons can be represented to a rather arbitrary degree in the form of several fixed groups used not only in pedagogy, such as the limited resources to be distributed; difference in goals, values, methods of behavior, skill level, education; task interdependence; incorrect distribution of responsibility; bad communications.

At the same time, objective reasons will only become the causes of the conflict when they make it impossible for the student or the educational group to realize their needs, they affect personal and (or) group interests. The reaction of the student is largely determined by the social maturity of the individual, the forms of behavior acceptable for her, the social norms and values ​​​​accepted in the educational team. Moreover, the participation of a student or teacher in a conflict is determined by the significance of the goals set for him and by the extent to which the obstacle that has arisen prevents them from being realized. The more important the goal that the participant in the conflict is facing, the more efforts he makes to achieve it, the stronger the resistance will be and the tougher the conflict interaction with those who interfere with this.

The choice of a way to overcome obstacles, in turn, will depend on the available means of protecting one's interests, the amount of power available, the emotional stability of the individual, and many other factors. The psychological protection of the student's personality occurs unconsciously as a system of personality stabilization to protect the sphere of consciousness of the personality from negative psychological influences. As a result of the conflict, this system works involuntarily, against the will and desire of a person. The need for such protection arises when thoughts and feelings appear that pose a threat to self-esteem, the formed "I-image" of the student, the system of value orientations that reduce the self-esteem of the individual.

The perception of the situation by a person may be far from the real state of affairs, and in some cases the reaction to the situation will be formed based on what it seems to the person, and this circumstance significantly complicates the resolution of the conflict. Negative emotions that will arise as a result of the conflict can be quickly transferred from a specific conflict problem to the personality of the opponent, which will complement the conflict with personal opposition. When the conflict intensifies, the unsightly image of the opponent can further complicate its solution. In such a situation, it is advisable to break the vicious circle that has appeared, which must be done at the very beginning of the deployment of the event, until the situation gets out of control.

Conflict resolution is the partial or complete elimination of the causes that gave rise to the conflict, or a change in the goals of the participants in the conflict. Partial resolution of the conflict can be achieved by ending the external conflict behavior of the parties, but while maintaining the internal, intellectual and emotional tension that gave rise to conflict behavior. Thus, the conflict is not resolved completely, only at the behavioral level, when, for example, administrative sanctions are applied to both (or one) parties to the conflict, and the objective cause of the conflict is not eliminated. Complete resolution of the conflict is achieved only when both components of the conflict situation are transformed - both at the external and at the internal level. Such a complete result is achieved, for example, by satisfying all the just demands of the conflicting party or both parties by finding additional resources.

Conflict Management. In relation to the school, the ability of a teacher to see a conflict situation, comprehend it and take guiding actions to resolve it is called conflict management. In modern psychology and conflictology, quite a lot of conflict management methods have been developed, including in educational activities. Since a learning organization is a continuous interaction of various groups and teams, conflict management here is no different from a similar process, say, in work teams, and in general, conflict management methods in an educational institution can be represented as several groups, each of which has your area of ​​application:

- intrapersonal, i.e., methods of influencing an individual;

- structural - methods to eliminate organizational conflicts;

- interpersonal methods or styles of behavior in conflict situations;

- negotiation;

- reciprocal offensive steps. This group of methods includes aggressive actions that are used in extreme cases, when the possibilities of all previous groups of methods have been exhausted. (The last group, of course, does not apply to the resolution of conflicts within school groups.)

Let us dwell in more detail on the listed groups of methods.

I. Intrapersonal conflict management methods consist in the teacher's ability to correctly organize his own behavior, express his point of view without causing a defensive reaction from the student. Some authors suggest using the "I-statement" method, that is, a way to convey to another person your attitude to a particular subject, without accusations and demands, but in such a way that your interlocutor changes his attitude.

Mechanisms of psychological protection of personality. In addition to the named method, modern conflictology and psychology also formulate a number of mechanisms for the psychological protection of the individual, which is a special regulatory system for stabilizing the individual, aimed at eliminating or minimizing the feeling of anxiety or fear that accompanies intrapersonal conflict. The essence and function of psychological defense is to protect the consciousness of the individual from negative experiences. In a general sense, the term "psychological defense" is used today to refer to any behavior that eliminates psychological discomfort.

The phenomenon of psychological defense and its various manifestations, long before scientific explanation, were repeatedly described in philosophical (Socrates, Plato, Epicurus, Augustine Aurelius, I. Kant, V. S. Solovyov, N. A. Berdyaev and many other thinkers) and fiction.

So, a characteristic example of intellectualization as one of the main mechanisms of psychological defense can be considered the behavior of Socrates before death, described by Plato in the essay "Phaedo". The essence of this psychological defense mechanism lies in the fact that a person considers even very important events neutrally, moving away from emotions, which is surprising to ordinary people.

Modern science identifies a number of mechanisms of psychological protection of the individual. Leading among them are the following.

1. Repression - a process as a result of which thoughts, memories, experiences that are unacceptable to the individual are "expelled" from consciousness and transferred to the unconscious, just as an undisciplined student who interferes with a lecture can be "forced out" from the audience out the door.

2. Sublimation - the transformation of instinctive forms of the psyche (energy or aggression) into forms more acceptable to the individual and society. In a broader sense, sublimation refers to the switching of an individual's activity to a higher level. Such forms can be various types of creative activity and diverse hobbies.

3. Regression (from lat. regressio - backward movement) - the return of the individual to early childhood forms of behavior, the transition to previous levels of mental development. Regression involves a departure from reality and a return to the stage of personality development in which the feeling of pleasure was experienced. When in a state of intrapersonal conflict people "fall into childhood", then this is a deeply functional behavior. A person in a difficult situation often takes anything in his mouth - a finger, a pen, a shackle of glasses. The meaning and meaning of these actions and gestures is a return to the comfortable cloudless situation of infancy, when the child sucked the mother's breast.

4. Rationalization - hiding from oneself true, but unacceptable motives for actions and thoughts. At the same time, there is a search for plausible reasons to justify actions caused by unacceptable feelings and motives in order to ensure internal comfort and get rid of intrapersonal conflict. Rationalization is associated with the explanation of one's actions by the need to assert self-esteem and self-esteem.

5. Projection - conscious or unconscious transfer of one's own properties, feelings and states that are unacceptable for the individual to external objects. Thus, a person shifts "guilt" to an external object, which is a source of difficulties, ascribes negative qualities to him and at the same time removes it from himself. Here we have a technique that is well seen in the expression "the fool himself."

6. Substitution. This technique has two forms of manifestation: 1) object substitution - the transfer of negative feelings and actions from one object that caused them to another object that has nothing to do with them. This happens when a person cannot express his thoughts, show feelings or perform certain actions in relation to the direct culprit of his resentment, fear or anger for social or physical reasons. For example, if there is no way to offend the boss with whom you are dissatisfied with something, you can kick his stuffed animal or slam the door;

2) substitution of feelings - this form is characterized by the fact that the object that caused the discontent of the individual remains the same, and the feeling in relation to it changes to the opposite. An assistant professor who gives a student an "unsatisfactory" mark on an exam can instantly turn from witty into "stupid". An example of the substitution of feelings is described in the fable by I. A. Krylov "The Fox and the Grapes". Unable to get to the seductive bunches of grapes, the fox reassures himself that "It looks good, // Yes, it's green - the berries are not ripe: // You will immediately set your teeth on edge."

7. Intellectualization is a way of analyzing the problems facing a person, which is characterized by the absolutization of the role of the mental component while completely ignoring the sensory elements of analysis. When using this protective mechanism, even very important events for the individual are considered neutrally, without the participation of emotions, which is surprising to ordinary people. For example, with intellectualization, a person hopelessly ill with cancer or irradiated can calmly calculate how many days he has left to live or do mathematical calculations. An example of precisely this psychological mechanism was given in the case of Socrates.

8. Identification - the process of identifying the subject with another person or group, through which he learns patterns of behavior of "significant others", forms his consciousness and takes on a particular role. As a defense mechanism, identification helps to cope with anxiety and insecurity, provides a mutual connection between group members and builds a sense of self-confidence.

9. Separation - refusal to think about the possible negative consequences of future events and actions. It is usually expressed by the words "come what may", "maybe it will blow over", etc.

10. Imagination (fantasy) - the creation of a program of behavior when the problem situation that gives rise to an intrapersonal conflict is not defined. Imagination consists in creating images or behaviors that replace actual activity. Often the imagination is associated with the creation of an image of the desired future, into which a person who is in a state of intrapersonal conflict wants to escape.

11. Structural methods of conflict management help to identify the main elements of conflict interaction, determine the role of each of them. The advantage of this method is that it helps to find some stable components even in such a mobile phenomenon as social conflict.

The totality of such components as the object of the conflict, the composition of its participants, the level of tension of conflict interaction, etc., form the structure of the conflict, and the role (or work) performed by these elements is their function in the conflict. The identification of structural elements and their functions in conflict is the most important prerequisite for its successful regulation. The elements of this method include coordination and integration mechanisms, corporate goals, clarification of job requirements, use of remuneration systems.

III. interpersonal methods. Conflicts in the pedagogical process are inevitable. The profession of a teacher is recognized as one of the most difficult: in terms of its psychophysiological intensity, it is at the level of test pilots and climbers, so one of the problems in pedagogy is the issue of constructive conflict resolution. Pedagogy is armed with a number of behavioral algorithms that are necessary for the successful work of a teacher.

1. At school (university), a teacher should demonstrate only a working mood. Negative emotions associated with personal problems should remain outside the educational institution.

2. It is not necessary to avoid conflicts, it is necessary to direct the process of their resolution in a constructive direction and try not to drag out the conflict.

3. All students should be treated fairly.

4. All activities of the teacher should be focused on the process of education and upbringing.

5. You can not humiliate students, on the contrary, you need to "raise" them to their level.

6. In relations with colleagues, you need to demonstrate only an assertive[6] form of behavior.

Ways, or tactics, of resolving conflicts are as diverse as the conflict situations themselves, but all of them can be reduced to the following four main tactics: 1) withdrawal, or avoidance of conflict; 2) forceful suppression, or the method of violence; 3) the method of unilateral concessions, or adaptations; 4) tactics of compromise, or cooperation. It is easy to see that the basis for this classification of conflict management tactics is the degree of willingness of the parties to meet each other halfway in the confrontation that has arisen. If we represent this in graphical form, we get the so-called Thomas-Kilmenn grid, which allows us to analyze a specific conflict and choose a rational form of behavior. Each person can use all these forms of behavior to some extent, but usually he chooses a priority form for himself.

1. Evasion (avoidance, withdrawal). This form of behavior is possible if the outcome of the conflict is not particularly important for the individual, or if the situation is too complicated and the resolution of the conflict will require a lot of strength from its participants, or the person has no desire to defend his rights, cooperate to develop a solution, and he refrains from expressing his position, evades from a dispute. This style involves an attempt to get away from the conflict, not attaching much importance to it, perhaps due to the lack of conditions for its resolution.

2. The tactics of confrontation (competition) are characterized by persistent, uncompromising, cooperation-rejecting defense of one's interests using all available means. This form of behavior in a conflict involves the active struggle of a person for his range of interests, the use of all means and methods of influence available to him to achieve his goals (coercion, the use of power, other means of pressure on opponents), the use of dependence on him by other participants in the conflict. The situation can be perceived by a person as very significant for him, as a matter of victory or defeat, which implies a tough stance towards opponents and an uncompromising opposition to other participants in the conflict in case of their resistance.

3. Adaptation (compliance) implies a person's willingness to give up their interests in order to maintain relationships that are placed above the subject and object of disagreement. The actions and deeds of a person are aimed at maintaining or restoring a suitable relationship with an opponent by smoothing out differences at the expense of their own interests. This approach is possible when the contribution to the common cause for the conflicting parties is not too great or when the subject of disagreement is more significant for the opponent than for this person. Such behavior in a conflict is used if the situation is not particularly significant, if it is more important to maintain good relations with the opponent than to defend one's own interests, if the individual has little chance of winning, little power.

4. Cooperation involves the joint performance of the parties to solve the problem. With such behavior, different views on the problem are considered legitimate.

This position makes it possible to understand the causes of disagreements and find a way out of the crisis acceptable to the opposing sides without infringing on the interests of each of them. To satisfy the desires of all participants in the interaction, an active search for a solution is underway, but at the same time, the parties do not forget their own interests. An open exchange of views is expected, the interest of all participants in the conflict in developing a common solution. This form requires positive work and participation of all parties to the conflict. If the opponents have time, and the solution of the problem is important for them, then with this approach, a comprehensive discussion of the issue, the disagreements that have arisen, and the development of a common solution with respect for the interests of all participants are possible.

5. Compromise requires concessions on both sides to the extent that an acceptable solution is found through mutual indulgences for the opposing sides. The actions of the opponents of the conflict are aimed at developing an intermediate solution that suits both sides, at finding a solution through mutual concessions, in which no one really wins, but no one loses either. This form of behavior in a conflict is applicable provided that the opponents have the same power, have mutually exclusive interests, they do not have a large reserve of time to search for a better solution, and they are satisfied with an intermediate solution for a certain period.

In some cases, it is believed that confrontation within reasonable, controlled limits is more productive in terms of conflict resolution than smoothing, avoiding, and even compromise, although not all experts adhere to this statement. In addition, the question arises of the price of victory and what constitutes defeat for the parties to the conflict. These are extremely complex issues in conflict management, since it is important that defeat does not become the basis for the formation of new conflicts and does not lead to an expansion of the zone of conflict interaction.

The process of learning influences the behavior of people in conflict situations. In a protracted conflict, opponents usually study each other well and begin to take certain actions, focusing on character traits, typical emotional reactions, that is, they can predict the actions of the opposite side quite well. This allows them to expand the scope of their tactics and behaviors with "correction" for the characteristics of the opponent. Thus, the actions of the opponents become interdependent to a certain extent, which makes it possible to influence them.

Literature

1. Bordovskaya N. V., Rean A. A. Pedagogy. St. Petersburg; M., 2000.

2. Grigorovich L. A., Martsinkovskaya T. D. Pedagogy and psychology: textbook. allowance. M.: Gardariki, 2001.

3. Emelyanov Yu. N. Active social and psychological training. L., 1985.

4. Kagan M. S. The world of communication: problems of intersubjective relations. Moscow: Politizdat, 1988.

5. Kuzmina H.V. Methods of research of pedagogical activity. L., 1970.

6. Kupisevich Ch. Fundamentals of general didactics / trans. from Polish. M.: Higher. school, 1986.

7. Lerner I. Ya. Didactic foundations of teaching methods. Moscow: Education, 1980.

8. Lobanov A. A. Fundamentals of professional and pedagogical communication: textbook. allowance for students. higher ped. textbook establishments. M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2002.

9. Lyaudis V. Ya. Methods of teaching psychology: textbook. allowance. 3rd ed., rev. and additional M.: Publishing house of URAO, 2000.

10. Markova A. K. Psychology of teacher's work. M., 1993.

11. Fundamentals of pedagogy and psychology of higher education / ed. A. V. Petrovsky. M., 1986.

12. Pedagogy / ed. Yu. K. Babansky. Moscow, 1988.

13. Pidkasisty P. I., Goryachev B. V. The learning process in the conditions of democratization and humanization of the school. M., 1991.

14. Pedagogy and psychology of higher education: textbook. allowance. Rostov n/a: Phoenix, 2002.

15. Petrovskaya L. A. Theoretical and methodological problems of socio-psychological training. M., 1982.

16. Podlasy I. P. Pedagogy. New course: textbook for students. ped. universities; in 2 books. M.: Humanit. ed. center "VLADOS", 1999. Book. 1. General basics. Learning process.

17. Roginsky V. M. ABC of pedagogical work. M.: Higher. school, 1990.

18. Rubinshtein S. L. Fundamentals of general psychology. T. 1, 2. M., 1989.

19. Slastenin V. A., Kashirin V. P. Psychology and Pedagogy: Proc. allowance for students. higher textbook establishments. M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2003.

20. Smirnov S. D. Pedagogy and psychology of higher education: from activity to personality: textbook. allowance for students. higher ped. textbook establishments. M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2001.

21. Stolyarenko L. D. Fundamentals of psychology. Rostov n / a: Publishing house "Phoenix", 1997.

22. Urbanovich A. A. Psychology of management: textbook. allowance. Minsk: Harvest, 2004.

23. Yakimanskaya I. S. Personality-oriented learning in modern school. M.: September, 1996.

Notes

1. See: Kan-Kalik V. A. Pedagogical activity as a creative process. M., 1977.

2. To teach to learn means to teach each student the methods of perceiving and processing information, reading techniques, keeping records while listening and reading, the principles of self-organization, the use of knowledge when analyzing new information, correlating the incomprehensible with the known and understandable, self-testing assimilation, the technique of transforming text and etc., to create in him a psychological mood for learning, independent work.

3. The authority of the teacher is a socially complex structured phenomenon that qualitatively characterizes the system of relations with the teacher and determines the effectiveness of his solution of professional problems.

4. Kagan M. S. The world of communication: problems of intersubjective relations. M.: Politizdat, 1988. S. 319.

5. The content of the concept "communicative core of a personality" includes all the psychological properties that a given personality has managed to develop and which are manifested in communication. These properties reflect the experience of a person's communication with different categories of people, both positive and negative. Each participant in communication needs to instill a culture of communication and form a positive experience, develop the ability to see in interlocutors a personality as significant as himself.

6. Assertiveness is usually understood as naturalness and independence from external influences and assessments, the ability to independently regulate one's own behavior and be responsible for it.

We recommend interesting articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets:

▪ Logistics. Lecture notes

▪ Insurance law. Lecture notes

▪ Environmental law. Crib

See other articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets.

Read and write useful comments on this article.

<< Back

Latest news of science and technology, new electronics:

Artificial leather for touch emulation 15.04.2024

In a modern technology world where distance is becoming increasingly commonplace, maintaining connection and a sense of closeness is important. Recent developments in artificial skin by German scientists from Saarland University represent a new era in virtual interactions. German researchers from Saarland University have developed ultra-thin films that can transmit the sensation of touch over a distance. This cutting-edge technology provides new opportunities for virtual communication, especially for those who find themselves far from their loved ones. The ultra-thin films developed by the researchers, just 50 micrometers thick, can be integrated into textiles and worn like a second skin. These films act as sensors that recognize tactile signals from mom or dad, and as actuators that transmit these movements to the baby. Parents' touch to the fabric activates sensors that react to pressure and deform the ultra-thin film. This ... >>

Petgugu Global cat litter 15.04.2024

Taking care of pets can often be a challenge, especially when it comes to keeping your home clean. A new interesting solution from the Petgugu Global startup has been presented, which will make life easier for cat owners and help them keep their home perfectly clean and tidy. Startup Petgugu Global has unveiled a unique cat toilet that can automatically flush feces, keeping your home clean and fresh. This innovative device is equipped with various smart sensors that monitor your pet's toilet activity and activate to automatically clean after use. The device connects to the sewer system and ensures efficient waste removal without the need for intervention from the owner. Additionally, the toilet has a large flushable storage capacity, making it ideal for multi-cat households. The Petgugu cat litter bowl is designed for use with water-soluble litters and offers a range of additional ... >>

The attractiveness of caring men 14.04.2024

The stereotype that women prefer "bad boys" has long been widespread. However, recent research conducted by British scientists from Monash University offers a new perspective on this issue. They looked at how women responded to men's emotional responsibility and willingness to help others. The study's findings could change our understanding of what makes men attractive to women. A study conducted by scientists from Monash University leads to new findings about men's attractiveness to women. In the experiment, women were shown photographs of men with brief stories about their behavior in various situations, including their reaction to an encounter with a homeless person. Some of the men ignored the homeless man, while others helped him, such as buying him food. A study found that men who showed empathy and kindness were more attractive to women compared to men who showed empathy and kindness. ... >>

Random news from the Archive The moon may have been responsible for the sinking of the Titanic 13.03.2012 Sky & Telescope magazine published a version by two physicists from the University of Texas, Russell Deuscher and Donald Olsen, that the famous Titanic, whose centenary of the tragic death will be celebrated on April 14, collided with a giant iceberg with the help of the moon. This version, by the way, has already been put forward by oceanographer Fergus Wood from the University of San Diego. He suggested that the excessively high tides observed at the beginning of 1912 were caused by the unusually close distance that the Moon then approached our planet. It was these tides that tore off a lot of icebergs, one of which collided with the liner. Texas physicists decided to test the hypothesis and, to their own surprise, found that the situation was even worse than Fergus Wood had supposed. At times, the Moon and Sun are in such a position that their gravitational forces add up, says Olson. - On January 4, 1912, the Moon approached the Earth at such a close distance that it had not approached for as long as 1400 years. The Earth, on the other hand, reached its perigee - the closest distance to the Sun - just a day earlier. And this happened within six minutes of the full moon phase. The Sun, Earth and Moon were in these minutes on the same line - this state is called "supermoon" by astrologers, and astronomers prefer the more scientific term "perigee-syzygy". The chances of observing the January "perigee-syzygy" are astronomically small. The unusually high tides caused by this condition broke the Greenland ice and drove the resulting icebergs southward to the shallow waters of the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland, where the Titanic also headed in April. According to calculations, up to three hundred Greenland icebergs could cross its route. But the "Titanic" was enough for one.

News feed of science and technology, new electronics

Interesting materials of the Free Technical Library:

▪ site section Field strength detectors. Article selection

▪ article Hamburg account. Popular expression

▪ article What was called subbotnik before the advent of Soviet power? Detailed answer

▪ Behr article. Legends, cultivation, methods of application

▪ article Solar tracker. Encyclopedia of radio electronics and electrical engineering

▪ article Norms of acceptance tests. Synchronous generators and compensators. Encyclopedia of radio electronics and electrical engineering

Leave your comment on this article:

All languages ​​of this page

Arabic	Hebrew	Polish
Bengali	Hindi	Portuguese
Chinese	Italian	Spanish
English	Japanese	Turkish
French	Korean	Ukrainian
German	Malay	Vietnamese

Home page | Library | Articles | Website map | Site Reviews

www.diagram.com.ua
2000-2024