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HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY, TECHNOLOGY, OBJECTS AROUND US
Cinema. History of invention and production
Directory / The history of technology, technology, objects around us Cinema, in the form in which it appeared at the end of the XNUMXth century, became the end point of a long path of search, along which many inventors went at different times. They all had the same dream - to create a device that could capture and then reproduce the movement. This task turned out to be very difficult. Even today, an uninitiated person will stand before her at a standstill. Let's say someone raises their hand. In its movement from bottom to top, the hand passes through an infinite number of intermediate positions. Is it really necessary to capture them all in order to show this simple movement? Fortunately, this is not necessary. The human eye has the ability to capture and retain for some time (about 1/14 of a second) the perception it has received, even after the picture that caused this perception has disappeared. That is why we do not see each of its spokes during the rapid rotation of a bicycle wheel (they merge before our eyes into a continuous circle). Or another example - if in the dark someone quickly moves a burning coal from side to side, we cannot notice where this coal is at any given moment, because all its intermediate positions merge in our perception into one fiery band.
It turns out that with the rapid movement of an object, our eye does not notice all the intermediate positions - only about 14 instantaneous images per second can be imprinted on the retina, and these images merge with each other into a moving picture. In a certain sense, this is a shortcoming of our eye, which in some cases prevents it from correctly reflecting reality. But precisely because of this deficiency, such spectacular arts as animation, cinema or television became available to our perception. So, in order to fix the movement, it is not at all necessary to mark each of the intermediate positions of the moving object. It is enough to make only 12-14 such impressions every second, and then scroll through them at the same speed. It can be seen from what has been said that the art of cinematography actually consists of two parts. First you need to capture the movement (for which you need to take a series of snapshots of its individual phases), and then you need to be able to project these instant pictures onto the screen in such a way that the viewer sees an image of a moving object in front of him. Both did not happen right away. It took the efforts of many inventors before all the difficulties that arose along the way were resolved. The first experiments on projecting images were made in antiquity. In 1646, the German Jesuit Athanasius Kircher summarized in his work "The Great Arts of Light and Shadows" all the experience accumulated in this area and described the principle of the magic lantern. The magic lantern was used to project through a system of lenses onto a white surface (screen) an enlarged image of some small object, most often a transparent plate with a pattern printed on it. (Everyone is well aware of the principle of operation of the filmoscope - a modern version of a magic lantern.) The magic lantern can be considered the first prototype of cinema, in which there is still no transfer of motion. This art was mastered only in the first third of the 1833th century. In XNUMX, Austrian professor of practical geometry Simon Stampfer invented an amusing toy - a stroboscope. This device consisted of two disks rotating on one common axis. On one disk, like on a clock face, figures were drawn in various phases of some kind of repetitive process, for example, individual positions of a walking person. Another disk attached to the first one had radial slots through which one could see the images behind them. With the rapid rotation of the discs, the viewer, looking through the viewing window, saw successively for a short moment each of the pictures, but this movement, divided in time into separate phases, was perceived by him in the form of a continuous image, making continuous movement.
In 1853, the Austrian artillery captain Baron Franz von Uchatius invented a projection stroboscope - an apparatus for displaying live images that combined Stampfer's stroboscopic circle and Kircher's magic lantern. The significance of his invention was that it was now possible to see moving pictures on a screen. The stroboscope created by Uchatius had up to 100 images flashing for 30 seconds, that is, three or four images were replaced in one second. Each of them had its own lens. The light source was installed in such a way that the picture plates located along the edge of the wheel, one after the other, passed in front of it. This device was then widely used in many countries under the name "living pictures". In 1869, the American inventor Brown improved the Uhatius projector by using a powerful arc electric lamp as a light source. The big disadvantage of projection strobe lights was bulkiness. They took up a lot of space, and it took less than a minute to show their images. Nevertheless, "living pictures" for several decades remained a favorite and popular spectacle. It was only in the last quarter of the 1888th century that they were replaced by more advanced projectors, which used transparent celluloid film wound on a drum. In 15, the Frenchman Emile Reynaud created the "Optical Theatre", which was an apparatus for the projection of continuously moving characters. He had the following device. The characters were drawn on film. The demonstrator rotated the drum using two handles. The image on the film passed by the lamppost and was projected onto an inclined mirror, which was already reflecting it onto a translucent screen in the theater hall. Another apparatus simultaneously projected a painted scenery onto the screen, against which characters appeared with changing poses, drawn on a tape. The duration of the session was from 20 to XNUMX minutes. Reynaud's Optical Theatre, no longer showed mere movement. His characters acted out pantomimes and skits. His longest film, 36 m long, contained 500 images that were played for 15 minutes. Reino's comedy "Around the Cabin", created in 1894, withstood 10 thousand sessions, which indicates the great interest of contemporaries in this invention, which can be considered the prototype of modern animation. So, by the end of the 80s of the XIX century, the technique of projecting images has made great strides in the transfer of movement. However, showing the image was easier than capturing it. Now let's see what achievements were made in this second area. The idea of cinematography was first developed by Thomas Du Mont, who in 1859 received a patent for a multi-lens camera designed to capture individual phases of movement. Giving a description of the operation of his high-speed (or, as they began to say later, chronophotographic) apparatus, Du Mont showed a very subtle understanding of the essence of the ongoing process. The main idea of its design was as follows: 12 light-sensitive plates attached to an endless tape passed successively behind the lens, stopping in front of it for a very short time. Simultaneously with the stop of the tape, the shutter opened and let light pass onto the photographic plate (the task of the shutter is to open and close the lens window, leaving it open only for a strictly defined time). The tape mechanism was linked to the shutter so that film stop and shutter open coincided with mathematical precision. Alas, in reality, Du Mon's apparatus did not correspond to its description at all, and it was absolutely impossible to shoot movement with it. But, despite this, Du Mont is rightly considered one of the forerunners of cinema - the considerations expressed in his patent were very deep, and he absolutely correctly described the principle of operation of the film camera of the future. However, in order for his camera to become a reality, Du Mont lacked at least four things. First of all, the light sensitivity of contemporary photographic plates was clearly insufficient for high-speed shooting. To get good quality pictures, they had to be exposed to light for several seconds, while when shooting movement, the shutter speed (that is, the time that the plate is exposed to light) had to be calculated in tenths and hundredths of a second. Secondly, there was still no device so absolutely necessary for chronophotography as an instantaneous automatic shutter that would allow taking pictures with a very fast shutter speed (while the shutter speed was calculated in seconds, it was possible to open and close the lens manually, but when shooting at a speed of 12- 14 frames per second is completely impossible). Thirdly, the very method of shooting on photographic plates was clearly not suitable for chronophotography; a new carrier for the photosensitive layer was needed - photographic film, which could be wound at the required speed. And, finally, the mechanism of motion of this film has not yet been invented. Du Mont's description shows that the film should not just pass behind the lens (which would be easy to arrange), but make short instant stops, and at a strictly defined time, that is, move in leaps and bounds. The invention of this jump mechanism proved to be one of the most difficult tasks in the history of cinematography. In the decades that followed, all of these problems were resolved one by one. Richard Maddox developed the dry bromine gelatin photographic process in 1871 (improved in 1878) that made it possible to reduce shutter speed when shooting to 1/200 of a second. This discovery made it possible to start photographing movement. It is believed that the beginning of chronophotography was laid by the experiments of the American photographer Eduard Muybridge. The reason for this was the story of one bet. In 1872, the millionaire Stanford, a great lover and connoisseur of horses, argued with his friends, who did not believe that a racehorse lifts all four legs during its movement. To convince them otherwise, Stanford invited Muybridge and instructed him to film all the phases of the horse's movement. The task was far from easy. To fulfill the task, Muybridge installed several cameras along the race track, the shutters of which he connected to threads stretched across the track. Running past the camera, the horse tore the threads and took a picture. As a result of many experiments, Muybridge managed to get several successful photographs, in which the individual phases of the horse's movement were filmed. By the way, it turned out that Stanford was absolutely right - the horse really, when going into a gallop, pushed off the ground with all its legs and, as it were, took off into the air. The millionaire won his bet, and Muybridge continued his work and soon became famous all over the world for his wonderful pictures of moving objects. Later, having made an appropriate selection, Muybridge pasted photographs on a stroboscope, rotating which one could observe, for example, an acrobat doing a jump over his head, a deer running, a horse race, and similar scenes.
These were the first steps of instant photography. The imperfection of technology created many difficulties for lovers of this type of photographic art, because it was impossible to film the movement itself. The cameras of that time made it possible to shoot only the object that was directly in front of the lens, that is, moving along a known line. Only in this case it was possible to place several cameras along this line, as Muybridge did, sometimes using up to several dozen cameras. This circumstance extremely narrowed the possibilities of chronophotography. In 1882, the French physiologist Etienne Marais, who studied the flight of birds and insects, figured out how to get out of this difficulty: he created a special photographic gun that made it possible to capture individual successive phases of continuous movement with considerable speed. A moving mechanism similar to a clock was placed in the gun. When the trigger was pressed, the mechanism began to rotate the plate, on which 12 shots were taken per second. Thus, Marey filmed the flight of birds. He was the first to solve the problem of capturing movement with a single apparatus.
Shooting for a record was a complex and time-consuming affair. Therefore, a major event in the history of photography and a significant step towards the creation of cinema was the invention of film. Back in 1877, the outstanding Polish photographer Lev Varnerke (most of his life was spent in Russia and England) invented the world's first roller camera with a silver bromide colloidal paper tape. In 1886, the French photographer Augustine Prens assembled a chronophotographic apparatus with 16 lenses, adapted to capture the successive phases of movement. Here, for the first time in the history of chronophotography, a light-sensitive paper tape was used, which was wound on a drum in the same way as it was in a camera with rollers, passed behind the lens and wound on another drum. 16 lenses were arranged in four rows, and each had its own shutter. Prens also succeeded in projecting the captured image onto a screen. Tapes for chronophotographic devices (as later for film cameras) were prepared in exactly the same way as in ordinary photography, that is, first they received a negative (an image with a reverse arrangement of light and shadow), and then a positive was printed from it onto another tape. But due to the fact that the tape is long, the processing technology itself was quite different from ordinary photography.) Prens was the first to bring the idea of cinema to life - he could not only shoot movement, but also project it onto the screen. But all his equipment was still very primitive. The projection apparatus also had 16 lenses. To rewind the tape, Prens came up with the idea of cutting special holes along its edge - perforations, into which the teeth of the wheel of the tape drive mechanism fell. However, paper, due to its rough, opaque structure, was an unsuitable material for photography. In addition, when rewinding, it often broke. Photographic film needed a flexible, strong and at the same time completely transparent material. It was these properties that celluloid possessed - one of the first plastics in the history, synthesized in 1868 by the American chemist Hayet. In 1884, John Carbut began to manufacture celluloid photographic plates, and from 1889 George Eastman began to use flexible celluloid photographic film in cameras. After that, chronophotography began to develop rapidly. In 1888, German photographer Ottomar Anschütz invented an instantaneous curtain shutter that could shoot at shutter speeds up to one thousandth of a second. The introduction of this shutter has greatly facilitated high-speed shooting. Now there was no need to create complex cameras with 12-16 lenses, but you could get by with just one. In 1888, Prince received an English patent for an apparatus with one lens and paper tape (he soon replaced it with celluloid). This apparatus took from 10 to 12 images per second. In the same year, Marey abandoned the movable rigid plate and began to use a long paper tape with a photosensitive layer, which made it possible to capture individual slow movements. In 1889, Prens created a projection apparatus with a single lens and an arc lamp. So, at the end of the 80s, almost all the difficulties that faced Du Mont at one time were successfully resolved. The last thing remained - the creation of a jump mechanism, since the uniform movement of the tape during shooting did not give a high-quality image of the movement. The first primitive jump mechanism in history was invented in England. English photographer William Friese-Greene worked on the same problem as Marey and Prens. Like them, he first used photosensitive paper tape, which he provided with perforations along the edges. Since the paper tape was torn, in his chronophotographic apparatus in 1889 Friese-Greene first used the recently appeared perforated celluloid film. Then he included a jump mechanism in the design of the apparatus.
The film at Friese-Green came from the supply drum to the receiving one. The latter, with the help of a handle rotated by hand, was set in continuous motion. The arm carrying the rotating roller was driven by the helical cam and assumed the position shown by the dotted lines; as it moved, it pulled down the film, which then remained stationary while the roller moved away under the action of a spring. Simultaneously with the departure of the shoulder, the shutter was opened by means of the same spiral cam. The latter was constructed on a shaft driven by hand. Each rotation thus exposed a single frame of film. As early as 1889 Friese-Greene made his first film in Hyde Park and showed it at a photographic convention in Towne Hall. In 1890, his films were shown publicly at the Royal Photographic Society. Friese-Green's film camera, with its perforated celluloid tape, had all the elements of cinematography except for the technically perfect film-jumping mechanism. However, his devices were very complex and in this form could not be widely used. Moreover, almost nothing was known about his invention outside of England. In the mid-90s, several inventors at once approached the creation of cinema. In 1893, Edison created his Kinetoscope. This device was a box with an eyepiece through which the viewer looked. A frosted glass was visible through the eyepiece, onto which the image captured on film was projected from below. In the same year, Edison organized his own studio, in which the first films on the American continent were shot - short, 20-30 second demonstrations. The length of the tape did not exceed 15 m. Famous dancers, acrobats and trained animals were filmed in this studio. In April 1894, the first kinetoscope salon was opened in New York on Broadway. After paying 25 cents for admission, the audience walked along the row of kinetoscopes and looked through the eyepieces, and the employee turned on the kinetoscopes one by one. Edison soon made the kinetoscope automatic - the machine began to operate after lowering a coin worth 5 cents into the slot. Without a doubt, the Kinetoscope was an outstanding technical achievement. But still it was not cinema yet. He did not have a jump mechanism. Meanwhile, the main part of the cinema, the "heart" of the filming and film projection apparatus was precisely the jump mechanism for a quick, intermittent change of images. The invention of a perfect jump mechanism, which made it possible, at a fixed frequency, to carry out simultaneously rapid intermittent movement of individual moving images and their instantaneous stop, was the event that marked the birth of cinema. In 1893, Marey created a new chronophotographic apparatus with celluloid film. The film here moved intermittently, making instantaneous stops at a rate of 20 separate shots per second. However, the intermittent motion mechanism was extremely primitive. It consisted of an electromagnet and pressure rollers. At the moment the shutter was released, the roller was attracted and stopped the film. The operation of this mechanism was very crude, so Murray's apparatus cannot be considered technically satisfactory. Nevertheless, in the same year, Marey made some wonderful films about the movement of living beings. In 1894, Georges Demeny created the first perfect movie camera with a jump mechanism. This jump mechanism was a disk with a "finger" rotating clockwise.
In 1895, the brothers Auguste and Louis Lumiere patented their film projector and camera, using a grab (“fork”) as a jump mechanism. In the summer and autumn of the same year, they made ten short films of 16 meters, which formed the basis for commercial screenings in late 1895 and early 1896. In December 1895, the first cinema was opened in the basement of the "Grand Cafe" on the Boulevard des Capucines in Paris. Judging strictly in fact, the grab is the only original invention of the Lumières, and not the most successful one at that (already in 1896, the grab was replaced by another, more advanced jump mechanism - the Maltese cross). However, it was on their device that the loudest glory fell. During the first half of 1896, the Lumiere cinema was shown in all European capitals and was a huge success.
In April 1896, Victor Contensuza and Bünzli were the first to use the four-bladed Maltese cross, the type of jump mechanism that predominates in modern motion picture cameras, in motion picture cameras. Contensuza had a small business in Paris and was an experienced mechanic. He designed several movie cameras for the famous Pate film company. The four-blade Maltese system consists of a driving disk, which has one pin (eccentric), and a driven disk, equipped with four slots. When moving, the pin of the driving disk enters the slot of the driven disk and rotates it 90 degrees. In this case, the gear drum rotates 1/4 of a turn. The driven disk makes four stops during one revolution, and the duration of the stop is three times the movement time. The four-bladed cross is connected to a jump toothed drum that moves the film. The standing frame is determined by the time required to rotate the drive disk 270 degrees. After that, the finger re-enters the next slot of the four-bladed cross and again turns it 1/4 turn. Thus, intermittent motion of the film occurs.
Since its inception, cinema has gained immense popularity. The comparative cheapness of tickets and the rapid growth of the cinema network have put it in first place among all public entertainment. Early cinematography was still very imperfect: the pictures flickered heavily, the image jumped across the screen, it was often quite dark, but still the audience was delighted with these films and poured into the cinemas. The commercial success of the new invention exceeded all expectations. (The capital of one of the first film companies, Pate, grew 14 times in just 30 years - from 1 million to 30 million francs.) Author: Ryzhov K.V.
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