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BIG ENCYCLOPEDIA FOR CHILDREN AND ADULTS
What happens if you chew on a pencil? Detailed answer
Directory / Big encyclopedia. Questions for quiz and self-education Did you know? What happens if you chew on a pencil? Nothing wrong - except that you will be reprimanded. The pencils do not contain lead - and never have. They contain graphite, one of six pure forms of carbon - no more poisonous than the wood it is wrapped in. Even paint today is made without lead. All this confusion comes from the fact that for more than 2000 years, pointed graphite, which in English is denoted by the same word as lead, has been used to draw on papyrus and paper - lead. The world's only deposit of pure solid graphite was discovered by accident in 1564 in the town of Borrow Dale, in the county of Cumbria. It was guarded by the strictest laws and armed guards, and mining was allowed only six weeks a year. The "black graphite" mined at the mine was cut into thin rectangular bars, from which the leads of the first pencils were made. The English pencil quickly caught on throughout Europe. The first person mentioned in written documents to use a pencil was the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner in 1565. Henry David Thoreau, the author of the famous "Walden" was the first American who fired graphite with clay and got a pencil lead. However, the real commercial breakthrough came in 1827, when Joseph Dixon of Salem, Massachusetts, introduced a machine that began the mass production of rectangular graphite pencils at a speed of 132 per minute. By the time of the inventor's death in 1869, the Joseph Dixon Crucible Company had become the world leader, producing 86 round pencils a day. Today the company (currently known as Dixon Ticonderoga) is still one of the world's leading pencil manufacturers. Roald Dahl wrote all his books with a medium hard yellow Dixon Ticonderoga pencil. The traditional yellow pencil dates back to 1890, when Joseph Hardmuth produced the very first one at his factory in Prague, naming it after the world-famous Kohinoor yellow diamond owned by Queen Victoria (who, in turn, dubbed Hardmuth's elite product line "Kohinore of pencils"). Other manufacturers simply copied the idea. Today, 75% of all pencils sold in America are yellow. An average pencil can be sharpened seventeen times and can be used to write 45 words or draw a straight line 56 km long. The elastic at the opposite end of the pencil is held in place by a device known as a ferrule. A patent for it was first issued in 1858, but in schools, pencils with an eraser were not very popular: according to teachers, they encouraged laziness. The "rubber band" on most pencils is made from vegetable oil with a small amount of real rubber added as a binder. Author: John Lloyd, John Mitchinson
Who and against whom fought in the Battle of Culloden? Basically Scotland vs Scotland. There were more Scots in the army that defeated Pretty Prince Charlie in 1746 than in the Young Pretender's own army. In addition to three battalions of Lowland Scots, the Hanoverian army under the Duke of Cumberland included a well-trained battalion of Highland Scots from the Clan Munro, a large militia contingent from the Highland Clan Campbell and a large number of Highland foot soldiers from the clans Mackay, Ross, Gunn and Grant, who fought under the command of English officers. In the Jacobite army, three-quarters of the personnel were Highland Scots, the rest were Lowland Scots, plus a small contingent from France and Ireland. Scottish Jacobite mythology presents the Battle of Culloden as a battle between Scotland and England, but it was, in fact, a battle between Scotland and Scotland. The Jacobite Rebellion of 1745 began with the victory of the Scottish Highlanders at the Battle of Prestonpan near Edinburgh and the subsequent military invasion of England, as a result of which the Jacobites managed to advance as far as Derby. Given that the bulk of the British troops at that time fought the French in Flanders, the Jacobite breakthrough caused a real panic in London. An emergency plan was even developed for the evacuation of the king to Hanover. The Jacobites, however, failed to win support among the English, and the planned French invasion had to be postponed. Despite a brilliantly orchestrated retreat by Lord George Murray, the army that set out at Culloden was hungry, exhausted from weeks of long marching marches, and poorly armed. Only a quarter of the army was armed with swords. They fought bravely, but within an hour, 1250 Scots were killed on the battlefield. The loss of the Hanoverian army amounted to only fifty-two people. The Duke of Cumberland - since then nicknamed "The Butcher" among the Scots - ordered the execution of all prisoners and the wounded on the battlefield, after which he rode off to Inverness, brandishing a bloody sword. More than 3000 Jacobite sympathizers were arrested, most of them thrown into prison or exiled to colonies. Every twentieth was selected for "demonstrative" executions. The Scottish highlanders were never able to return to their former way of life. The clan system was completely destroyed, and the wearing of national costumes (kilt skirt, tartan plaid and sporran) is prohibited by law. Modern Jacobites still believe that the true line of succession to the English throne is through the Stuarts and their descendants. They proclaim Franz, Duke of Bavaria as King of England, Scotland, France and Ireland. The duke himself maintains a noble silence on the matter.
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