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AT LEISURE
To help the erudite. Database on the history, geography, biology, science, technology, sport, culture, traditions of the peoples of the world. According to the materials of the press and the Internet.
Curling is called chess on ice. The key role here is played not by physical training, but by tactical literacy and strategic thinking of all team members. The duel consists of ten micromatches - the so-called ends. Everyone can stretch for several hours. The goal of the end is to place your stone - a special 20 kg projectile sliding on ice - closer to the center of the house (a circle with a diameter of 3,5 meters) than the opponents stone. Even better, if a few shells can be placed closer. For the first time, men's and women's teams competed for 2 sets of medals in Nagano. The women's team of Russia headed by Olga Zharkova passed the preliminary selection for this Winter Olympics. Our girls are not favorites and got to the Olympiad because the Finnish team refused to participate for financial reasons. Sports Today (sports.ru/) The average Russian drinks 15 liters of vodka a year. 2,8 million has an army of Russian officials. This is approximately the population of Armenia or Latvia. Today in Russia there are 424 casinos, 12 sweepstakes, 67 betting shops and more than 2 slot machines. The maximum win in the history of Russia took place in 2001. A family of alcoholics from Ufa won $1 million in the game TV Bingo Show. Only 4 civilian aircraft were produced by Russia in 2000. And one Boeing company - 489 pieces. With a height of 170 centimeters, Russian President Vladimir Putin weighs 65 kilograms. Russia spends about $40 million annually on the maintenance of the president and his administration. Only state dachas at the disposal of GDP are eleven, while the US President has only one. In 420 B.C. the Spartans were fighting with the participation of thousands of heavily armed infantry in the territory of Elis after the declaration of a truce. According to the law, the Spartans were ordered to pay a fine - 200 drachmas for each warrior. The Spartans refused to pay and were banned from the Games. History of the Olympics (bbc.co.uk/ russian/specials/olympics/historyancient .shtml) There is a widespread misconception that the winners of the Olympic Games, apart from the olive branch and the glory of the Olympic hero, received nothing. The word athlete itself is translated from ancient Greek as one who competes for a prize and comes from two other Greek words - atlos (competition) and atlon (prize). History of the Olympics (bbc.co.uk/ russian/specials/olympics/historyancient .shtml) The first political scandal around the Olympics arose in 1896. Black athletes were not allowed to participate in the competitions, personally organized by the founder of the Olympic movement, Pierre de Coubertin. They performed at the parallel Anthropological Games. Olympic scandals: 1896 - 2002 Things reached the level of interstate disputes in 1956, when the games in Melbourne were boycotted by China (due to the fact that a delegation from Taiwan was invited to the Olympics), as well as the Netherlands, Switzerland and Spain, the governments, which thus opposed the invasion of Soviet troops in Hungary. By the way, at the same games, Hungarian and Soviet water polo players openly called each other fascists and even fought right in the pool. Olympic scandals: 1896 - 2002 In 1908, a US delegation participating in the London Olympics complained that there were too many British referees at the games, who allegedly tipped off their own. In fairness, it must be said that at that time the British team really collected a record harvest of medals. Olympic scandals: 1896 - 2002 At the 1900 Olympics in Paris, those spectators who attended the track and field competitions were close to death when the champion discus thrower Rudolf Bauer from Hungary sent a projectile into the crowd of spectators in all three attempts. History of the Olympics (bbc.co.uk/ russian/specials/olympics/historyancient .shtml) Travel costs became a big topic of conversation at the 1932 Olympics: the International Olympic Committee suspended Olympic legend Paavo Nurmi from the games after learning he had violated the strict code of an amateur athlete. A Finnish athlete, shortly before the Olympics, asked to be paid travel expenses for a trip to a tournament in Germany. Thus, the IOC did not allow Paavo Nurmi to increase his impressive collection of 12 Olympic medals. History of the Olympics (bbc.co.uk/ russian/specials/olympics/historyancient .shtml) An example of an outstanding musical self-sacrifice: J.-S. Bach traveled over 4000 miles as a young man to hear Buxtehude play the organ. Usually the works of composers are numbered as follows: op. (i.e. opus) 123. However, in some cases, the letters BWV, D, K, L, P are used. These letters are given by the names of researchers who systematized the work of a particular composer. For example, for I.-S. Bach is BWV, Bach-Werke-Verzeichhis, who published the catalog of Bach's work; for Schubert - D, Otto Erich Deutsch, for Vivaldi - R, Mark Pincherl for Mozart - K, that is, Ludwig Kechel (musicians even joke that Mozart wrote not opuses, but kekhels). Mendelssohn wrote all his best works, such as the Octet or the overture from the music to the play A Midsummer Night's Dream, when he was about seventeen. P.I. Tchaikovsky died after drinking unboiled water. Brahms was known in society as a rather rude person who constantly walked at Wagner at parties and could fall asleep at a Liszt concert. He often conducted with one hand in his pocket and jingling the coins he had received in advance. His hobby was collecting tin soldiers. Chopin spoke of Liszt as follows: A magnificent bookbinder who collected works of other people under one cover. By doing this, he had in mind Liszt's well-established reputation as a recognized arranger, two-thirds of whose collected works consist of works arranged by him, created by other composers. Vivaldi composed about 450 concertos. According to one unfriendly critic, Vivaldi spent his life composing the same concerto in five hundred variations. Richard Strauss (the same one who wrote the overture to the symphonic poem Thus Spoke Zarathustra, which was used as a musical theme song in the TV game What? Where? When?) was constantly attacked by critics. One of the representatives of this profession called his music boorish and aesthetically criminal, while another suggested that Strauss should have been orchestrating bank transactions, not melodies. A Brief History of World Censorship Throughout human history, society has been forbidden to know anything. The censors have always motivated their actions by fighting disbelief, pornography, vices and harmful ideas. 605 BC e. - Most likely, this is the first of the officially documented cases of censorship: the king of Judea, Joachim, ordered to burn the book of prophecies of the prophet Jeremiah. Perhaps this act of Joachim was also the beginning of the practice of self-censorship - there is an opinion that the biblical authors, after the story of Jeremiah, began to use hints and omissions more actively. 443 BC e. - Censors come to the world: two new employees appear in the city magistrate of Rome - censors. In addition to monitoring the fulfillment of city orders and maintaining a list of Roman citizens, they are engaged in the fight against violations of morality. 399 BC e. - The first case of the use of the death penalty as an extreme form of censorship. The Greek philosopher Socrates is forced to take poison. He was one of the first philosophers to consistently argue for the importance of free speech. 213 BC e. - The first case of total censorship. Emperor of China Qin Shi Huang-di (he, in particular, built the Great Wall of China) issued an unprecedented decree. He ordered the destruction of all books on science, medicine, agriculture and divination (fortune telling was also considered a science). Approximately 500 scientists were executed, several thousand were repressed. 48 BC e. - The first case of destruction of the library. The Roman commander Julius Caesar, for military reasons, ordered the burning of the largest collection of books of the ancient world - the Library of Alexandria (Egypt), as a result of which approximately 700 thousand books were irretrievably lost. Approximately 400 years later, the restored library was destroyed by the edict of the Roman emperor Theodosius (the Christian emperor ordered the library to be burned because it contained the works of pagan authors). Three centuries later, the library was for the third time and, this time, completely destroyed by order of Caliph Omar, who said: If these books contradict the Koran, then they are harmful. If these books contain what the Qur'an contains, they are useless. 499 - A special list of prohibited books is created for the first time. Under the leadership of Pope Gelasius (in other sources he is called Gelasius), the Papal Index \\ Papal Index was created (it still exists), which included the names of books and the names of authors, acquaintance with which was forbidden to Catholics. 1501 - The first case of the prohibition of scientific innovation. Pope Alexander III issued a bull forbidding the printing of books (in Europe, the printing press was invented by Johannes Gutenberg in 1). Thus, the Catholic Church tried to fight the heretics-freethinkers who had gained strength. The Pope expected that copyists of books, the overwhelming majority of them monks, would be much easier to control than lay publishers. 1512 - Perhaps the first widely known case of the struggle between censorship and science. The Polish scientist Nicolaus Copernicus published the book Commentary, proving that the Earth revolves around the Sun. In 1616 the book was listed in the Pontifical Index. Astronomer Galileo Galilei (who is credited with the authorship of the famous phrase And yet it spins!) The Inquisition, in particular, incriminated reading the forbidden book of Copernicus. Galileo's own Dialogues was in the Pontifical Index until 1822. 1541 - A landmark case of the use of censorship in painting - Michelangelo's fresco The Last Judgment in the Sistine Chapel was recognized as immoral by Pope Paul 1U. The artist had to drape the naked characters of the fresco. Religious figures by this time had accumulated significant experience in the destruction of works of ancient culture, as well as censorship of icons, frescoes and stained-glass windows. 1643 - The first case of the introduction of economic censorship. The British Parliament issued the Licensing Act, which regulated the rules for issuing and revoking book publishing licenses. A year later (1644) the great English poet John Milton published his speech against Parliament in defense of the press, the first such speech in world history. Milton demanded: Give me freedom to know! 1735 - The first example of the explicit use of political censorship after the publication of journalistic material. American journalist John Zenger published an article in the New York Weekly Journal criticizing the governor of New York. The governor was offended and ordered the arrest of the critic. 1789 - The first case of legislative protection of freedom of the press: the relevant provisions were included in the Constitution of the French Republic. 1842 - a young German journalist, Karl Marx, published in Switzerland an article Notes on the last Prussian censorship instruction. Marx acted as a fierce defender of freedom of speech and the press. Ironically, all communist regimes that based their ideology on the work of Marx were notorious for their brutal censorship. Marx himself became, perhaps, the author of our time most affected by censorship (of course, he was censored with particular zeal in the capitalist countries). 1856 - The first case of a ban on the book of a writer who was later unconditionally recognized as great (cases when a writer who suffered from censorship has an ambiguous literary reputation - such as the Marquis de Sade - we do not consider here). Gustave Flaubert and his novel Madame Bovary suffered, which later became a bestseller in France and is now considered one of the best examples of a novel of the 1th century. Censorship banned the works of Oscar Wilde, Mark Twain (by the way, he suffered for The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn), Theodore Dreiser, Ernest Hemingway, Aldous Huxley, Sinclair Lewis, Bertrand Russell, Henry Miller, James Joyce, Vladimir Nabokov, etc. The list of philosophers, writers and poets who suffered from censorship in the former USSR includes tens of thousands of names, some of them were or are now world famous. One can recall at least the Nobel Prize winners in literature - Boris Pasternak, Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Joseph Brodsky. However, there are cases when the censors of the twentieth century did not approve of the books of Homer and Shakespeare, the Bible and the Koran. 1861 - For the first time in the world, military censorship was officially introduced. It was established by the US Department of Defense (Northern States) after the outbreak of the Civil War. Journalists were prohibited from publishing information that could benefit the US Confederation (Southern States). Severe punishments threatened those who were at fault, up to the closure of the newspaper and arrest. It should be noted that until 1861, military censorship also tacitly existed in all the armies of the world, but journalists were not yet so influential and numerous, newspapers did not come out in such large circulations, and the telegraph had not yet been invented. The main provisions of this order of officials of the US Department of Defense are now copied by all states that introduce military censorship. 1911 - The first case of large-scale publishing censorship. The American newspaper magnate Hearst owned large tracts of land in Mexico. They were threatened with confiscation. Then Hurst gave the command to start a propaganda campaign to force the United States to declare war on Mexico. Hearst's newspapers published gruesome stories of hundreds of thousands of Mexican soldiers, armed to the teeth, marching towards the US border to destroy all life. The only newspaper that dared to check Hearst's declarations, the Chicago Tribune, sent a reporter to Mexico City. He was horrified: there were no preparations for war with the northern neighbor in Mexico. The reporter wrote a series of correspondence exposing the lies of Hearst's newspapers, but could not publish half of them. It is curious that William Randolph Hearst became the hero of another censorship scandal. In 1941, the 25-year-old director Orson Welles \\ Orson Welles directed the film Citizen Kane according to his script, in which the main character (a powerful scoundrel and scoundrel) had recognizable traits of a magnate. Hearst's newspapers and radio stations began a real persecution of this film: they blackmailed Wells, forced theater owners to refuse to rent Citizen Kane, threatened film managers and owners with the publication of revealing materials about the morals of Hollywood, etc. Nevertheless, the film managed to be shown to the general public. Citizen Kane is now considered one of the best films of all time. 1918 - Creation of socialist censorship: the corresponding decree was signed by Vladimir Lenin. The decree noted that the closure of bourgeois newspapers and publishing houses was a temporary measure, and after the final victory of Soviet power, censorship would be abolished. As history has shown, the temporary measure has successfully lasted seven decades. 1925 - The first lawsuit about the use of censorship in school education. Schoolteacher Don Skops \ John T. Scopes was accused by officials of the state of Tennessee (USA) of teaching forbidden and blasphemous theories - this meant the theory of the origin of species and evolution of Charles Darwin. The Skops series of trials was called the monkey trials, because the jury was especially outraged that, according to Darwin's theory, man descended from apes. 1935 - The first case of the destruction of books on a national basis. The German Nazis began the targeted destruction of books written by non-Aryan authors. Along the way, harmful ideological works created by the Aryans were also destroyed. 1937 - 1938 - The first cases of censorship carried out by the concerted efforts of large associations of private entrepreneurs. In 1937, the American physician Claire Straith analyzed car accidents and concluded that the main cause of the enormous number of injuries and deaths was the negligence of car manufacturers. They did not pay attention to ensuring the safety of drivers and passengers. The doctor's attempts to publish the findings of his study failed - US auto magnates blocked all publications. It was not until decades later that Claire Strait was proven right: cars were required to be equipped with seat belts and airbags, shock absorbers, appropriate testing of cars became mandatory, and so on. In 1938, tobacco manufacturers blocked the publication of a study proving that 44% of lung cancers were caused by smoking. Despite the decrease in the number of smokers, according to the World Bank, today there are 500 million people in the world who will die due to diseases caused by smoking, each year tobacco causes 10 million deaths. No one knows how many lives could have been saved if the public had learned in time about the findings of scientists. 1947 - Charlie Chaplin's film Monsieur Verdoux was banned from showing in the USA (already then Chaplin was considered a living classic of cinema). 1963 - The first high-profile example of total censorship of the results of an open criminal investigation. The press was never able to get access to the materials of the so-called Warren Commission, which investigated the assassination of US President Robert Kennedy. In the mid-90s, prosecutor Warren's investigation material became the basis for Oliver Stone's famous film G.F.K. To this day, much of the material on the Kennedy assassination remains inaccessible to the public. 1987 - Mikhail Gorbachev, head of the USSR, announced the beginning of the policy of glasnost. Some censorship slingshots that existed in the USSR were destroyed. It is curious that shortly after this decision by Gorbachev, Soviet newspapers and magazines, as being too radical, were banned from being imported into some socialist countries, in particular the GDR and Romania. 1988 - The first case in modern history of the death penalty for a literary work. English writer (a native of Pakistan) Salman Rushdie\Salman Rushdie published the book The Satanic Verses. Islamic organizations considered it blasphemous and blasphemous. In 1989, the spiritual leader of Iran, Ayatollah Khomeini, announced that the writer should be killed. Three months after the decision was made, Khomeini died, but in 1994 the leaders of Iran officially confirmed that Rushdie's death sentence was still in effect. Until now, the writer lives under the protection of special services, and bookstores selling his books are facing pressure from Islamic extremists. 1990 - For the first time, a museum became a victim of censorship. The Contemporary Art Center in Cincinnati, USA, has been sued for exhibiting photographs that censors deemed pornographic. 1999 - For the first time an attempt was made to censor the Global Internet Network (the principle is popular: the Internet does not belong to anyone). In a number of countries (China, Saudi Arabia, Iran), government agencies have made serious efforts to technically block user access to certain servers and sites, mainly of a political, religious or pornographic nature. Almost all countries of the former USSR tried to censor the Internet. This is usually explained by the need to ensure the security of the state and the protection of morality.
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