Photovoltaic elements. Encyclopedia of radio electronics and electrical engineering

Encyclopedia of radio electronics and electrical engineering / Alternative energy sources

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Devices for the direct conversion of light or solar energy into electricity are called photocells (in English Photovoltaics, from the Greek photos - light and the name of the unit of electromotive force - volt). The conversion of sunlight into electricity takes place in photovoltaic cells made of a semiconductor material such as silicon, which generate an electric current when exposed to sunlight.

By connecting photovoltaic cells into modules, and those, in turn, with each other, it is possible to build large photovoltaic stations. The largest such station to date is the 5-megawatt Carris Plain installation in the US state of California. The efficiency of photovoltaic installations is currently around 10%, however, individual photovoltaic cells can reach an efficiency of 20% or more.

History

The history of photovoltaic cells dates back to 1839, when the French physicist Edmond Becquerel discovered the photovoltaic effect. This was followed by further discoveries:

• In 1958, small (less than 1 watt) photovoltaic batteries fed the radio transmitter of the American Avangard space satellite. In general, space research has played an important role in the development of solar cells.
• During the oil crisis of 1973-74. Several countries have launched photovoltaic programs at once, leading to the installation and testing of over 3100 photovoltaic systems in the United States alone. Many of them are still in operation.

Photovoltaic market

The current state of the market for photovoltaic cells is characterized by fairly stable growth, about 20% per year, but the production volumes of photocells remain quite low. Module production worldwide in 1998 was about 125 MW, while the price fell from $50/watt in 1 to $1976/watt in 5. However, a kilowatt-hour of electricity generated photovoltaic system is still 1-1999 times more expensive than traditional electricity (depending on the specific location and type of system). Thus, the solar cell market still occupies a small niche in the global economy. But it continues to grow steadily in those market segments where solar cells are competitive, for example, in autonomous systems remote from the power grid.

In many regions of the world, progress is palpable. The Japanese government is investing $250 mln per year to increase production capacity from 40 MW (1997) to 190 MW (2000). European countries are pursuing their own programs, driven by the need for energy independence and environmental considerations. These programs, combined with environmental issues such as climate change, have the potential to greatly accelerate the development of this industry. Shell Solar has built the largest solar cell plant in Germany with an annual output of 10 MW, which is planned to be increased to 25 MW. The cost of building the plant is 50 million German marks.

Advantages

High reliability

Photovoltaic cells were designed for use in space, where repairs are either too expensive or impossible. Until now, photovoltaic cells are the source of power for almost all satellites in Earth orbit, because they work without breakdowns and require almost no maintenance.

Low running costs

Solar cells run on free fuel - solar energy. With no moving parts, they require little maintenance. Cost-effective photovoltaic systems are an ideal source of electricity for communication stations in the mountains, navigation buoys at sea and other consumers located far from power lines.

Environmentally friendly

Since photovoltaic systems do not burn fuel and have no moving parts, they are quiet and clean. This feature is extremely useful where diesel generators and kerosene lamps are the only alternative for obtaining light and power.

Modularity

The photovoltaic system can be brought to any size. The owner of such a system can increase or decrease it if his need for electricity changes. As energy consumption and financial possibilities increase, the homeowner may add modules every few years. Farmers can provide livestock with drinking water using mobile pumping systems.

Low construction costs

Photovoltaic systems are usually located close to the consumer, which means that power lines do not need to be pulled over long distances, as in the case of connecting to power lines. In addition, a step-down transformer is not needed. Fewer wires means lower costs and a shorter installation period.

The cost of electricity generated by a photovoltaic system

Many small photovoltaic systems that power a few light bulbs and a TV are much cheaper than the alternative of extending the power line, replacing and disposing of disposable batteries, or using a diesel generator. The cost of electricity produced at large installations capable of supplying power to a residential building is expressed in the cost of one kWh. It depends on the initial cost of the system, the terms of the loan (to repay the initial cost), the cost of running the system, its expected lifespan, and overall efficiency.

With typical interest rates on loans and an average lifetime, the cost of solar electricity in the US in 1998 was between 20 and 50 cents per kWh.

PV system area

The most common modules (crystalline silicon) produce 100-120 watts per square meter (W/m2). Thus, a one-square-meter module produces enough electricity to power one 100-watt light bulb. On an industrial scale, a photovoltaic plant occupying a square plot of land with a side of about 160 km could provide electricity to the entire United States. The best solution, however, is to place the photovoltaic modules on the roofs of buildings or integrate them into facade walls.

This is a cheaper option, as it saves building materials.

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