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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Enterprise economy. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
1. ENTERPRISE AS THE MOST IMPORTANT SECTOR OF THE MARKET ECONOMY Company is an independent economic entity with the right of a legal entity, created in the manner prescribed by law, for the production of products, performance of work and provision of services in order to meet public needs and make a profit. Enterprises differ in conditions, goals and nature of functioning. They are classified according to the type and nature of economic activity, forms of ownership, ownership of capital and control over it, legal status and other features. Small businesses have significant advantages over large firms. They are characterized by: high dynamism, maneuverability, competitive nature of production and its democratization. Small enterprises: create new jobs, revive folk crafts, promote the economic and social development of small towns. In practice, types of enterprise associations have developed, which differ depending on the goals of the association, economic relations between their participants, and the degree of independence of the enterprises included in the association. These are cartels, syndicates, pools, trusts, concerns, industrial holdings, FIGs. As a subject of study, the enterprise includes all areas of activity inherent in society: material; social; political; spiritual. material realm covers the entire production process. Social sphere - this is the process of remuneration of employees of the enterprise and the whole gamut of relations between various categories of workers. Political sphere enterprise is a set of forms and methods of enterprise management, including a system of power and elected structures, with a known regulation of their functioning. Spiritual realm is a system for obtaining and disseminating aesthetic and professional knowledge, skills and ideas, as well as ideas and spiritual and cultural values. The external side of the enterprise's activity is determined by relations with suppliers, consumers of the enterprise's products, partners and rivals (competitors), creditors, government agencies. The enterprise does not exist outside the surrounding economic environment. The most important characteristic of an enterprise, which determines the form of its economic activity, is the degree of economic freedom (independence). Complete economic freedom (independence) on the basis of private property is manifested in the following: 1) complete independence of the enterprise: in the disposal of manufactured products, profits, setting prices for products, wages, choosing partners, etc .; 2) full economic responsibility for the results of economic activity, up to bankruptcy; 3) the presence, along with the common goal - profit maximization - of local production goals: ensuring survival, conquering the market, etc., i.e., freedom of goal setting. Relative economic freedom on the basis of state and municipal property is manifested in the following: 1) limited independence of the enterprise, regulated by the supervising department and the government; 2) limited liability of the enterprise, expressed in state support in the form of subsidies, subsidies, tax benefits, etc.; 3) subordination of the goal of production to the economic goals (interests) of the state. 2. ENTREPRENEURSHIP: FORMS AND METHODS OF ORGANIZING BUSINESS ACTIVITIES Entrepreneurial activity - expedient independent activity of citizens and their associations, which has as its goal the production and sale of certain types of products, works and services and profit from this activity. By the nature of the activity, entrepreneurship includes several forms: - commercial business. The entrepreneur acts as a merchant, a trader who sells finished goods purchased by him from other persons to the consumer, the buyer; - financial entrepreneurship. This is a form of commercial enterprise in which money or securities act as the subject of sale; - non-profit business. This type of business is not associated with the sale of products for the sake of enrichment. These include: charitable activities, activities of various foundations, public and religious organizations; - manufacturing business. The entrepreneur himself produces products, goods for subsequent sale to consumers or trade organizations; - insurance business. With this type of business, insurance companies, in accordance with the law and the contract, guarantee the insurers compensation for damage in the event of a risk of loss of property, health, life and other types of losses; - mediation. The entrepreneur himself does not produce or sell the goods, but acts as an intermediary, which is represented by wholesale supply and marketing organizations, brokers, dealers, distributors, stock exchanges and commercial organizations. Entrepreneurial activity is classified according to various characteristic features: - according to the form of ownership - to private and state; - on the grounds of legality - on legal, illegal entrepreneurship, pseudo-entrepreneurship. Illegal business - this is the implementation of entrepreneurial activity without registration or in violation of the rules of registration. Pseudo-entrepreneurship - this is the creation of a commercial organization without the intention to carry out entrepreneurial or banking activities with the aim of obtaining loans, exempting from taxes, deriving other property benefits or covering up prohibited activities that caused large damage to citizens and organizations; - on a geographical basis - local, regional, national, international, world; - according to the composition of the founders - for women and youth; - by the pace of development, the level of profitability and profitability - for fast-growing, slowly increasing the pace of development of companies, highly profitable, low-profitable; - in terms of the scale of initiative activity, entrepreneurship is divided into individual (any creative activity of one person and his family) and collective (when some team is engaged in initiative), it includes small, medium and large businesses; - by the number of personnel - small and medium; - by forms of responsibility - to organizations with full joint and several liability; - according to the mechanism of creation, functioning and management processes - into simple and complex business organizations. 3. ECONOMIC MECHANISM, FORMS, METHODS AND PERFORMANCE INDICATORS OF THE ENTERPRISE economic mechanism - this is a set of organizational structures and specific forms of management, management methods and legal norms, with the help of which society uses economic laws, taking into account the specific situation. The organizational structures of economic entities are selected in accordance with the functions of the enterprise or organization, the characteristics of their activities, the range of products and services, the specifics of the market, etc. The organizational structure is a logical correlation of management levels and functional structures organized in such a way as to ensure the effective achievement of goals. The organizational structures of enterprises include a number of subsystems they are: strategic management; marketing management; manufacturing control; personnel Management; financial management; production development management. Managment structure - this is an organizational form of building the management apparatus, which characterizes the composition and subordination of management units and officials, formed on the basis of the goals of the enterprise. Control function - this is a specific purposeful type of managerial activity, due to the division of labor in the management apparatus. Legal entities that are commercial organizations may be created in the form of economic partnerships and companies (including joint-stock companies), production cooperatives, state and municipal unitary enterprises. Methods of managing business entities subdivided into economic, administrative, socio-psychological. The legal norms on the basis of which economic entities carry out their activities are established by the state. These are tax, customs, labor, environmental legislation, etc. All of the above is reflected in performance indicators of enterprises. The main indicators include the following. 1. Absolute indicators (value and natural), reflecting the level of development of the enterprise achieved in a certain period of time, i.e.: authorized capital, capital; the size and composition of the means of labor; the size and composition of the objects of labor; volume of sales; production cost; profit. 2. Relative indicators - ratios of absolute indicators characterizing the share of one indicator in another, or as ratios of heterogeneous indicators. These include: - profit per unit cost of fixed assets, costs or authorized capital; - productivity; - capital-labor ratio; - profitability, etc. Labor productivity - the productivity of people's production activities. Capital-labor ratio is an indicator of the equipment with the main production facilities. Profitability - the ratio of balance sheet profit to the average annual cost of fixed and normalized working capital. In market conditions, controlled indicators should be: sales proceeds; volume of sales; the amount of capital; the amount of net profit; the share of exports in turnover, etc. 4. EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE ENTERPRISE External environment is the process by which strategic planners monitor factors external to the organization to identify opportunities and threats to the firm. It helps to obtain results that can influence decision-making in the field of choosing goals, as well as all the activities of the enterprise in the future. Analyzing the environment gives an organization time to anticipate opportunities, time to plan for contingencies, time to develop an early warning system for possible threats, and time to develop strategies that can turn past threats into any profitable opportunity. The analysis of the external environment involves the study of its two components: the macro environment and the immediate environment. Macroenvironment - these are the general conditions of the environment where the organization is located. In most cases, the macro environment is not specific to a single organization. However, the degree of influence of the state of the macro environment on different organizations is different. The organization's macro environment includes: economic conditions in the country, region; political conditions; right; technology level; international relations; social and cultural environment; natural and geographical conditions; market; state. The analysis of the macro environment includes the study of the impact on the activities of the enterprise of such components of the environment as the state of the economy, legal regulation, political processes, the natural environment and resources, the social and cultural components of society, the level of development of scientific and technological progress, infrastructure, international position, etc. The immediate environment is analyzed according to the following main components: buyers, suppliers, competitors, labor market, financial and credit organizations, etc. Any of these resources is very important for the effective operation of the organization. Therefore, a qualitative strategic analysis of each noted resource as a factor in the immediate environment of the organization, as well as their systemic multivariate analysis as a whole, is the priority goal of the strategic analysis subsystem and all strategic planning. The immediate environment includes buyers and suppliers. Studying buyers allows an organization to better understand which product will be most accepted by customers, how much sales the organization can expect, how much buyers are committed to the product of this particular organization, how much it can expand the circle of potential buyers, what the product expects in the future, and much more. . Supplier analysis is focused on identifying those aspects in the activities of entities that supply the organization with various raw materials, semi-finished products, energy and information resources, finance, etc., on which the efficiency of the organization, the cost and quality of the product produced by the organization depend. When studying suppliers of materials and components, first of all, you should pay attention to the following characteristics of their activities: - the cost of the goods supplied; - a guarantee of the quality of the delivered goods; - time schedule for the delivery of goods; - punctuality and obligatory fulfillment of the terms of delivery of goods. 5. FACTORS OF PRODUCTION Any enterprise can be represented as a production system in which the transformation of production factors into a finished product (product or service) is carried out. Factors of production - these are the main components used in the production process of products, works, services. Labor - this is a contribution to the production process made by people in the form of a direct expenditure of mental and physical effort. Lands - these are resources used for growing agricultural products, building houses, cities and towns, railways, enterprises, etc. Capital (tools), or "investment resource", - this is money invested in the means of production - buildings, structures, production equipment, tools, raw materials, materials, etc. Entrepreneurial activity and ability - human properties and their real manifestation, consisting in professionalism, skill, mobility, enterprise, initiative. Entrepreneurial ability - the ability of people to combine all factors of production to create goods or services with the greatest efficiency, to make basic decisions on the conduct of the production process and take risks. From the standpoint of a systematic approach organization is a set of enterprise structure as a system and ways of functioning of its elements. The structure also expresses a certain interaction of elements, ensuring the functioning and development of the enterprise. The organization is directly related to the concept of management. Distinguish between the production and organizational structure of the enterprise. Under the production structure of the enterprise usually understood as the composition and size of the main and auxiliary workshops and areas of service facilities for industrial purposes. The main factors influencing the production structure are: 1) the nature of the products and its nomenclature; 2) scale of production; 3) the level of cooperation. Organizational structure of the enterprise - this is the composition and size of organizational units (workplace, department, service), their correlation, forms of construction and rational division of areas of activity. Technology - this is a way of converting the main factors of production (raw materials, materials) into a finished product; this is a set of various operations to change the size, properties, shapes of objects of labor, methods of processing them and manufacturing products in the production process. The means of performing the technological process are technological equipment, technological equipment and special devices. Scientific and technical progress put forward information as an indispensable factor of production, which is necessary both as a condition for the operation of a system of machines and equipment, which includes a control device, and as a prerequisite for a successful finished product (service). 6. TYPES OF ENTERPRISES Enterprises are economic agents or persons operating in a market economy, engaged in the production, sale of goods and services in order to make a profit and maximize it. A small enterprise is an economic unit characterized by a small number of employees and an insignificant volume of turnover. Company - an independent economic entity with the right of a legal entity, using material and information resources for the production of products, performance of work and provision of services. They are classified according to the type and nature of economic activity, forms of ownership, ownership of capital and control over it, legal status and other features. There are the following types of enterprises. By type of economic activity: production; research and production; construction; transport; agricultural; trade, etc. By form of ownership: state; municipal; private; owned by public organizations; mixed. By the size of the enterprise (by the capacity of the production potential): small; medium; large. By ownership of capital: national; foreign; mixed. By degree of responsibility: with full responsibility; with limited liability. By organizational and legal forms: joint-stock company; limited liability company; additional liability company; general partnership; fellowship of faith; unitary enterprise, etc. According to the structure of production: - multidisciplinary; - highly specialized; - combined. By type of product: - enterprises for the production of goods; - service providers. In order to expand their capabilities and coordinate activities, enterprises can unite into concerns, trusts, holdings, syndicates, intersectoral associations, etc. Concern - this is a large association of companies that operate on a voluntary association of the functions of scientific, technical and industrial development, investment, financial, foreign economic and other activities, self-supporting services for enterprises. Trust - this is a form of associations of enterprises, in which they lose their legal and economic independence, and management is concentrated in the hands of the board or the head enterprise. Holding is a company that owns a controlling stake in other firms in order to exercise control and management functions over them. Syndicate - is the association of two or more owners or firms to achieve a specific narrow goal. In the economy of any country, the dominant position is occupied by large economic complexes, represented by powerful industrial companies, which are often called financial-industrial groups (FIGs). FIG - an economic association of enterprises, credit and financial organizations and investment institutions, created with the aim of conducting joint coordinated activities. 7. ORGANIZATIONAL AND LEGAL FORMS OF ENTERPRISES, THEIR FEATURES Enterprise (firm, organization) - is an independent business entity, created in the manner prescribed by applicable law, producing products, providing services and performing work in order to meet public needs and make a profit. Most often, an enterprise has the characteristics of a legal entity, that is, it owns separate property and is liable for its obligations with this property, has an independent balance sheet. Entities - these are organizations whose activities are aimed at making a profit, i.e. commercial organizations, and organizations that do not have profit as their ultimate goal, i.e. non-profit organizations. It is allowed to create associations, unions of commercial and non-profit organizations. Business partnerships and companies are commercial organizations with authorized capital divided into shares of the founders. Business partnerships are created in the form of full partnerships, the participants are engaged in entrepreneurial activities and are liable with their property, and in the form of a limited partnership, which includes two types of participants: "general partners" who carry out entrepreneurial activities on behalf of the partnership and are liable for the obligations of the partnership with all their property , and one or more "contributors" who do not participate in the management of the affairs of the partnership and bear the risk of losses associated with the activities of the partnership, only within the limits of the amounts they have contributed. Limited Liability Company (LLC) is a commercial organization established by one or more persons, the authorized capital of which is divided into shares in accordance with the constituent documents. Additional Liability Company (ALC) is an enterprise whose participants are jointly and severally liable for obligations in the same multiple for all of the value of their contributions. Joint Stock Company (JSC) is a commercial organization, the authorized capital of which is divided into a certain number of shares, each of which is expressed by a security (share) that satisfies the obligations of the company's participants (shareholders) in relation to the company. JSC participants are not liable for the obligations of the company and bear the risk of losses only to the extent of the value of their shares. There are AO open and closed type. OJSCs have the right to conduct a public subscription for their shares; shareholders may alienate shares without the consent of other shareholders. CJSC is not entitled to conduct an open subscription for issued shares or offer them in other ways to an unlimited number of persons. Production cooperatives - These are voluntary associations of citizens on the basis of membership for joint production or other economic activities. State and municipal unitary enterprises are commercial organizations that are not endowed with the right of ownership to the property assigned to them by the owner, which is owned by the Russian Federation, constituent entities of the Russian Federation or local authorities. Non-profit organizations include: consumer cooperatives; public and religious organizations; funds. 8. GENERAL PARTNERSHIP Full partnership - this is a partnership in which its participants, in accordance with the agreement concluded between them, are engaged in entrepreneurial activities on behalf of the partnership and must be jointly and severally liable for the obligations of the partnership with the property belonging to the participants in the partnership, i.e. the creditor of the partnership may present a property claim in full as at the same time to to all comrades, and to any of them. The minimum number of participants in a general partnership is two, the maximum number is any. If one participant remains in the partnership, then it is either reorganized into a business company or liquidated. A general partnership is based on the shared (share) ownership of its participants. The minimum share capital of a general partnership is at least 100 times the minimum wage (SMIC) as of the date of submission of constituent documents for registration. The founding document of a general partnership is the memorandum of association, which reflects all aspects of economic life. Defined: - the procedure for creating a partnership; - conditions for the transfer of his property to him; - conditions and procedure for the distribution of profits and losses between partners; - the procedure for managing the activities of the partnership; - the procedure for the withdrawal of founders from its composition; - the size and composition of the share capital. The organization of a full partnership implies a high degree of trust of its participants in each other and is based on the principles of full and joint liability. Participants have to answer for all the obligations of the enterprise not only with the property of the partnership, but also with their personal property. The profit received by the partnership at the end of the financial year is divided among the participants in accordance with contributions to the share capital. In practice, the following methods of conducting business of a general partnership are implemented: - each participant of such a partnership independently conducts business activities on behalf of the partnership; - participants in the partnership jointly conduct the affairs of the partnership, i.e. all transactions on behalf of the partnership are made only on the basis of a joint decision of all participants in the partnership; - the conduct of the affairs of the partnership is carried out by one of the participants on the basis of instructions from other partners; the rest can make any transactions on behalf of the partnership only on the basis of the power of attorney of the "managing" participant. This organizational and legal form is used in those enterprises where a large proportion of intellectual capital (brokerage, accounting, auditing, implementation, law firms). People working in such firms are business partners. Benefits of this form: - the possibility of accumulating significant funds in a relatively short time; - mobility in the areas of investment in various sectors of the economy. Disadvantages: - Difficulties in the division of profits between the participants of the partnership; - Lack of tax incentives. 9. LIMITED LIABILITY COMPANY Limited Liability Company belongs to the category of business companies, the general rules for which are established by Art. 66-68 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, and, consequently, commercial organizations. According to Art. 50 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, a commercial organization is an organization that pursues making profit as the main goal of its activities. A limited liability company may be founded by one person or several persons. The founders (participants) of the company can be citizens, as well as legal entities. A limited liability company has an authorized capital divided into shares, the amount of which is determined in the constituent documents of the company. Other business companies also have authorized capital. But, unlike a joint-stock company, the authorized capital of a limited liability company is divided into shares, the nominal value of which cannot be expressed in securities (shares). A limited liability company is independently responsible for its obligations, its property liability is not related to the property liability of its participants. Members of a limited liability company bear the risk of losses that they may incur in connection with the activities of the company, only within the limits of their contributions to its authorized capital. The property of the participants in the company is separated from the property of the limited liability company, and in the event of a loss-making activity of the company, its participants risk only within the value of their contributions. The principle of limited liability does not allow the creditors of such a business company to rely on any property other than the company's property when satisfying their claims. An important feature of a limited liability company is that, by its nature, it is closed business company, i.e. it assumes a stable composition of participants. Therefore, the Civil Code of the Russian Federation regulates in great detail the procedures for expelling a member of a company from it, its voluntary withdrawal from the membership, transfer or alienation of a share of a member, admission of third parties to the membership of a company. A limited liability company as an owner has the right, at its discretion, to take any actions with respect to its property that do not contradict the law and do not violate the rights and legally protected interests of other persons, including alienate its property into the ownership of other persons, transfer to them, remaining the owner, the right to own, use and dispose of property, pledge property and encumber it in other ways, dispose of it in another way. Such a company is also entitled to transfer its property for trust management to another person (trustee). At the same time, the transfer of property for trust management does not entail the transfer of ownership to the trustee, who is obliged to manage the property in the interests of the owner or a third party specified by him. 10. JOINT STOCK COMPANY The legal status of a joint stock company is determined in accordance with the Civil Code and the Law "On Joint Stock Companies". Joint-stock company - this is a commercial organization, the authorized capital of which is divided into a certain number of shares, certifying the obligations of the company's participants (shareholders) in relation to the company. Promotion - issuance security that secures the rights of its owner (shareholder) to receive part of the profit of the joint-stock company in the form of dividends, to participate in the management of the joint-stock company and to part of the property remaining after its liquidation. A share is a registered security. Issuable security - any security, including non-documentary, which is simultaneously characterized by the following features: - fixes the totality of property and non-property rights subject to certification, assignment and unconditional exercise in compliance with the form and procedure established by federal law; - placed by issues; - has an equal volume and terms of exercising rights within one issue, regardless of the time of purchase of the security. A joint-stock company must have a round seal, and also have the right to have stamps and forms with its name, its own emblem, as well as a trademark registered in the prescribed manner and other means of visual identification. Shareholders who have not fully paid for the shares shall be jointly and severally liable for the obligations of the joint stock company within the limits of the unpaid part of the value of their shares. Insolvency (bankruptcy) - this is the inability of the debtor recognized by the arbitration court to fully satisfy the claims of creditors for monetary obligations and (or) fulfill the obligation to make mandatory payments. There are open and closed joint-stock companies. A joint stock company whose members may alienate their shares without the consent of other shareholders is considered open. The shares it issues are distributed either by free sale or by open subscription. Dividend - part of the total profit of the joint-stock company, distributed among the shareholders according to the number of shares they have. The total profit of the joint-stock company must exceed the amount of dividends paid. The relative excess number is called dividend coverage. The decision to pay dividends is made by the general meeting of shareholders following the results of the reporting year. Share price - the amount of cash, which is equal to the value of money capital, bearing in the form of interest an amount equal to the annual dividend per share. Shares are ordinary, preferred and founders. Ordinary shares - these are shares, in proportion to the number of which income and the residual amount of ownership are distributed upon liquidation of the company. The holders of ordinary shares have the right to vote in the management of the company. Privileged shares give the right to receive a fixed and guaranteed income, minus which the amount for payment on ordinary shares is determined. The holders of preferred shares do not have the right to vote in the management of the company. 11. FEATURES OF OPEN AND CLOSED JOINT STOCK COMPANIES Joint-stock company may be open - abbreviated name JSC, or closed - abbreviated name of CJSC, which is reflected in its charter and corporate name. A joint-stock company whose members may alienate their shares without the consent of other shareholders is recognized open joint stock company. A company whose shares are distributed only among its founders or other predetermined circle of persons is recognized as a closed company. The main differences between joint-stock companies of various types. 1. The number of shareholders of an open joint stock company is not limited, the number of shareholders of a closed joint stock company must not exceed fifty. 2. An open joint stock company has the right to conduct an open subscription for the shares it issues and to carry out their free sale, subject to the requirements of the law and other legal acts of the Russian Federation. An open joint stock company has the right to carry out a closed subscription for the shares it issues, except in cases where the possibility of holding a closed subscription is limited by the company's charter or the requirements of legal acts of the Russian Federation. A closed joint stock company is not entitled to conduct an open subscription for shares issued by it or otherwise offer them for purchase to an unlimited number of persons. 3. In an open joint stock company, it is not allowed to establish the pre-emptive right of the company or its shareholders to acquire shares alienated by the shareholders of this company. Shareholders of a closed joint-stock company enjoy the pre-emptive right to acquire shares sold by other shareholders of this company at the offer price to a third party in proportion to the number of shares owned by each of them, unless the company's charter provides for a different procedure for exercising this right. The minimum authorized capital of an open company must be at least one thousand times the minimum wage established by federal law on the date of registration of the company, and for a closed company - at least one hundred times the amount of the minimum wage established by federal law on the date of state registration of the company. Closed Joint Stock Company distributes its shares only among its founders or other predetermined circle of persons. Shareholders of a closed joint stock company have the right of first refusal to acquire shares sold by other shareholders. The number of participants in a closed joint stock company is limited and should not increase. When opening a joint-stock company, all its shares must be distributed among its founders. The founder can even be the only person who can purchase all the shares. The number of shares may be increased by additional issuance, but only after all shares representing the authorized capital have been fully paid. An additional issue of shares increases the authorized capital, which must always be equal to the sum of the nominal values of the issued shares. If the net assets of the company become less than the authorized capital, the authorized capital decreases. Net assets are the difference between the value of a company's real assets and its liabilities. The face value of shares on the secondary market does not matter: they are sold on it at market value. The higher the dividend, the more stable the company, the more expensive the shares. 12. STATE AND MUNICIPAL UNITARY ENTERPRISES Unitary enterprisee - this is a commercial organization that is not endowed with the right of ownership of the property assigned to it by the owner. Only state and municipal enterprises can be created in the form of unitary enterprises. The property of a unitary enterprise is owned by the Russian Federation, a subject of the Russian Federation or a municipality. On behalf of the Russian Federation or a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, the rights of the owner of the property of a unitary enterprise are exercised by state authorities of the Russian Federation or state authorities of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation within their competence established by acts defining the status of these bodies. On behalf of the municipality, the rights of the owner of the property of a unitary enterprise are exercised by local governments within their competence established by acts defining the status of these bodies. The property of a unitary enterprise belongs to it on the right of economic management or on the right of operational management, is indivisible and cannot be distributed among contributions (shares, shares), including among employees of a unitary enterprise. A unitary enterprise is not entitled to create another unitary enterprise as a legal entity by transferring a part of its property (subsidiary enterprise) to it. A unitary enterprise may, in its own name, acquire and exercise property and personal non-property rights, bear obligations, be a plaintiff and a defendant in court. A unitary enterprise must have an independent balance sheet. The following types of unitary enterprises are created and operate in the Russian Federation: - unitary enterprises based on the right of economic management - a federal state enterprise and a state enterprise of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation (hereinafter also referred to as a state enterprise), a municipal enterprise; - unitary enterprises based on the right of operational management - a federal state enterprise, a state enterprise of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, a municipal state enterprise (hereinafter also referred to as a state enterprise). State and municipal unitary enterprises are commercial enterprises that pursue profit as the main goal of their activities (Article 50 of the Civil Code of the Russian Federation). A unitary enterprise is such an organizational and legal form of a legal entity in which only state and municipal enterprises can be created. A distinctive feature of unitary enterprises is that they are created and operate only on the basis of state or municipal property. Accordingly, only the Russian Federation, a subject of the Russian Federation or a municipality can be their founders. A state or municipal enterprise disposes of movable property belonging to it under the right of economic management independently, with the exception of cases established by federal law, other federal laws and other regulatory legal acts. The charter of a state or municipal enterprise may provide for the types and (or) size of other transactions, the conclusion of which cannot be carried out without the consent of the owner of the property of such an enterprise. 13. UNITARY ENTERPRISES ON THE RIGHT OF ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT AND OPERATIONAL MANAGEMENT Unitary enterprise on the right of economic management - this is an enterprise that is created by decision of the authorized state administration body or local government body. The founding document of a unitary enterprise is its charter, which is approved by the owner of the enterprise. Property transferred to a unitary enterprise is credited to its balance sheet, and the owner has no rights of possession and use in relation to this property. The founding owner must: - appoint a director; - to approve the charter of the unitary enterprise; - reorganize or liquidate a unitary enterprise in case of its unprofitable activity; - exercise control over the use and safety of property; - receive part of the profit from the use of the property transferred to the unitary enterprise. Without the consent of the owner-founder, a unitary enterprise is not entitled to: - sell real estate; - to rent it out; - to make real estate as a contribution to the authorized capital of companies and partnerships. At the same time, movable property (equipment, finished products) is at the full disposal of the unitary enterprise on the right of economic management. A unitary enterprise is a commercial organization that is not endowed with the right of ownership of property assigned to it by the owner. Only state and municipal enterprises can be created in the form of unitary enterprises. A unitary enterprise with the right of operational management is a federal state-owned enterprise, which is created by decision of the Government of the Russian Federation on the basis of property that is in federal ownership. The constituent document of such an enterprise is the charter approved by the Government of the Russian Federation. The founder-owner has the right to withdraw: surplus property; unused property; property misused. The legal regime of state-owned enterprises based on the right of operational management is characterized by the fact that: - they dispose of the movable and immovable property assigned to them with the consent of the owner; - the owner has the right to withdraw excess, unused or misused property and dispose of it at his own discretion; - the owner determines the procedure for distributing the income of the state-owned enterprise; - the owner has the right to determine orders for the supply of goods, performance of work, provision of services for state or municipal needs that are binding on the state-owned enterprise; - a state-owned enterprise does not have an authorized fund; - a state-owned enterprise operates on the basis of an estimate of expenses and income approved by the owner; - the owner of the property of a state-owned enterprise bears subsidiary liability for the obligations of such an enterprise if its property is insufficient; - an audit is carried out by decision of the owner of the property of a state-owned enterprise. The right of economic management is wider than the right of operational management, i.e., an enterprise operating on the basis of the right of economic management has greater independence than an enterprise based on the right of operational management. 14. HOLDING COMPANIES AND FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL GROUPS Holding companies - these are holding organizations that own shares (stakes) in the authorized capital of other enterprises. The assets of the holding company are almost entirely represented by shares of another legal entity or entities. Control is exercised through the mechanisms of corporate (shareholder) powers. Holding companies are represented in the management of their subsidiaries, most often on the board of directors. A holding company should be distinguished from an investment company, since an investment company invests in the acquisition of shares (stakes) in other companies in order to make a profit, and a holding company - in order to gain control over their activities. The main advantages of forming holdings are: - distribution of commercial risks; - the possibility of selling the business in parts, since the subsidiaries remain independent legal entities. The assets of large holdings, as a rule, are conditionally divided into two parts. Core assets are almost always registered as companies of one person or have a controlling stake. Non-core assets are registered by companies with a small percentage of participation of the parent (parent) company. Such business diversification creates stability for the holding, allows it not to depend on the situation in a certain market segment. Affiliated companies one person as a whole does not correspond to the nature of relations between economic companies, which are based on the pooling of capitals of different persons. Even in its literal meaning, the word "society" implies a group of persons. Nevertheless, the creation of companies of one person is permitted by law, and their appearance in holdings can be explained by the desire: - to separate the property of subsidiaries from the property of the parent organization; - to limit the responsibility of the parent organization for the results of economic activities of subsidiaries by a contribution to their authorized capital. Financial Industrial Groups (FIGs) are groups of legally independent industrial enterprises, financial and investment organizations registered at the federal level, combining material resources and capital on the terms of the Regulations on FIGs and the procedure for their creation, approved by law, and the presence of enterprises operating in the production of goods and services is mandatory. The main organization in FIGs can be either a production structure or a bank or a financial company. The main tasks of the FIG are industrial, technological or economic integration for solving investment and other projects and programs aimed at increasing competitiveness and expanding markets for goods and services, increasing production efficiency, and creating new jobs. The current situation in the Russian economy determines the attraction to the bank-oriented structure of FIGs, i.e. to such a structure in which the bank plays a dominant role in the development of the corporation. Russian legislation does not limit the possibility of acquiring shares of enterprises by banks, in addition, banks occupy key positions in financing production structures, and industrial enterprises see banking and financial structures as the main investors in production, not counting on direct investment from the population due to the low level of income of the majority . 15. ORGANIZATIONAL AND LEGAL FORMS OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP, ASSESSMENT OF THEIR EFFICIENCY In Russian legislation, entrepreneurship is interpreted as an initiative independent activity of citizens and associations, aimed at making a profit and carried out at their risk and under their property responsibility. In entrepreneurship, subjects and objects are distinguished. Depending on the content of the activity, there are types of entrepreneurship. Manufacturing entrepreneurship - this is an entrepreneurship in which the production of goods, services, information, spiritual values is carried out. The function of production in this type of business is the main one. commercial entrepreneurship consists in operations and transactions for the resale of goods and services and is not related to the production of products. The profit of the entrepreneur is formed by the sale of goods at a price exceeding the purchase price. If these transactions are carried out within the law, then they are not considered speculative. financial entrepreneurship - kind of commercial. The object of sale and purchase here is money, currency, securities. Intermediary entrepreneurship manifests itself in activities that connect the parties interested in a mutual transaction. For the provision of such services, the entrepreneur receives income. Insurance business - this is a special form of financial entrepreneurship, which consists in the fact that the entrepreneur receives an insurance premium, which is returned only upon the occurrence of an insured event. The rest of the contributions form business income. Depending on the form of ownership, entrepreneurship is divided into public and private. The share of these two sectors in the national economy is mobile: with nationalization, the boundaries of state entrepreneurship expand, while privatization narrows them. State Enterprise usually more capital-intensive and stable, because it has the financial and organizational tutelage of the government. On the basis of the size of entrepreneurship, there are: small business, medium business, large business. In the modern Western economy, small business forms the largest sector of the economy, where more than half of all employed people find work. The most typical forms of small business are the system of franchising (from franchise - preferential) and venture capital (from venture - to risk) entrepreneurship. Franchising - This is a system of small private firms that enter into a contract for the right to use the brand name of a large firm and their activities in a certain territory and in a certain area. venture firm is a commercial organization engaged in the development of scientific research for their further development and completion. Venture capitalists do business on innovation. They run the risk of "burning out" if the new product does not meet the requirements of the market, the needs of the buyer and low costs. There are three types of entrepreneurship: 1) individual, or private; 2) partnership, or partnership; 3) corporation (joint stock company). Forms of entrepreneurial activity in Russia are defined by the Civil Code of the Russian Federation (1995). In accordance with it, most enterprises have the status of a legal entity. 16. THE CONCEPT OF THE PRODUCTION PROCESS. CLASSIFICATION OF PRODUCTION PROCESSES Manufacturing process - this is a set of all the actions of personnel and tools necessary for a given enterprise to manufacture products. The main part of the production process is technological process, consisting of targeted actions to change or determine the state of the object of labor. A technological operation is a complete part of a technological process at one workplace. The production process consists of labor and automatic processes, as well as natural processes that do not require labor. Depending on the purpose, the following are distinguished: the main ones; auxiliary; supporting production processes. Main production processes are designed to directly change the state or shape of the material of the product, which, in accordance with the specialization of the enterprise, is a commercial product (for example, the processes of manufacturing cast iron, steel, rolled products at a metallurgical enterprise; the processes of manufacturing car parts and assembling components, assemblies and the car as a whole from them at an automobile manufacturing enterprise and so on.). Auxiliary production processes they are those that result in the manufacture of products used, as a rule, at the enterprise itself to ensure the normal functioning of the main processes (for example, the production of spare parts for the repair of basic technological equipment; the manufacture of means of mechanization and automation of own production; the production of various types of energy for main production). Service production processes provide the main and auxiliary processes with the services necessary for their normal functioning (transport or warehouse operations). According to the principle of division of labor between man and machine, production processes are divided into: manual; mechanized; automated; automatic. An example of a manual process is locksmith work performed by a worker without the aid of machinery; mechanized processes are carried out by the worker with the help of means that reduce the amount of physical stress on the worker (for example, work on a screw-cutting lathe, etc.). Automated processes are partially or completely performed without human intervention (for example, work on a semi-automatic machine). According to the nature of the object of production, they distinguish simple and complex manufacturing processes. Simple process - this is a process consisting of sequentially performed operations (manufacturing of one part, a batch of identical parts, a group of different parts that have technological similarities and are processed at the same workplace, section, line). The order of operations in this case is determined by the manufacturing technology of the part. Difficult process - a process consisting of sequential and parallel operations. For example, the manufacture of an assembly unit consisting of several parts, the manufacture of a product that includes a certain number of parts and assembly units. The structure of a complex process depends not only on the composition of the manufacturing and assembly processes, but also on the order in which they are performed, which depends on the design of the assembly unit or product. 17. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF THE ORGANIZATION OF THE PRODUCTION PROCESS When organizing the production process in time and space, one should proceed from a number of principles, the correct use of which ensures an increase in the efficiency of the enterprise, a rational level of consumption of material, labor and financial resources. The main principles of the organization of the production process in time and space are: differentiation, concentration and integration, specialization, proportionality, directness, continuity, rhythm, automaticity, flexibility, electronization. Principle of differentiation - this is the division of the production process into separate technological processes, operations, transitions, techniques, movements, in which the analysis of the features of each element allows you to choose the best conditions for its implementation, and also consumes the minimum amount of total costs of all types of resources. The principle of specialization based on limiting the variety of elements of the production process. In particular, groups of workers specializing in professions are singled out, which helps to improve their skills and, consequently, increase labor productivity. At the same time, it should be taken into account that the expedient organization of production often requires the mastery of workers in related professions in order to ensure the interchangeability of workers in the production process. The principle of proportionality - this is a relatively equal throughput of all production units that perform the main, auxiliary and service processes, the violation of which leads to the formation of "bottlenecks" in production or to incomplete loading of jobs, sections, workshops, which negatively affects the efficiency of the enterprise. Direct flow principle - this is the principle, subject to which the shortest paths for the movement of parts or assembly units in the production process are ensured and there should be no return movements of production objects on the site, in the workshop, at the enterprise. The principle of continuity - this is a reduction to a minimum of interruptions in production processes that may occur either for technological or organizational reasons. Technological breaks are caused by non-synchronous operations, for example, with the need to clean equipment. The principle of rhythm consists in the release of equal or evenly increasing volumes of products by an enterprise, workshop, section or individual workplace in accordance with the production plan, it is necessary to ensure maximum use of the production capacities of the enterprise and each of its divisions. The principle of automaticity - this is one of the decisive components in the matter of increasing the efficiency of production, its intensification. The principle of flexibility is the ability to quickly and easily switch from the production of one product to the production of another, including new products, which reduces the time and cost of equipment changeover when producing parts and products of a wide range. The flexibility of production, a quick transition to the production of new products with the least loss of resources is carried out on the basis of the electronization of production processes, which involves the use of high-speed computers that help maintain the necessary rhythm and uniformity of the production process. 18. PRODUCTION STRUCTURE OF THE ENTERPRISE Production structure of the enterprise - These are the production units of the enterprise and the links between them. The production structure of the enterprise has a significant impact on the economy of the enterprise: it determines to a large extent the level of labor productivity, the efficiency of the use of material and technical resources and equipment under given technical, economic and geographical conditions of production. The main factors influencing the production structure are: 1) the nature of the products and its nomenclature; 2) scale of production; 3) the level of cooperation. The production divisions of the enterprise include workshops, sections, laboratories in which the final products manufactured by the enterprise, raw materials, semi-finished products, components, spare parts are supplied, energy is generated for technological purposes, etc. . Raw is a material element of the material and technical base. It is part of the working capital and transfers its value to the finished product in full. The raw material base includes: - objects of labor found in nature (potential raw materials); - products of the first (extractive) stage of processing natural raw materials (primary raw materials); - industrial, public and individual consumption waste (waste); - secondary raw materials; - imported raw materials as an addition to their own raw material base. The shop is the main structural subdivision of the enterprise. Shop - this is a production administratively separate division of the enterprise in which products are manufactured or a certain stage of production is performed. The workshops are divided into main, auxiliary, servicing, secondary. In the main shops the stage of the production process is being carried out for the transformation of raw materials, semi-finished products into the main products of the enterprise. Auxiliary shops manufacture products and perform work for the needs within the enterprise, creating conditions for the normal operation of the main workshops. Auxiliary ones include: repair, instrumental, model, energy, etc. General factory service shops and facilities organized to serve the main and auxiliary shops, for example, warehouse divisions, transport department, etc. Side shops and sections - created for the processing of waste from the main production. The subdivisions serving the employees of the enterprise include housing and communal services, canteens, dispensaries and sanatoriums, polyclinics and medical units, departments for technical training of personnel, etc. In the production structure of the enterprise, an important role is played by design and technological departments, laboratories and research departments, which carry out individual stages of the innovation process - R & D, technological preparation of production - and thereby largely ensure the competitiveness of production and the enterprise. 19. TYPES OF PRODUCTION STRUCTURE OF THE ENTERPRISE Production structure of the enterprise - this is a special form of organization of the production process, which finds its expression in the size of the enterprise, in the number and composition of shops and services, their layout, etc. The primary link in the organization of the production process is workplace - part of the production area where a worker or a group of workers performs individual operations for the manufacture of products or maintenance of the production process. The production of material goods (material products in an objective form, energy, material services), which takes place at the enterprise, is a link in the system of social division of labor and therefore has industry specifics. The process of division of labor continues within the enterprise. Production is divided into main, auxiliary and service. Accordingly, the main, auxiliary and service workshops are formed within the enterprise. В main production In the manufacturing industry, production processes take place, during which raw materials, basic materials, semi-finished products are converted into finished products. In the mining industry, the object of labor is not a raw material. The main production here is to turn the substance of nature (occurring minerals) into raw materials or fuel (extraction of ore, coal). In the logging industry, natural raw materials are extracted - wood; the fishing fleet also extracts raw materials - fish and other seafood; hunting farms produce fur-bearing animals. Agriculture produces artificially reproduced natural raw materials and foodstuffs: it cultivates agricultural crops and breeds farm animals. Construction as the main activity carries out construction and installation works, works on the reconstruction of buildings, turning building materials, reinforced concrete structures and equipment ready for installation into stationary long-term finished products - fixed assets. In auxiliary shops production processes for the manufacture of tools, fixtures and other technical equipment are carried out; equipment and buildings are repaired, parts and assemblies are manufactured to replace worn parts. Auxiliary shops (services) provide the main production with electricity and heat, water, compressed air. The production of auxiliary shops does not go to the side. В service shops produced: product quality control; intraplant transportation; receipt, placement and storage of goods; acquisition, packaging and shipping of finished products; housekeeping and equipment cleaning. The main production in the enterprise, as a rule, specialized, divided by workshops (factories, factories, farms). The specialization of the main workshops is aimed at the same goals as the entire division of labor as a whole: to reduce production costs and improve quality. In different industries, this is achieved in different ways, since the technology for obtaining the finished product is not the same in them. Workshop structure (teams) characterized by a certain number of specific jobs. At the workplace, human labor is combined with the means of production. 20. ECONOMIC COSTS IN THE ENTERPRISE Costs - the costs of the firm for the production of goods or services produced during a certain period of time. The costs of production and sale of products include costs associated with: - with the direct production of products, due to the technology and organization of production; - use of natural raw materials; - preparation and development of production; - improving the technology and organization of production, as well as improving the quality of products, increasing their reliability, durability and other operational properties (non-capital costs); - invention and rationalization, carrying out experimental work, manufacturing and testing models and samples, paying royalties, etc.; - servicing the production process: providing production with raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, tools and other means and objects of labor, maintaining fixed production assets in working order, fulfilling sanitary and hygienic requirements; - ensuring normal working conditions and safety measures; - production management: the content of employees of the management apparatus of the enterprise, the company and their structural divisions, business trips, the maintenance and maintenance of technical controls, payment for consulting, information and audit services, hospitality expenses associated with the commercial activities of enterprises, firms, etc.; - training and retraining of personnel; - deductions for state and non-state social insurance and pension provision, to the State Employment Fund; - deductions for compulsory health insurance, etc. Production costs include two main components: fixed costs and variable costs. fixed costs production in short term remain unchanged and do not depend on the volume of production. Fixed costs include the costs of managing the enterprise, maintaining production facilities, etc. variable costs vary depending on the volume of production. These include: the cost of purchasing raw materials, hiring labor, etc. Explicit costs - these are opportunity costs that take the form of direct (cash) payments to suppliers of factors of production and intermediate products. Explicit costs include salaries paid to workers, salaries of managers, commissions to trading firms, payments to banks and other financial service providers, fees for legal advice, transportation costs, etc. There are also implicit costs (implicit). These include the opportunity cost of using resources owned by the firm's owners (or owned by the firm as a legal entity). These costs are not covered by contracts that are mandatory for explicit payments, and therefore remain uncollected (in cash). Firms usually do not record implicit costs in their financial statements, but this does not make them any less real. 21. POWER MANAGEMENT OF THE ENTERPRISE Industrial enterprises are large consumers of various types of energy resources: gas, fuel, steam, electricity. The share of fuel and energy resources in the cost of production reaches 15-20%. Therefore, the energy management of enterprises plays an important role in the economy and organization of the enterprise. The main form of energy supply planning are the annual energy balances (planned and reported) of the enterprise, which is the ratio between the number of different types of energy consumed and the amount of useful energy used, taking into account losses. The need for various types of energy is established on the basis of consumption rates and the program for the production of products by the workshops of the enterprise for the year, quarter, month. Energy consumption rates are divided into individual (for a separate unit, installation, machine) and group (for a workshop, enterprise). Technically justified consumption rates are determined by the calculation and analytical method. They should reflect the level of technology and organization of the use of fuel and energy resources, the features of the technological modes of operation of the equipment and changes in process parameters, the use of advanced technology, economical modes of operation of the equipment. When determining the general shop norms of energy consumption, the entire cost of the shop is divided into two components: dependent on the volume of production and independent. The first component includes energy consumption for heating and lighting of premises and other similar needs, and the second component - the rest of the energy consumption (i.e., for technological purposes). General factory norms are formed in a similar way. In this case, the sum of all general shop norms is supplemented with specific energy consumption for general plant production and economic needs and losses in networks and facilities of a general purpose enterprise. In general, the planned need of the enterprise for all types of energy and fuel (Epl.) can be determined by the formula: Apple. = Hw B = Eosv. + Eot. - n Event. + Epr. ++ Epot. + Eut, where Hw is the consumption rate of technological and power energy per unit. commercial products; B - the planned volume of output in natural or value terms; Eosv., Eot., Event., Epr. - the planned energy consumption, respectively, for lighting, heating, ventilation and other needs; Epot. - planned losses in networks; Eut. - planned recovery of energy for recycling. Based on the calculation of energy demand, the incoming and outgoing parts of private energy balance plans are compiled for each of its types. On the basis of private energy balances, a consolidated energy balance of the enterprise is developed. The incoming part indicates the flow of energy from outside and its production at the enterprise itself, and the outgoing part indicates the useful energy consumption at the enterprise and its losses. 22. WAREHOUSING FACILITIES OF THE ENTERPRISE Any modern enterprise has a well-organized warehousing. Enterprise warehouses - these are buildings, structures, devices designed for the acceptance, placement and storage of inventories of raw materials, work in progress, purchased components and other various material assets to ensure production processes, as well as for storage and distribution of finished products. Warehouses of the enterprise can be classified according to various criteria: - at the place in the production process - material (supply) warehouses; intra-production (intrashop and intershop); marketing; - type and nature of stored materials - universal; specialized. - technical device (by type of building, structure) - open (platforms); semi-closed (canopies); closed; special (bunkers, reservoirs); - location - central; workshops; warehouses of sites, brigades; workplace warehouses; - mechanization of warehouse operations - non-mechanized; mechanized; complex-mechanized; automated; machine; - degree of fire resistance - fireproof; slow-burning; combustible. To material (supply) include warehouses of industrial stocks of raw materials, fuel, materials, blanks, components, etc. Through supply warehouses, the enterprise receives all the material values \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbnecessary for organizing the production process. At large enterprises, several supply warehouses are created to store homogeneous materials. Material warehouses are connected with the technology of the main production of the enterprise, as well as with regional storage systems. To in-house warehouses include: warehouses for semi-finished products of our own production, central tool warehouse and other inter-shop warehouses. The peculiarities of these warehouses are short terms and stocks of product storage. universal warehouses are warehouses for storing various materials of a wide range, and specialized warehouses include warehouses for storing homogeneous types of products for which the same storage conditions must be created (for example, fuel and lubricants warehouses). Material assets arriving at the warehouse are subject to incoming control (quantitative and qualitative acceptance). Cargoes that meet technical specifications, samples and other requirements are accepted for storage and placed in warehouses in compliance with certain rules: - creation of necessary storage conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.); - full use of storage facilities; placement based on the convenience of warehouse operations, etc. The warehousing of an individual enterprise is a large and very complex system, the management of which requires the use of special rules and techniques to ensure its effective functioning. Accelerating the turnover of working capital and reducing the cost of products depends on the correct and rational organization of the warehouse economy of the enterprise. 23. TRANSPORTATION OF THE ENTERPRISE Industrial enterprises are characterized by large volumes of movement and storage of semi-finished and finished products. In the conditions of mass production, transport operations are closely intertwined with technological ones and in many respects ensure the rhythmic course of the production process. The main tasks of the transport economy are: ensuring intra-factory transportation; delivery to the enterprise of raw materials, materials, components, as well as shipment of finished products; maintenance and repair of vehicles. Transport work at the enterprise is carried out using external, intershop and intrashop transport. External transport ensures the connection of the enterprise, its material and technical warehouses, warehouses of finished products with supplier enterprises, contractors, stations of railway, water and air transport. Intershop transport performs the functions of a link between the shops of the enterprise, its warehouses, services and other production facilities. Intra-shop transport moves goods in the workshop during the production process, moving raw materials, materials and component parts and assemblies not only from the warehouse to workplaces, but also between workplaces, as well as control posts. The enterprises use various types of vehicles, ranging from railway, automobile, material handling and ending with conveyors of various types, types and purposes. The structure of the transport economy depends on a number of factors: the volume of intra-factory and external transportation, the type of production, the mass and dimensions of finished products, the level of cooperative ties. In the activities of the transport economy, the rational organization of cargo flows and the cargo turnover of an enterprise is of great importance. Cargo flow represents the volume of goods moved per unit of time between two points. Freight turnover - this is the total amount of goods transported through the territory of the plant, workshop, warehouse, etc. per unit of time (per year, month, day). It is made up of the sum of individual cargo flows and serves as the initial value for determining the company's need for vehicles. In transportation planning, there are technical and economic, operational and scheduling planning and dispatching. Technical and economic planning consists in drawing up comprehensive annual plans that provide for: cargo turnover, the required number of vehicles and mechanisms, the volume of loading and unloading operations necessary for the operation and repair of vehicles, the staff of employees, the wage fund and other indicators characterizing the work of the enterprise's transport economy . Transportation calendar plans provide for planning by months, days and shifts. Shift-daily plans are drawn up in the context of individual routes. They indicate the type of cargo, points of departure and reception, start and end times of transportation. Dispatching, or operational regulation of transportation, is the current operational management of the progress of transport operations based on appropriate plans and schedules. 24. REPAIR FACILITY OF THE ENTERPRISE The organizational and production structure of the repair services of enterprises depends on a number of factors, including the type and volume of production, the technologies used, the development of cooperation in the performance of repair work, etc. As part of the repair facilities of large enterprises includes, as a rule, a repair and construction shop that repairs buildings and structures, an electrical repair shop that repairs electrical equipment, a mechanical repair shop that repairs technological and other types of equipment, manufacture of replacement parts, a workshop for the repair of instrumentation, equipment warehouses and spare parts, in addition, at machine-building enterprises there must be a lubricant and emulsion economy. The repair service of enterprises is responsible for certification and certification of equipment, for developing a technology for its repair, for planning and carrying out work on maintenance and repair of equipment, for upgrading equipment, for improving the organization of work of workers engaged in repair work. The main task of the repair facilities of the enterprise - ensuring uninterrupted operation of equipment while reducing the time, labor and cost of repair work. The system for organizing the repair and maintenance of equipment (RTOO) operating in the industry is of a preventive nature. All types of repairs are carried out according to a predetermined schedule that prevents the onset of failures of equipment and its components. Preventive maintenance system - this is a set of various types of maintenance and repair of equipment carried out according to a pre-planned plan in order to ensure the most efficient operation of the equipment. According to the method of organization, the system provides for scheduled (PR) and unscheduled (HP) repairs. Between scheduled repairs, maintenance is carried out, which provides for periodic inspections of the equipment. According to the composition and scope of work, three types of scheduled repairs are provided: major repairs, medium repairs, current repairs. Overhaul is a laborious, lengthy and expensive process associated with the complete replacement of the main parts, assemblies, disassembly of motors, transformers, etc. Medium repair involves the replacement of major parts, assemblies, rubbing surfaces. The current repair is associated with the replacement of individual parts, parts, followed by checking for accuracy, alignment, etc. Maintenance includes equipment inspection, accuracy checks, flushing, lubrication, etc. These activities are carried out periodically according to a predetermined schedule. By summing the repair complexity for each group of equipment, the total number of repair complexity units of the enterprise (subdivision) is determined. By multiplying the total repair complexity by the standard of the corresponding costs, their value is determined. Scheduled preventive maintenance system is based on the use of a number of standards, including: repair cycles and their structure; the duration of overhaul periods and the frequency of maintenance; repair difficulty category; norms for the labor intensity of repair work, as well as norms for the stock of parts and turnaround units and assemblies. 25. CONCENTRATION OF PRODUCTION Production concentration - This is a process aimed at increasing the output of an enterprise or the volume of services provided. Concentration is expressed in the creation and development of large enterprises, in the concentration of the output of most of the products characteristic of a particular industry in separate specialized enterprises. The concentration of production creates opportunities for more efficient use of high-performance equipment and a steady increase in labor productivity. The concentration at each enterprise is optimized in order to achieve the minimum cost of production, regardless of the forms in which this process develops. Concentration in an enterprise can develop in the following forms: - increase in the production of homogeneous products (at specialized enterprises); - increase in the production of heterogeneous products (at universal enterprises); - development of concentration on the basis of combining production (at enterprises such as combines); - development of concentration on the basis of production diversification. This form of concentration can be carried out both on the basis of the above forms, and by expanding the profile of the enterprise. The concentration of production can be achieved: - with an increase in the number of machines, equipment, production lines at the same technical level; - the use of machines, equipment and units with a higher unit capacity; - simultaneous increase in the number of machines and equipment of both the previous technical level and more advanced; - development of a combination of interrelated industries. Economic benefits production concentrations are as follows: - the concentration of production is a prerequisite for the development of scientific and technological progress; - in conditions of concentration of production, as a rule, labor productivity grows; - in conditions of concentration of production, high-performance machines and equipment are most effectively used; - in large-scale production, there is a great opportunity for the introduction of advanced technologies, and there are also great opportunities for organizing resource-saving production; - with an increase in production volumes due to a reduction in the share of semi-fixed costs, a disproportionately smaller increase in costs occurs, as a result of which the profitability of highly concentrated production increases. Disadvantages highly concentrated enterprises are as follows: the possibility of increasing transportation costs for the delivery of raw materials, materials and components to the enterprise and the shipment of finished products due to an increase in the radius of transportation; the need to attract significant investment for the construction of large enterprises; a long period of their construction and development of design capacities; the inevitable complication of the management process with an increase in the scale of the enterprise; increased pressure on the environment due to a significant increase in emissions and discharges; the possibility of monopolizing the production of certain types of products. The concentration of production cannot be the only way to develop enterprises. For each industry, it is necessary to look for its own, economically viable combination of large, medium and small enterprises. 26. ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF SPECIALIZATION Specialization of industrial production - a form of organization of production, which consists in assigning to industries, associations, enterprises, and within them to individual divisions (workshops, brigades, sections) the production of a limited range of homogeneous products, similar in technological processes, homogeneity of raw materials, professional composition of workers. It involves the concentration of industrial production of homogeneous products or the performance of homogeneous work, is inextricably linked with the cooperation of industrial production. Its main forms are distinguished - subject, detailed and technological; depending on the degree and scope of manufactured products - interstate, intersectoral, sectoral, factory and intra-factory specialization. Subject Specialization involves the concentration of production of certain types and sizes of finished products in industries, associations (enterprises, combines) and their divisions (industries, buildings, workshops). Detailed Specialization The main workshops are typical for mechanical engineering, the electrical industry: individual workshops produce components, parts of a machine, television, clock, communication device, and then the product is assembled in an assembly shop or on a conveyor. Technological (or stage) specialization associated with successive stages in the processing of the raw product or the manufacture of the final product. This is typical for the textile industry, the chemical industry, the building materials industry, and construction. Interstate Specialization finds application within the framework of the economic integration of the participating countries on the basis of long-term targeted programs of industrial, trade, economic, scientific and technical cooperation. RџSЂRё intersectoral enterprises are created with a common production process (for example, the production of hardware, forgings, rubber products), the products of which are used in various industries. In industry, the possibilities of this type of specialization are far from being fully utilized; many blanks and parts of intersectoral use are manufactured in non-specialized sections and in the workshops of enterprises in various industries. The strengthening of intersectoral ties requires the organization of territorial specialization in certain districts (regions, etc.). Industry specialization represents a concentration on the scale of each industry, enterprises (associations) that produce products that are homogeneous in purpose or perform the same type of technological processes. The factory one consists in assigning to a separate enterprise the manufacture of a narrower range of products of industry specialization and expanding their production to a level that ensures the efficient use of fixed assets, material and labor resources. In-plant specialization characterized by assigning to workshops, sections, brigades, workplaces the performance of specific stages of the technological process, the manufacture of certain types of products or their parts, parts, assembly units. 27. COOPERATION AND COOPERATION OF PRODUCTION Cooperation - the type of social movement and the organizational and economic form of the production activity of people. As a special form of labor organization, it is the cooperation of a different number of persons who jointly participate in one or in different, but interconnected labor processes within certain organizational and economic forms. In this understanding, cooperation is the cooperation of labor, which is divided into simple and complex cooperation. Simple cooperation is carried out in the process of homogeneous work (joint cultivation of land, construction, trade, etc.). Complex cooperation based on the division of labor, people working together. With such cooperation, the means of production and labor, knowledge and qualifications of those participating in joint work are used more efficiently. From the point of view of property relations, cooperation unites participants on the basis of a collective-share form created by the formation and reproduction of share capital on the basis of voluntariness, democracy, equality, mutual economic interest, responsibility for the final results of joint economic activity in order to meet the needs of each member of the team by increasing its income and cost reduction. The main features of the collective-share cooperatives are determined by the cooperative itself and are manifested in the principles of its organization. Among them, first of all, is the democratic formation, organization and management on the basis of equality of all members of the cooperative. Cooperation of industrial production - establishment of long-term production links between industries, enterprises and their divisions to participate in the manufacture (repair) of certain products. In the order of cooperation, allied enterprises supply the consumer (head enterprise) with products or semi-finished products (blanks, stampings, packaging, etc.) necessary for him to produce products. The cooperation of industrial production is carried out in two directions: by establishing a close relationship between enterprises (industries) that are in direct production dependence; by organizing communication between specialized enterprises in order to make the fullest use of production capacities. There are the main forms of cooperation in industrial production: subject (or aggregate), when related enterprises supply certain units (objects) necessary for the complete assembly of the finished product (for example, engines, electrical equipment for cars or tractors) to the parent company; detailed - supply by subcontractors of parts (for example, piston rings for the products of tractor or automobile enterprises); technological - specialized enterprises supply others with certain semi-finished products (packages, dies, etc.) or perform technological operations for them. Level of cooperation industrial production is characterized by: the share of purchased products and semi-finished products in the cost of finished products manufactured by the enterprise; the number of enterprises supplying products and semi-finished products to this consumer in the order of cooperation; indicators of specialization of industrial production, etc. 28. COMPANY PROPERTY Enterprise property - fixed assets and non-current assets, inventories and costs, other values, the value of which is reflected in the independent balance sheet of the enterprise (accounting balance sheet). In accordance with the current legislation and the charter of the enterprise, it may belong to it by the right of ownership or possession, use and disposal within the limits established by the owner or the body authorized by him and the current legislative acts. Sources of its formation: monetary and material contributions of the founders; income from the sale of products (works, services) and other types of economic activity; income from securities; loans from banks and other creditors; capital investments and subsidies from the budget; gratuitous or charitable contributions, donations from organizations, enterprises and citizens; other sources. In order to attract additional funds for the purpose of expanding and improving production, social development of labor collectives, organizing the production of new types of products, machines, instruments, consumer goods, enterprises can use the right to issue and sell securities. Their types and the right of holders, the procedure for issuing, placing, acquiring and selling are regulated by the relevant legislative acts. The property of enterprises or bodies of local self-government (municipal, communal), their contribution to organizations of a mixed form of ownership is formed at the expense of appropriations from the funds of the relevant local budget and contributions from other municipal (communal) enterprises, income received, other legal sources and is owned by the district, city , their administrative-territorial formations, local self-government bodies. Full and mixed property with limited liability (closed joint-stock company), individual (private, family) enterprise is formed at the expense of contributions of participants (property of a citizen, family), income received, other legal sources and belongs to its participants on the basis of common shared ownership, unless otherwise provided by an agreement between them or legislative acts. Property of an open joint-stock company is formed through the sale of shares in the form of an open subscription, receipt of income and other legitimate sources. At lease enterprises, in accordance with the lease agreement, the manufactured products, income received and other property acquired at the expense of the lessee (partnership), minus the rent and other obligatory payments, are their property. Enterprises have the right to: transfer to other enterprises (organizations, institutions), exchange, lease, provide free of charge for temporary use or on loan, write off from the balance their buildings, structures, equipment, vehicles, inventory, raw materials and other material assets. Unless otherwise provided by the charter, sell, lease to citizens the means of production and other material values, with the exception of those that, under the current legislation, cannot be in their ownership or use. Free transfer and provision by the enterprise of material assets to citizens (in cases not prohibited by law) is carried out with the permission of the owner or a body authorized by him. The state guarantees the protection of the property rights of the enterprise. 29. CAPITAL OF THE ENTERPRISE. AUTHORIZED CAPITAL Capital - these are the resources created by man used for the production of goods and services, i.e. the sum of accumulated material wealth. Capital is divided into: - for permanent - funds intended for the purchase of means of production; - variable - funds intended for the formation of the labor force; - working capital - funds invested in production working capital and circulation funds. The most important essential feature of the market economy system is an extensive system of commodity-money relations. The movement of factors of production, including labor, material goods and services, is mediated with the help of cash and non-cash money, as well as other financial instruments. In fact, this means that both the creation of the enterprise itself and its functioning involve the investment of a certain amount of capital in the form of an appropriate amount of cash. Enterprise financial resources - this is cash, which includes everything that can be turned into money in order to purchase the necessary equipment, raw materials and materials for the production of products, pay wages and much more that is necessary for the operation of the enterprise. The financial resources of an enterprise are formed as a result of the production and economic activities of business entities by receiving money for the sold goods produced by them, as well as raising funds in the financial market (selling their shares, receiving dividends, taking loans, etc.). Funds that ensure the activities of the enterprise are usually divided into own and borrowed. Equity of the enterprise is the value (monetary value) of the property of the enterprise, wholly owned by it. In accounting, the amount of equity capital is calculated as the difference between the value of all property on the balance sheet, or assets, including amounts not claimed from various debtors of the enterprise, and all the obligations of the enterprise at a given time. The equity of an enterprise is made up of various sources: authorized, or share capital, various contributions and donations, profits that directly depend on the results of the enterprise. A special role belongs to the authorized capital, which will be discussed in more detail below. Borrowed capital - this is capital that is attracted by the enterprise from the outside in the form of loans, financial assistance, amounts received on security, and other external sources for a specific period, under certain conditions, under any guarantees. Authorized capital represents a set of funds (contributions, contributions, shares) of the founders (participants) in the property when creating an enterprise to ensure its activities in the amounts determined by the constituent documents. The authorized capital is the initial, initial capital for the enterprise. Its value is determined taking into account the proposed economic (production) activity and is fixed at the time of state registration of the enterprise. 30. FIXED ASSETS, THEIR STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION Fixed assets (PF) - this is the cost of the totality of labor instruments necessary for the rational and planned production of products that are used at the enterprise for a long time (usually more than a year), transfer the cost to the product created with their help in parts as they are consumed and retain their material form. Fixed assets are the most important part of the national wealth of society and are of decisive importance in the economy of any country. The correct and rational use of fixed assets is one of the main conditions for increasing the efficiency of the economy. Fixed assets can be characterized from two sides: tangible, socio-economic. From the material side, fixed assets are the means of labor. The means of labor include the unity of tools and working conditions. The role of labor tools (from the simplest tools to the most complex machines and devices) with which a person acts on the objects of labor is very important. Objects of labor - what the work of man is directed to. The main characteristic of the objects of labor is that they are consumed immediately in the labor process in one production cycle. For a successful labor process, working conditions are also necessary - this is everything that creates the necessary environment for the labor process of a person, without which productive activity is impossible. In this way: tools of labor + working conditions = means of labor; means of labor + objects of labor = means of production. The socio-economic side of fixed assets is that production always has a social character and people in the process of labor enter into certain production and economic relations, primarily the relationship of people to each other in the process of production, distribution, exchange and destruction of material and spiritual goods. . Fixed assets can be divided into two groups: - production fixed assets directly involved in the production process; - non-productive fixed assets that are indirectly related to production and perform an auxiliary function. Composition of fixed production assets (OPF), combined as a whole for the national economy, industry, enterprise, is the same: - industrial buildings and structures; - transmission devices; - cars and equipment; - measuring devices and computer equipment; - vehicles; - production inventory and some household inventory. The composition of fixed production assets together forms the structure of funds. Non-production fixed assets - residential buildings, children's and sports facilities, other objects of cultural and community services, which are on the balance sheet of the enterprise. Unlike means of production, they do not participate in the production process and do not transfer their value to the product, because it is not produced. Their value disappears in consumption. 31. VALUATION OF FIXED ASSETS Accounting and planning of fixed assets are carried out in natural and monetary forms. Using physical indicators, accounting is carried out separately for each group of fixed assets. For example, for buildings, natural indicators are their number, total and usable area in m2; for working machines - number of units, type, age, etc. For a more complete characterization of the state of the means of labor, it is necessary to carry out certification of each workplace, which is a comprehensive assessment of its compliance with regulatory requirements and best practices in such areas as the technical and economic level, working conditions and safety. Data on the assessment of fixed assets in kind are used to calculate the production capacity of an enterprise, plan a production program, increase production reserves for equipment, and draw up a balance sheet for equipment. To this end, an inventory and certification of equipment, accounting for its arrival and departure are being carried out. There are several types of valuations of fixed assets associated with their long-term participation and gradual wear and tear in the production process, changes in the conditions of reproduction over this period, namely, valuations at initial, replacement and residual value. Initial cost of fixed assets - this is the sum of the actual costs for the manufacture or purchase of funds, their delivery and installation. The actual costs for the acquisition, construction and manufacture of fixed assets may be amounts paid in accordance with the contract to the seller or supplier; amounts paid to organizations for the performance of work under a construction contract or other contracts; customs duties and other payments; remuneration paid to an intermediary organization through which an item of fixed assets was acquired, as well as other costs directly related to the acquisition, construction and manufacture of an item of fixed assets. Recovery cost - is the cost of reproduction of fixed assets in modern conditions; as a rule, it is established during the revaluation, repair, modernization or reconstruction of fixed assets. The revaluation is based on the book value of fixed assets, adjusted for the approved indexes (factors) of recalculation. Recalculation indices differ by types of fixed assets, as well as depending on the timing of their creation, construction or acquisition. The full replacement cost of fixed assets is the full cost of the costs that the enterprise owning them must incur if it were to completely replace them with similar new items at market prices and tariffs existing at the revaluation date. The residual value is the difference between the original or replacement cost of fixed assets and the accumulated depreciation. The residual value is used as an indication of the fair value of fixed assets. In addition, other types of valuation of fixed assets are also used. The market value is the value of the property that can be received when it is sold. The amount that can be received from the sale of an item of fixed assets in a short time is called the salvage value. Usually it is lower than the market one, since it is not always possible to determine the actual price level in the market, the circle of potential buyers, etc. in a short time. 32. PHYSICAL AND MORAL DEPOSIT OF MAIN PRODUCTION ASSETS The main production assets of the enterprise - this is that part of the assets that is designed to be used by the enterprise for a long period of time (more than one year) and gradually (in parts) loses its value. During operation, fixed assets are subject to wear and tear. Distinguish between physical and moral depreciation. Physical deterioration means the loss of the use value of fixed assets. This includes mechanical wear, fatigue wear of metal and other structural materials, deformation of individual structures as a result of sedimentary phenomena, etc. The degree of physical wear depends on a number of factors, primarily the intensity of the use of fixed assets, the time of actual use, the qualifications of maintenance personnel, structural features and operating conditions of the equipment. There are two methods for determining the degree of physical wear: - according to the technical condition based on the expert assessment of the object; - by terms of service or by volume of work. Physical depreciation occurs unevenly even for the same elements of fixed assets. Distinguish between full and partial depreciation of funds. With complete depreciation, existing fixed assets are replaced by new ones, for example, capital construction or current replacement. Partial wear and tear is compensated by repair. Obsolescence expressed in the relative depreciation of fixed assets in connection with the emergence of new models of equipment before the end of the service life of fixed assets in operation. Distinguish obsolescence of the first and second kind. Obsolescence of the first kind is caused by an increase in labor productivity in industries that produce fixed assets, as a result of which similar types of machinery, equipment, etc. become cheaper than previously produced and more competitive as a result of a lower price. Obsolescence of the second kind is the result of the creation of better and more economically efficient machines, equipment and other types of fixed assets. Accounting for obsolescence is of great importance in the context of the rapid introduction of the achievements of scientific and technological progress, as a result of which new (and sometimes fundamentally new) types of machines and equipment appear that have higher productivity and better operating conditions. Under the normal (crisis-free) functioning of the economy, the replacement of obsolete models of machines, equipment, transmission devices and other fixed assets is necessary for the production of competitive products with lower production costs than before the replacement of obsolete fixed assets. The main source of coverage of costs associated with the renewal of fixed assets are the company's own funds. They are accumulated over the life of fixed assets in the form of depreciation charges. 33. DEMORTIZATION OF FIXED ASSETS Depreciation - this is a cash compensation for the depreciation of fixed assets by including part of their value in the cost of output. Consequently, depreciation is the monetary expression of the physical and obsolescence of fixed assets. The cost of fixed assets of enterprises is repaid by accruing depreciation and writing off to production costs during the standard period of their useful life in accordance with the norms approved in accordance with the procedure established by law. Depreciation rates are expressed as a percentage of the book value of certain groups of fixed assets. Most widely, these norms are differentiated by machinery and equipment, not only by their types, but also by the types of work performed by these machines and equipment, and by industry. Therefore, increased or reduced depreciation values are applied, which are established using correction factors for depreciation rates. The straight-line depreciation method is applied when the asset generates the same income during the entire period of operation. In cases where there is a steady tendency to reduce the efficiency of the operation of the object over time, and consequently, the profit from its use decreases, it is necessary to use the method of decreasing depreciation, based on the fact that depreciation is calculated based on the residual value of the asset at the beginning of the reporting year and depreciation rates calculated on the basis of the standard service life of this object. In order to create conditions for the introduction into production of the achievements of scientific and technological progress (in particular, new technology), enterprises have the right to apply the method of accelerated depreciation of the active part of fixed assets. At the same time, the accrual of depreciation at the beginning of the life of the object is accelerated (compared to the straight-line depreciation method). As the service life expires, depreciation charges decrease. This allows the enterprise in conditions of inflation to quickly recoup the costs incurred and direct them to the renewal of fixed production assets. The list of high-tech industries and efficient types of machinery and equipment for which accelerated depreciation is applied is established by the federal executive authorities. Each enterprise independently decides on the use of depreciation amounts, directing them to the introduction of new technology, to the technical development of production, to the reproduction and improvement of its fixed assets. In practice, the following methods of calculating depreciation are most widely used: a) linear depreciation. This approach to determining annual depreciation assumes uniform depreciation of fixed assets; b) depreciation at residual value. According to a number of economists, the cost of fixed capital (fixed assets) of an enterprise falls most strongly in the first years of its use. The annual depreciation of a unit of fixed assets under this approach is calculated as a fixed percentage of the residual value of funds. In practice, sometimes a mixed depreciation method is used, which is a combination of both of these methods. It is based on the fact that after repayment of a certain part of the difference between the initial and residual value of fixed assets by the degressive method, the straight-line method is applied to the remaining part of the cost. 34. INDICATORS OF THE USE OF FIXED ASSETS All indicators of the use of fixed assets are divided into three groups: - indicators of extensive use of fixed assets, reflecting the level of their use over time; - indicators of intensive use of fixed assets, reflecting the level of their use in terms of capacity (productivity); - indicators of the integral use of fixed production assets, taking into account the combined influence of all factors - both extensive and intensive. The first group of indicators includes: the coefficient of extensive use of equipment, the coefficient of shift work of the equipment, the coefficient of equipment load, the coefficient of the shift mode of the equipment operation time. The coefficient of extensive use of equipment (Ke) is determined by the ratio of the actual number of hours of equipment operation to the number of hours of its operation according to the plan: Ke \uXNUMXd Tf / Tpl, where Tf is the actual operating time of the equipment, h; Тm - (equipment operation time according to the norm (set in accordance with the operating mode of the enterprise and taking into account the minimum time required for scheduled preventive maintenance), h. The generalizing indicators of the use of fixed assets include capital productivity and capital intensity. Return on assets (Fo) is defined as the ratio of the volume of sold products and (Rp) to the average annual cost of OF (Csrg): Capital intensity (Fe) - the reciprocal of capital productivity, is the value of fixed production assets per unit volume of sales: Fe = Avg. / Rp. In necessary cases, the value of capital-labor ratio is also calculated, calculated as the ratio of the value of the OPF to the average number of employees of the enterprise. Along with generalizing indicators, private indicators are also used in practice, which characterize the level of use of fixed assets depending on a number of factors. Thus, the coefficient of extensive loading of equipment (Kex) characterizes the level of its use in time and is determined for each group of equipment of the same type and is determined by the formula: Cake \uXNUMXd Tf / Tm, where Tf is the time actually worked by the equipment, h; Tm. - the standard time for the possible use of equipment (or planned time), which is set in accordance with the operating mode of the enterprise and taking into account the minimum required time for scheduled preventive repairs and mandatory technological stops. In mechanical engineering, it is of great importance to estimate the shift coefficient (Kcm), which is determined by the ratio of the number of machine shifts worked out by the equipment of an enterprise, workshop per year or per day, to the number of installed equipment: Kcm = F1 + F2 + F3 / Wo6, where F1, F2, F3 - the number of actually worked machine shifts; Wo6 - the total number of machines, equipment, which the enterprise, shop has. The shift coefficient calculated in this way shows how many shifts each piece of equipment works on average annually (or per day). 35. DIRECTIONS FOR IMPROVING THE USE OF FIXED ASSETS Effective use fixed assets is closely related to another key task - to improve the quality of products, since in the conditions of market competition, high-quality products are in demand and are sold faster. The successful functioning of fixed assets depends on how fully the extensive and intensive factors for improving their use are implemented. Extensive improvement of their use implies that, on the one hand, the operating time of the existing equipment in the calendar period will be increased, and on the other hand, the share of the operating equipment in the composition of all equipment available at the enterprise will be increased. The most important areas for increasing the operating time of the equipment are: - reduction and elimination of intra-shift downtime of equipment by improving the quality of repair maintenance of equipment, timely provision of the main production with labor, raw materials, materials, fuel, semi-finished products; - reduction of whole-day downtime of equipment, increase in the ratio of shifts of its work. An important way to increase the efficiency of the use of fixed assets is to reduce the number of redundant equipment and quickly involve uninstalled equipment in production. The deadening of a large number of means of labor reduces the possibility of increasing production, leads to direct losses due to their physical wear and tear, since equipment often becomes unusable after long-term storage. Other equipment in good physical condition turns out to be morally obsolete and is written off along with the worn-out one. The extensive way of improving the use of fixed assets has its limit. The possibilities of the intensive path are much wider. Intensive improvement in the use of fixed assets implies an increase in the degree of equipment utilization per unit of time. An increase in the intensity of equipment loading can be achieved by modernizing existing machines and mechanisms, establishing the optimal mode of their operation. Operation under the optimal mode of the technological process ensures an increase in output without changing the composition of fixed assets, without an increase in the number of employees and with a decrease in the consumption of material resources per unit of output. The intensity of the use of fixed assets is also increased through the technical improvement of labor tools and production technology, by eliminating "bottlenecks" in the production process, reducing the time for achieving the design productivity of equipment, improving the scientific organization of labor, production and management, using high-speed methods of work, improving skills and professional skill of workers. It is essential to improve the structure of fixed production assets. Since the increase in output is achieved only in the leading shops, it is important to increase their share in the total cost of fixed assets. An increase in fixed assets of auxiliary production leads to an increase in the capital intensity of products, since there is no direct increase in output. But without the proportional development of auxiliary production, the main workshops cannot function with full efficiency. Therefore, the establishment of the optimal production structure of fixed assets at the enterprise is the most important direction for improving their use. 36. CURRENT ASSETS OF THE ENTERPRISE Current assets of the enterprise - the totality of circulating production assets and circulation funds. Circulating production assets include: raw materials, basic and auxiliary materials, unfinished products, fuel and other objects of labor that are entirely consumed in each production cycle and the value of which is transferred to the manufactured product immediately in full. The circulation funds include: finished products in stock, shipped products, cash in settlements. Productive reserves - these are objects of labor intended for launching into the production process. Work in progress and semi-finished products of own production are objects of labor that have entered the production process. Future spending - these are intangible elements of working capital, which include the costs of preparing and developing new products produced in a given period. According to the sources of formation, working capital is divided into own and borrowed. Own working capital are formed at the time of the formation of the enterprise (to create inventories, work in progress, finished products, etc.). In general, own working capital can be divided into two groups: standardized and non-standardized working capital. The company refers to borrowed working capital mainly in the form of short-term bank loans to meet the temporary need for them. According to the coverage of rationing, working capital is divided into normalized (according to which stock standards are established: working capital and finished products in stock) and non-standardized. Rationing of working capital is the process of developing economically justified values of working capital necessary for the organization of the normal operation of the enterprise. It is a necessary prerequisite for the effective use of working capital. Typically, the enterprise determines the norms of working capital for materials, stocks in the process of production, and stocks of finished products. Working capital rate - a relative indicator that characterizes the ratio of stocks of certain types of material assets to a certain indicator of the enterprise's work (usually measured in days, percentages or other relative values). The rate of working capital is a numerical indicator for calculating the rate of fixed assets. Working capital ratio - this is a monetary expression of the cost of the minimum necessary funds for the enterprise. There are the following main normalization methods: - direct account method, which provides for the determination of working capital for each element; - an analytical method, when actual data on the amount of working capital for a certain period are used, with the exclusion of excessive and unnecessary, with the appropriate introduction of the necessary amendments; - the coefficient method, which provides for the determination of a new standard of working capital by amending the previous standard, taking into account the growth in production volume and the acceleration of the turnover of working capital; - economic and mathematical methods. Increasing the efficiency of the use of working capital is achieved by accelerating their turnover. 37. RATE OF WORKING ASSETS Determining the need for working capital of the enterprise is carried out by rationing working capital. According to the method of determining the need for working capital, they are divided into standardized and non-standardized. Normalized working capital includes: inventories of raw materials, materials, containers, work in progress, deferred expenses, finished products in the warehouses of the enterprise, cash in cash in storage. working capital norm call a relative indicator corresponding to the volume of the stock of each element of working capital. The rates are set in days of stock. The norms of working capital are determined by the conditions of the enterprise, namely: the duration of the production cycle; the time of preparation of raw materials and materials for production; the procedure for processing and using waste; territorial location of suppliers of raw materials and materials; frequency and uniformity of deliveries; the size of the supplied batches of materials; system and form of payment and other conditions of supply and sale. The working capital ratio is a monetary expression of the cost of the minimum funds necessary for an enterprise to create normalized reserves for each type of working capital. Rationing of working capital solves two main problems. The first is to maintain a correspondence between the size of the company's working capital and the need for funds to ensure the minimum necessary stocks of material assets. This task links the dependence of the volume of working capital on the level of stocks. At the same time, it is understood that for each enterprise it is necessary to establish such a standard so that during normal economic activity it would not experience financial difficulties to ensure the production process and product sales. The second task is more complex: with the help of rationing, it is necessary to manage the volume of stocks. The first stage of normalization is the development of stock standards for each element of normalized working capital. Rationing of working capital involves: determining the norms of the stock of working capital in days; determination of standards for all working capital in monetary terms, including for each element. The working capital ratio is determined on the basis of the following indicators: the volume of production and sales of products; production costs; norms of working capital by types of inventory items, expressed in days. The ratio of a separate element of working capital (Nel) is calculated by the formula: Nel. = Ohel. ? Nel. / Td, where Oel - turnover (expense, output) for this element for the period; Nel - the rate of working capital for this element; Тd is the duration of the period, days. These factors determine one side of the enterprise's need for working capital - the internal needs of the enterprise - the buyer. But there is another side - the external one, which depends on the work of suppliers and transport, which makes it necessary to calculate the working capital rate in days. Rationing of working capital is carried out according to three main positions: rationing of working capital for raw materials, materials, purchased products; normalization of working capital for work in progress; rationing of working capital for finished products. 38. RATE OF MATERIAL RESOURCES Working capital rate for raw materials and materials consists of the following elements: - the time of stay of material assets paid for by the enterprise in transit (transport stock); - the time required for unloading, delivery of material to the enterprise, acceptance and storage; - time to prepare materials for production; - residence time of materials in the composition of the current and insurance stocks. The transport stock includes the stay of materials in transit from the moment the supplier's invoice is paid until the cargo arrives at the consumer's warehouse. During a certain period of time, material assets are withdrawn from the sphere of production: the supplier sent them to the consumer and can no longer use them, and the buyer has not yet received them and cannot use them for production purposes. At the time of the diversion of material values from the sphere of production, working capital is required for both the supplier and the consumer. For the supplier - for the time from shipment to payment by the buyer, and for the consumer - from the moment of payment until the receipt of materials at the buyer's warehouse. The shipment of raw materials and materials by the supplier leads to the simultaneous movement of material assets by various modes of transport (material circulation) and payment documents (document circulation), and the movement of material assets and payment documents may not coincide in time, which most often happens. The following options are possible: - the enterprise receives payment documents, pays the cost of raw materials, materials, semi-finished products, and material assets have not yet been received. In this case, the company needs a certain amount of working capital to pay for material assets that will be on the way for some time; - payment documents and material assets arrive at the same time; - material values arrive earlier than payment documents. In the second and third cases, the company does not need working capital to pay for materials in transit. The size of the transport stock is calculated taking into account the cost of material assets in transit and the one-day consumption of materials calculated on the basis of actual data. The second element of the norm of working capital for raw materials, materials and purchased products is the time required for the acceptance, unloading, sorting and storage of these material assets. This time can be determined by the method of technical regulation using timing. The specified norm depends on the peculiarities of logistics, organization of loading and unloading operations, type of materials, etc. The greatest difficulty is the calculation of current stocks of raw materials. Current stocks are the main part of the working capital norm. The current (warehouse) stock is a permanent stock of materials fully prepared for launch into production. Its purpose is to ensure the uninterrupted production activities of the enterprise, and its value depends on the frequency of supplies of this type of raw materials and materials. 39. LEASING Leasing - This is an operation for the placement of movable and immovable property, which is specially purchased by a leasing company, remains its property, but is leased to entrepreneurs. The object of leasing can be any movable and immovable property that, according to the current classification, is classified as fixed assets, except for land plots and other natural objects, as well as objects prohibited for free circulation on the market. As a rule, three parties participate in a leasing operation: a supplier - the seller of certain property, a leasing company (lessor) and a consumer - the recipient of certain property (tenant). An entrepreneur who needs, for example, production equipment, applies to a leasing company with a request for the possibility of obtaining this equipment for rent. But the leasing company itself, through a special study of the market, is looking for a potential consumer and comes into contact with him. Receipt of a rental request is issued in the form of a special document. After the request is received by the leasing company, the stage of developing leasing proposals begins. The leasing company determines the range of likely manufacturers of the necessary equipment and inquires about the possibility of a leasing deal. At the same time, she evaluates the potential client (customer). At the stage of developing proposals, the leasing company pays special attention to risk assessment, which in a leasing transaction includes two points: - assessment of the client, his ability to pay leasing payments, taking into account activities related to the property being placed; - assessment of the property, the degree of its actual substitutability, if the degree of substitutability is high - the risk is low, if the degree of substitutability is low (equipment for a specific purpose) - the risk is high. At the stage of preparing proposals, the main parameters that determine the amount of payments under a leasing transaction are also analyzed, namely: the purchase price of equipment or other property, the advance payment received, the applicable rate, the duration of the contract, the method of payment, etc. After preparing the offer, the leasing company provides the supplier and consumer with the necessary information, and, if the conditions are acceptable, the interested parties sign a leasing contract. Simultaneously with the conclusion of the contract, the client pays the appropriate amount to the leasing company for the first rent, for the preparation of an offer and for insurance. At the end of the leasing transaction, the tenant can choose one of three possible solutions: - return property to the leasing company in good condition; - renew the leasing contract at lower payment rates; - to acquire machinery and equipment or other property in ownership by paying a ransom to a leasing company, the amount of which is determined by an agreement between the lessee and the lessor. The redemption is usually determined in the amount of 1% of the cost of the equipment (the so-called buyer option). Currently, in the economic practice of developed countries, various types of leasing are used, each of which is characterized by its own specific features. The most common are: operational (service) leasing; financial (capital) leasing; leaseback; shared leasing (with the participation of a third party); direct leasing; subleasing. 40. WORK RESOURCES OF THE ENTERPRISE Labor Relations - This is a multifaceted system of relations between the state and workers, enterprises (firms) and workers, employers and workers. They are of great importance for the activities of the enterprise (firm), since the level of labor productivity of individual employees and the entire team as a whole, the use of capital, and the competitiveness of the enterprise (firm) in the market depend on them. Human Resources are one of the components of resource provision. Work force is a combination of physical and mental abilities of a person, his ability to work. In the conditions of market relations, labor power is a commodity, which differs, however, from other commodities in that it creates more value than it costs, and also in that no production can be carried out without the involvement of labor power. Employees of a manufacturing enterprise are divided into several categories and groups depending on the functions they perform. All employees working at the enterprise are divided into two categories: industrial and production personnel (PPP); personnel of non-industrial organizations or divisions belonging to the enterprise (housing and communal services, medical and sanitary institutions, etc.). working - these are persons (employees) directly involved in the creation of material values or work on the provision of services and the movement of goods. Workers operate machines, mechanisms and units, monitor the operation of automatic lines and robotic complexes, carry out equipment repairs and adjustments, carry out loading and unloading and transport and storage operations. There are two groups of workers: main and auxiliary workers. The main ones include workers directly involved in the manufacture of products in the main production shops (machine operators, operators of automatic installations and units, chemical production operators, etc.). Auxiliary workers include workers servicing production processes (equipment adjusters, repairmen, tool shop workers, transport and warehouse workers, controllers, etc.). Labour Organization - these are the methods of the most rational connection of the labor force with the means of production, ensuring the growth of labor productivity and contributing to the preservation of the health of workers. An important element of the labor market is personnel work at enterprises (firms). It includes the process of hiring labor, labor motivation, vocational training and retraining of personnel. Motivation - one of the main factors determining the efficiency of labor activity. Motivation is the motivation of oneself and others to act in order to achieve personal or organizational goals. Psychologists distinguish two types of motivation: internal and external. Wages - remuneration of employees for work and its final results. Salary performs several functions: - reproductive - ensuring the possibility of reproduction of the labor force; - stimulating - increasing interest in the development of production; - social - implementation of the principle of social justice. With the transition to market relations, a number of important social tasks arise related to employment and, above all, to the employment of those who, for one reason or another, are unemployed. This is the task of both society as a whole and each individual enterprise. 41. COMPANY STAFF Enterprise Personnel - this is the main composition of qualified employees of an enterprise, firm, organization. Typically, the personnel of the enterprise are divided into production personnel and personnel employed in non-production units. Production personnel - workers employed in production and its maintenance - makes up the bulk of the workforce of the enterprise. The largest and main category of production personnel is the working enterprises (firms) - persons (workers) directly involved in the creation of material values or in the provision of production services and the movement of goods. Workers are divided into main and auxiliary. The main workers include workers who directly create commercial products of enterprises and are engaged in the implementation of technological processes, that is, changing the shape, size, position, condition, structure, physical, chemical and other properties of objects of labor. Auxiliary workers include workers engaged in the maintenance of equipment and jobs in production workshops, as well as all workers of auxiliary workshops and farms. Auxiliary workers can be divided into functional groups: transport and loading, control, repair, tool, economic, warehouse, etc. Managers - employees holding managerial positions at the enterprise (director, foreman, chief specialist, etc.). Specialists - employees with higher or secondary specialized education, as well as employees who do not have special education, but occupy a certain position. Employees - employees involved in the preparation and execution of documents, accounting and control, economic services (agents, cashiers, clerks, secretaries, statisticians, etc.). Junior service personnel - persons holding positions for the care of office premises (janitors, cleaners, etc.), as well as for servicing workers and employees (couriers, messengers, etc.). The ratio of various categories of workers in their total number characterizes the structure of the personnel of the enterprise, workshop, site. The structure of personnel can also be determined by such characteristics as age, gender, level of education, length of service, qualifications, degree of compliance with standards, etc. Professional qualification structure of personnel is formed under the influence of professional and qualification division of labor. A profession is usually understood as a type (kind) of labor activity that requires certain training. Qualification characterizes the degree of mastery of this profession by employees and is reflected in qualification (tariff) categories, categories. Tariff categories and categories are also indicators characterizing the level of complexity of work. In relation to the nature of the professional preparedness of workers, such a concept as a specialty is also used, which determines the type of labor activity within the same profession (for example, the profession is a turner, and the specialties are turner-borer, turner-carousel). Differentiation in specialties for the same working profession is most often associated with the specifics of the equipment used. 42. BALANCE OF WORKING TIME To determine the necessary labor costs, establish the planned number of personnel and the required ratio between the number of employees of various groups and the number of pieces of equipment at enterprises, balances of working time costs are developed. Planned work time balances allow you to design the content and time costs for various types, taking into account measures aimed at improving the labor process. Depending on the nature of the labor functions or operations performed, the balances of working time for various categories of workers are built on the basis of time norms, service time norms, output norms or other labor results norms. Norm of time - the length of working time required to manufacture a unit of output or perform a certain amount of work. The time limit usually consists of two parts: - the norm of preparatory and final time, which is set for the entire given quantity of products and does not depend on piece time, which includes operational time (including the main time spent on changing the subject of labor, and auxiliary time when raw materials are loaded, finished products are eaten , equipment management, etc.); - the time of maintenance of the workplace, the time of breaks provided for by the technology and organization of production. Workplace service time - the time spent by the worker to care for the equipment and maintain the workplace in good condition. It, in turn, is subdivided: - for a period of time for maintenance (maintenance of equipment during the performance of this work; replacement of worn tools, cleaning chips, etc.); - time for organizational maintenance (care of the workplace associated with the performance of work throughout the entire shift: layout and cleaning of tools at the beginning and end of the shift, equipment lubrication, etc.). Service rate - the number of production facilities (jobs, pieces of equipment) that an employee of the appropriate qualification must serve during a unit of working time. The norm applies both to workers serving automated production processes and to auxiliary workers. Number rate (Nch) determines the number of employees of a certain professional and qualification composition required to perform a given scope of work. Normalized task establishes the necessary range and scope of work to be performed by the team for a given period of time. Unlike the production rate, the normalized task can be set not only in natural units, but also in standard hours, standard rubles. The norms of labor or working time are established for a separate operation (operational norm) or for an interconnected group of operations, a set of works (enlarged, complex norm). In labor rationing, analytical and summary methods are used. The analytical method is based on a preliminary analysis of the production capabilities of the workplace and the determination of the necessary costs for each element and operation as a whole. When establishing norms by the analytical method, the main part of the initial information is obtained as a result of the study of the labor process. 43. MINIMUM WAGE In a market economy, the forms, system and amount of remuneration of employees, bonuses, allowances, as well as other types of income are established by the enterprise independently. Issues of remuneration are regulated by means of collective and individual labor agreements (contracts). The state abandoned the centralized regulation of wages. The Labor Code of the Russian Federation defines only the general conditions for remuneration of workers and employees. The Constitution of the Russian Federation guarantees remuneration for work without any discrimination and not lower than the minimum wage established by federal law, and the enterprise ensures the minimum wage guaranteed by law. The monthly wage of an employee who has fully worked out the norm of working hours determined for this period and fulfilled his labor duties cannot be lower than the minimum monthly wage (SMIC). The minimum monthly wage determines the lower limit of wages for unskilled workers performing simple jobs under normal working conditions. The minimum wage does not include additional payments and allowances, as well as bonuses and other incentive or compensation payments. Currently, the minimum wage performs three main functions: - is a state guarantee of the minimum wage; - performs the role of a standard in the calculation of administrative fines, taxes, fees and other payments made in accordance with the legislation of the Russian Federation; - serves as a criterion for determining the amount of benefits and compensations paid in accordance with the legislation on social protection of the population. The work of employees is paid by the hour, piecework or other systems of remuneration. Payment can be made for individual and collective results of work. In order to strengthen the material interest of employees in fulfilling plans and contractual obligations, increasing production efficiency and the quality of work, bonus systems, remuneration based on the results of work for the year, and other forms of material incentives can be introduced. According to part 3 of Art. 2 of the Law on the Minimum Wage, the legislative bodies of the subjects of the Russian Federation are granted the right to establish in the subject of the Federation a higher minimum wage in comparison with the federal minimum wage. Those subjects of the Russian Federation that do not receive subsidies from the federal budget can use this right. The minimum wage is introduced: by organizations financed from budgetary sources, at the expense of the relevant budgets, extrabudgetary funds, as well as funds received from entrepreneurial and other income-generating activities; other organizations at their own expense. The Regional Minimum Wage is used for wage determination only and does not apply to temporary disability benefits. It is mandatory for all employers who operate in this subject of the Russian Federation. 44. REGULATION OF WORK Labor rationing - this is the determination of the necessary labor costs (or time) for the performance of a certain work (manufacturing of a unit of output) by individual workers or teams and the establishment of labor standards. labor rate - a concrete expression of the measure of labor, i.e., the share of participation of each individual worker in total social labor. The necessary expenditure of time is the expenditure of time corresponding to the efficient use of labor, material and energy resources, subject to scientifically based work and rest regimes. The technical substantiation of labor standards provides for the most complete use of equipment, technological equipment; full and rational use of working time with the separation of auxiliary functions from the main ones; development of multi-machine service; combination of professions and functions; compliance of the employee with the work performed in terms of his qualifications, production skills and psychophysiological characteristics; application of advanced methods and techniques of labor; rational organization of the workplace; optimum level of labor intensity. One of the main tasks of technical regulation of labor is the impact on the rational organization of labor and optimal production technology. Types of labor standards and their classification: 1. Norm of time (technical norm of time) - this is the regulated time required for the manufacture of a unit of production, the performance of a unit of work, or the performance of a certain amount of work by one or more employees of appropriate qualifications. The norm of time (Hvr) as a whole can be represented as follows: Hvr- = tos. + tc + tob. + tsp. + 1pt + tpz, where tos is the main time; tс - auxiliary time; tob - time of service of the workplace; totd - the time of breaks for rest and personal needs of employees; tpt - break time for organizational and technical reasons (regulated); tpz - preparatory-final time. 2. Production rate - this is the regulated amount of work (the number of units of production) that must be done by an employee (team) of the appropriate qualification per unit of time. This value (Нvyr) is determined by the equation Nvyr. \uXNUMXd Td / Hvr, where Td is the actual working time fund; Hvr - the established norm of time per unit of production, h. 3. Service rate (No) is the number of production facilities (pieces of equipment) that an employee or a group of employees are required to service for a certain time in certain organizational and technical conditions of production. This indicator applies both to workers serving automated production processes and to auxiliary workers. It is calculated as follows: Nob \u1d Td / XNUMXob. where 1ob is the established norm of time for servicing a piece of equipment. Number standard - this is the number of employees of a certain professional composition, necessary to perform specific production or management functions or scope of work. Normalized task - this is the amount of work that an employee (group of employees) must perform during a work shift, work month or other unit of work time. 45. LABOR PRODUCTIVITY: METHODS OF MEASUREMENT, WAYS AND FACTORS OF GROWTH Productivity - the quantitative ratio of the volume (mass) of the product obtained to the labor expended on its manufacture (labor efficiency in the production process). It is expressed by the quantity of products produced per unit of time (production), or by the time spent per unit of output (labor intensity). Distinguish performance individual and social work. The productivity of individual labor reflects the costs of living labor. The productivity of social labor - living and past (reified) labor. In enterprises, individual productivity is determined. Increasing productivity - an objective economic law inherent in all socio-economic formations - means saving its total costs (living and materialized). As technological progress progresses, the share of the former decreases, while the share of the latter increases relatively, but in such proportions that the total amount of labor contained in the commodity decreases. The growth of labor productivity leads to an increase in output, a reduction in costs, an increase in the average wage of workers, a reduction in the working day and, as a result, an increase in the well-being of the people. The level of labor productivity is expressed by the quantity of products produced per unit of time, and we can take the ratio of the quantity of products produced to the cost of living labor. Measurement of labor productivity is carried out by comparing the results of labor in the form of the volume of output with labor costs (the average number of industrial and production personnel). Depending on the direct or inverse relationship of these quantities, there are two indicators: production and labor intensity. The most common and universal indicator is output, which can be hourly, daily, monthly (quarterly, annual). Output is the amount of production produced per unit of working time, or per one average employee per month, quarter, year. It is determined by the ratio of the quantity of products produced to the cost of working time for the production of these products: Q / T. Labor intensity of products - the cost of living labor for the production of a natural unit of output (goods, products, a completed set of works or a construction object, a technological process). It can be planned, actual and standard, calculated according to time standards, as well as project, which is the amount of labor costs for the production of a unit of output, established on the basis of the most progressive and organizational and economic decisions made in the project. The labor intensity of products can be calculated according to the labor costs of various personnel involved directly in the production process, its maintenance and management. Accordingly, there are: - full labor intensity of products - includes the labor costs of all categories of industrial and production personnel of the enterprise; - technological - only the main workers; - production - main and auxiliary workers; - as well as the complexity of maintenance of production, management. 46. PAYMENT OF THE PERSONNEL OF THE ENTERPRISE. PAYMENT SYSTEMS Salary - the form of distribution of the main part of the necessary product within the enterprise in accordance with the quantity and quality of labor expended. The main source of wage payments to all categories of workers is the payroll fund or payroll fund. Salary fund - this is the amount of remuneration provided to employees in accordance with the quantity and quality of their work, as well as compensation related to working conditions. There are three systems of remuneration: tariff, tariff-free and incentive. Under tariff system is understood as a set of normative materials that allow differentiation and regulation of the level of wages. The elements of the tariff system are: - tariff rates - expressed in monetary terms, the absolute amount of wages of workers per unit of time. The general principle of building a system of tariff rates is their increase as the category increases, which is an indicator of the complexity of the work performed and the level of qualification of the employee; - tariff scale - a set of tariff categories operating in a given industry (at an enterprise) and the tariff coefficients corresponding to them. With the help of the tariff coefficient, the ratio between the sizes of tariff rates is determined depending on the category of the work performed; - tariff-qualification reference books are collections of qualification characteristics of professions (positions) of employees, grouped by production and types of work, for the tariffing of work in the assignment of categories; - labor standards - the definition of production standards or time standards that contribute to the establishment of a specific amount of remuneration. The norm system is based on the fact that each type of work performed has its own norm, which allows to evaluate the contribution of the employee and the amount of wages due to the employee. There are two main groups of the tariff system of remuneration: temporary and piecework. When using a tariff-free wage system, an employee's earnings depend on the final results of the work of the structural unit of the enterprise in which he works, and on the amount of funds allocated by the employer for wages. This system is similar to the piecework wage system, but differs in that the piecework system uses such elements of the tariff system as rates and rates. With a tariff-free system of remuneration for a specific distribution of wages, the coefficient of labor participation is used. It can be either simple, taking into account the contribution of the employee to the achievement of the final results of work, or total, taking into account separately the qualifications of the employee and separately, according to the decision of the team, the coefficient of labor participation. The tariff-free wage system usually finds its application in small enterprises and companies. Incentive wage system consists of three parts: guaranteed; proportional to the tangible result of labor; premium - a share in the gain from increasing production efficiency. This system corresponds to the partnership between the employer and the employee. 47. PIECE PAYMENT FORM In the piecework system of remuneration, the employee is paid the amount of products (works, services) that he has produced. Piecework wage system can be of the following types: - simple; - piecework premium; - piece-progressive; - indirect piecework; - chord. RџSЂRё simple piecework wages wages are calculated on the basis of piece rates established in the organization, and the number of products (works, services) that the employee has manufactured. Direct piecework pay proceeds from the tariff rates per unit of time worked and from the norms of output per unit of time. In this case, the worker's earnings are calculated on the basis of piece rates, which are determined by dividing the tariff rate by the production rate. Piecework bonus pay provides, in addition to the calculation of wages at piece rates, the accrual of bonuses for achieving the indicators prescribed in the regulation on bonuses (for the production of products of a certain quality, for saving materials, for increasing labor productivity above the standard level, etc.). Normal, economically justified bonuses should not absorb the entire gain from improving economically significant indicators. The company must also win. Piecework-progressive wages means the use of rates of two levels: basic and increased. Basic prices are intended to accrue earnings within the limits of production rates (expressed in the number of products), and increased prices are for products manufactured in excess of the established standards, but within the working day (shift). Increased prices do not exclude the simultaneous calculation of a premium for product quality or material savings. This form of remuneration is piecework-progressive-bonus. Lump-sum wages formally close to the distributive wage system. Here there is a chord task and a wage fund allocated in advance for the fulfillment of this task. Such payment is comparable to a team contract under a civil law contract. To distribute the wage fund among employees, the indicator of hours worked and tariff rates adopted at the enterprise can be used. Accord-bonus system of remuneration combines elements of both time and piecework wages, both tariff and non-tariff. With a lump-sum system, along with tariff rates, KTU is used - the coefficient of labor participation, with the help of which the personal contribution of each participant to collective earnings is assessed. The coefficient of labor participation of individual employees is adopted by the labor collective as a result of discussion, by open voting. The minutes of the meeting are transferred to the accounting department for payroll. The coefficient of labor participation is used to distribute piecework earnings, i.e., the difference between the amount of payment for the collective (brigade) along with the amount of the tariff earnings of all members of the brigade. 48. TIME PAYMENT. TAIL FREE SYSTEM Remuneration of labor according to the tariff system is carried out in two forms: - time wages (simple and time-bonus); - piece-work (direct, piece-bonus, piece-progressive, chord, piece-bonus, indirect-piece). The basis of both time-based and piecework wages in the tariff system is the payment of working hours. Simple hourly wages provides for the establishment of a tariff rate or official salary for employees who have concluded an employment contract with an enterprise. The rate (salary) is known to the employee in advance and does not change depending on fluctuations in the proceeds received by the enterprise from sales of products (services) in a given period. Wages are calculated in proportion to the time worked (in days, hours). If the work time of this employee is taken into account in the time sheet in days, and the number of days worked is less than the standard, then the amount of the salary of this employee is divided by the number of standard working days of this month and then the received standard daily earnings are multiplied by the number of days actually worked by this employee. If the hours worked are counted in hours, then the hourly rate of this employee is multiplied by the number of hours worked per month. Time bonus pay is used to stimulate the achievement of quantitative and qualitative results of labor, which is poorly controlled with simple time-based pay. The bonus in this type of remuneration is an incentive element of the system. Its size must be known in advance, unlike one-time bonuses for success in work, by decision of the administration. The conditions for bonuses in the time-bonus system of remuneration are provided for by a special regulation on bonuses. This provision usually deals with the following issues: encouraged bonus indicators (uninterrupted operation of serviced equipment; reduction of waste materials; energy savings, for managers - the release of products in the entrusted area, etc.); negative indicators, the presence of which reduces the amount of the bonus or means the complete deprivation of the bonus (lateness to work; absenteeism; customer complaints; defects in manufactured products; errors in paperwork made by administrative workers, etc.); the size of the bonus (usually as a percentage of salary or monthly actual earnings at tariff rates or in absolute terms, in a fixed amount, in rubles, differentiated by position); circle of employees; sources of bonuses (formed in this division or allocated to the division centrally by the administration of the enterprise). Tariff-free payment system labor makes the employee's earnings completely dependent on the final results of the work of the team to which the employee belongs. Under this system, there is no fixed salary or tariff rate. Remuneration of labor of managers, specialists and employees is made, as a rule, on the basis of official salaries by agreement of the parties to the employment contract in proportion to the average salary of employees of the organization. Laws and other regulatory legal acts may establish a different procedure for determining the amount of remuneration for managers, specialists and employees (as a percentage of revenue, as a share of profit, etc.). Official salaries are established by the administration of the enterprise in accordance with the position and qualifications of the employee. 49. ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFICIENCY OF THE USE OF WORKFORCE RESOURCES OF THE ENTERPRISE Work force is the total number of people employed in the enterprise. AT main objectives of performance analysis use of enterprise workforce resources include: - study of the number of labor force, composition and skill level of personnel, opportunities to improve its cultural and technical level, verification of data on the use of working time; - development of the necessary organizational, technical and other measures in order to achieve the best results; - study of the forms, dynamics and causes of the movement of the labor force, labor discipline; - analysis of the impact of the number of employees on the dynamics of production, calculation and analysis of the profitability indicator to the cost of living labor. For the quantitative characteristics of the personnel of the enterprise, such indicators as the payroll, average payroll and attendance number of employees are used. The personnel structure of the enterprise, which affects the efficiency of the use of the enterprise's workforce, is characterized by the ratio of various categories of workers in their total number. The structure of personnel is determined and analyzed for each division, and is also considered separately for each feature (level of education, work experience, etc.) and correlates with the level of labor productivity for each division (workshop, section, department). Often used is such an indicator as the index of the proportion of personnel in this category, which allows you to track changes in the qualitative composition of the enterprise's employees in relation to the base period. When analyzing, it is necessary to have data on the utilization rate of the calendar fund of workers' time, which is determined by the ratio of the enterprise actually worked by the workers for a given period of working time to the calendar fund of working time. The coefficient of use of the time fund of working time is also used, which is determined by the ratio of the actually worked by the workers of the enterprise for a given period of working time to the time fund (nominal) of working time. Separately, the share of all-day losses of working time is determined, calculated by the ratio of the number of man-days of all-day downtime and the number of man-days of absenteeism for unjustified reasons to the maximum possible fund of working time (in man-days) for a certain period. To assess the efficiency of the use of labor resources of an enterprise, the indicator of profitability to the cost of living labor (Rt) is calculated according to the formula: Pt = P / (FOT + Oss), where P - profit; FOT - payroll fund, thousand rubles; Oss - contributions to social insurance, thousand rubles. This indicator serves as a benchmark for entrepreneurs in regulating the personnel composition of the enterprise and wages; shows that, in order to obtain a higher rate of surplus value, one should take care to increase labor productivity on the basis of the latest technologies and, on this basis, reduce costs. 50. LABOR MARKET Labor market - the sphere of formation of supply and demand for labor. A labor market is possible only if the worker is the owner of his ability to work. Through the labor market is the sale of labor for a certain period. Difficulties in the labor market: 1) problems caused by the lack of jobs; lack of work providing a living wage; 2) difficulties with the staff. The subjects or participants of the labor market are employers and employees. Employers - these are persons who work independently or with one or more business partners in their own enterprise (in their own business) and in this capacity hire employees on a permanent basis to work in their enterprise. All business partners in this case are employers. Partners may or may not be members of the same family or household. Employee - a person working for hire, on the basis of an employment contract, who is not the owner of the enterprise in which he works. There are two main forms of labor force sale and purchase in the labor market: collective agreements; labor exchanges. collective agreement - an agreement between the owner or administration of the enterprise, on the one hand, and the labor collective represented by the trade union committee, on the other hand. The subject of such an agreement: working hours, wages, vacation time, working conditions, ensuring labor safety, insurance, benefits. Labor exchange is an organization specializing in mediation between employees and entrepreneurs. The exchange performs five functions: 1) streamlines the procedure for hiring labor and reduces the time for looking for a job; 2) studies the demand and supply of labor, collects and summarizes information on the needs of the labor force by profession and region; 3) provides social support to employees in conditions of involuntary unemployment and insurance of the unemployed; 4) organizes the professional orientation of young people, taking into account the immediate and more distant prospects in time; 5) provides training and retraining for new professions for those who do not have the specialties needed for the labor market at a given time. career guidance - this is a generalized concept of one of the components of a universal culture, manifested in the form of society's concern for the professional development of the younger generation, support and development of natural talents, as well as a set of special measures to assist a person in professional self-determination and choosing the optimal type of employment, taking into account his needs and opportunities, socio-economic situation in the labor market. Professional selection - determination of the degree of professional suitability of a person for a particular profession (workplace, position) in accordance with regulatory requirements. Professional, industrial and social adaptation - a system of measures that contribute to the professional development of an employee, the formation of appropriate social and professional qualities, attitudes and needs for active creative work, and the achievement of a higher level of professionalism. 51. PRODUCT COST Production cost is a valuation of natural resources used in the production process, raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, fixed assets, labor, as well as production and sales costs. To assess the effectiveness of the enterprise, an assessment of costs in value terms is required. The monetary expression of the costs of production factors necessary for the enterprise to carry out its production and commercial activities is called the production and distribution costs of an industrial enterprise. In practice, when characterizing all the costs of production and circulation, the term "production costs" is used. The main composition of the costs included in the cost of production is established centrally. The state influences the formation of the cost of production not only through regulations, but also by establishing deductions from wages to the Social Insurance Fund, the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation, included in the unified social tax, depreciation rates from the cost of fixed assets, the amount of a number of other taxes and fees and etc. The cost of production plays an important role in the production activities of the enterprise. It shows how efficiently fixed assets and labor resources are used in the manufacture of products. The cost price is one of the main indicators of the economic efficiency of economic and organizational and technical measures. The cost indicator is used in calculating the economic efficiency of introducing new equipment, technological processes, introducing new materials, improving the organization of production, in determining appropriate levels of concentration and specialization of production, and in many other cases. Depending on the purpose of calculating the cost, two systems of classification are distinguished: according to the economic elements of production costs and according to cost items. According to economic elements, all costs that are homogeneous in terms of economic content are grouped, regardless of the place where they are produced, regardless of the cost object. All costs are grouped according to their economic content by the following elements: - material costs (minus the cost of returnable waste); - labor costs; - deductions for social needs; - depreciation of fixed assets; - other expenses. Material costs include the costs of purchasing raw materials, spare parts, tools, inventory and other low-value items, semi-finished products and components, payment for purchased energy of all kinds, compensation for losses from a shortage of resources received within the norm of natural loss. Labor costs include all types of wages, bonuses, allowances, payments for holidays, business trips, etc., the cost of products issued to employees in the form of payment in kind. The deductions for social needs include mandatory deductions that are part of the unified social tax. The depreciation of fixed assets includes the amount of depreciation deductions for the full restoration of fixed production assets. Other costs include taxes, fees and charges, depreciation of intangible assets, etc. 52. CLASSIFICATION OF COSTS Classification by economic elements practically cannot be used to calculate the unit cost of a certain type of output. For this purpose, it is applied classification by cost items. Determining the cost depends on the number of types of products. Enterprises are divided into specialized and multi-product. At machine-building enterprises that are diversified, when producing a variety of products, direct costs are established according to documents, then indirect costs are determined. The division of costs into direct and indirect is carried out depending on how the costs are related to a certain type of product or division of the enterprise - directly or through distribution. According to official regulations, the following nomenclature of cost items is defined: raw materials and materials; returnable waste (subtracted); fuel and energy for technological purposes; the basic wages of production workers; additional wages for production workers; social insurance contributions (single social tax); expenses for the preparation and development of production; expenses for the maintenance and operation of equipment; shop expenses; general factory expenses; losses from marriage; other production expenses; non-production (commercial) expenses. The first 12 articles characterize the amount of production costs and, with the inclusion of commercial costs, make up the full cost of production. When grouped by costing items as part of the cost, costs can be classified according to the following criteria: basic and overhead; direct and indirect; simple and complex; constants (conditional-constant) and variables (conditional-variables). The assignment of costs to the main and overhead is determined by the nature of their connection with the production of products. The main costs are directly related to the technological process. These include: the cost of raw materials and materials, fuel and energy for technological purposes, the basic wages of production workers. Overheads related to the organization of management and maintenance of production. These include, for example, workshop and general factory expenses, expenses for the sale of products. According to the method of attributing to the cost of specific types of products, all costs of the enterprise are divided into direct and indirect. Direct costs are directly related to the manufacture of a certain type of product and are directly related to its cost. Indirect costs associated with the operation of a workshop or enterprise as a whole and cannot be attributed directly to the cost of individual types of products, but only indirectly, according to a predetermined basis - in proportion to the basic wages of production workers, production costs, machine hours of equipment for the manufacture of relevant types of products, etc. . It is also important to divide costs (costs) into fixed and variable depending on the relationship to the change in production volume. К permanent include costs that remain generally constant within a certain range of fluctuations in output or change abruptly. 53. PLANNING AND COSTING Production cost - monetary value (valuation) used in the production process of products (products, works, services), natural resources, raw materials, materials, fuel, energy, fixed assets, labor resources, other costs for its manufacture and sale. In the conditions of market relations, any industry, every enterprise (firm, team, etc.), regardless of the form of ownership, must work without loss. Production cost is one of the most important economic indicators. The essence of this economic category is not only to take into account all material costs, wages, part of net income, other costs for the manufacture and sale of products, management and maintenance of production (general business, general production costs), but also to characterize all aspects of the production and economic activities, work efficiency at various levels of economic management. The value of this indicator in the formation of the price level, profit and profitability is great. The grouping of costs by economic elements or by costing items, respectively, is reflected in the cost estimate and costing of the enterprise's products. Cost estimate for production (production estimate) is used in calculating the cost of gross, marketable and sold products. The cost estimate for production is used to develop a balance of income and expenses of the enterprise, the formation of an operational financial plan, planning the sale of products and profits. According to the sequence of formation of the cost of a unit of production, technological, shop, production and full costs are distinguished. Technological (operational) cost - this is an economic assessment of new equipment and the choice of the most effective new equipment, which includes the sum of the costs of a given workshop that are directly related to the performance of a particular operation or set of operations. Workshop cost is formed from all the current costs of the shop for the production of a unit of output, i.e. it is calculated as the sum of the technological cost and shop costs. Production cost is defined as the sum of the workshop cost and general factory expenses and losses from marriage, which includes the costs of managing the enterprise as a whole (salaries of plant management personnel, depreciation and costs for current repairs of industrial buildings). Full cost unit of production is calculated as the sum of the production cost and non-production (commercial) expenses. The decisive condition for cost reduction is a continuous technical process. The introduction of new technology, comprehensive mechanization and automation of production processes, the improvement of technology, the introduction of progressive types of materials can significantly reduce the cost of production. A serious reserve for reducing the cost of production is the expansion of specialization and cooperation. At specialized enterprises with mass-flow production, the cost of production is much lower than at enterprises that produce the same products in small quantities. Reducing the cost of production is ensured primarily by increasing labor productivity. With the growth of labor productivity, labor costs per unit of output are reduced, and, consequently, the share of wages in the cost structure also decreases. 54. METHODS OF COST CALCULATION Costs - value expression of the material, labor, financial and other resources used in the economic activity of the organization for the reporting period. Costs can be charged to either assets or expenses of the organization. Costs represent an outflow of economic benefits during the reporting period in the form of a decrease or use of the entity's assets or an increase in its liabilities resulting in a decrease in capital, other than the allocation of capital to the entity's members. Cost management - this is the implementation of the entire complex of functions of the management cycle, aimed at improving the efficiency of the use of production resources in the enterprise. Costs, depending on the method of inclusion in the cost of certain types of products, works, services or groups of homogeneous products, are divided into direct and indirect. Direct - these are the costs associated with the production of a particular type of product or several types of products, but having a proportional relationship with the volume of work for the manufacture of each of the types and the possibility of distribution according to the direct link principle (for example, raw materials and materials, fuel, energy, etc.). Indirect - these are costs that do not have a direct proportional relationship with individual types of products, are included in the cost using special methods (for example, general production, general business expenses, etc.). The transition of enterprises to international standards and world accounting practice involves the division of costs into conditionally variable (production) and conditionally fixed (periodic), the calculation of reduced (partial) production costs and the allocation of conditionally fixed costs to the results of production and economic activities. With regard to the costing grouping of costs, periodic expenses with a certain degree of conventionality can be attributed to general and commercial expenses, all other costing items - to production (conditionally variable) expenses. Production costing is determined within conditionally variable costs. It allows you to evaluate work in progress, semi-finished products of your own manufacture, finished products. When preparing the cost estimate, the costs are divided into: - depending on participation in the production process - on the main, related to technology and determining the formation of the nature and consumer properties of the goods, and overhead costs; - according to the degree of expediency of spending - on productive, associated with the production of high-quality products, development of new products, and unproductive, caused by various kinds of losses from marriage, downtime, shortages, fines, etc.; - according to the degree of economic homogeneity - into simple, consisting of one element (single-element), for example, wages, and complex, including several elements (types) of heterogeneous costs, for example, general production and general business expenses, etc. 55. PRICING AND PRICE POLICY OF THE ENTERPRISE The most important economic lever for the success of an enterprise is price produced products or services. From the level of prices for products directly depend: the amount of income received by the enterprise; competitiveness of the enterprise and its products; financial stability of the enterprise. Price is a monetary expression of the cost of a unit of goods (services). In the conditions of market relations, the role of price increases sharply, since it is the main guideline for the behavior of an enterprise (firm) in the market. Depending on industries and sectors of the economy, on the purpose and sequence of formation, prices can be classified according to the following main features. By the nature of the serviced turnover, there are: - wholesale prices of the enterprise (company) - the prices of manufacturers of products at which they sell their products to consumers, reimbursing their costs for the production and sale of products and making a profit necessary for the development of their production: - selling prices of an enterprise (firm) - wholesale prices of an enterprise, taking into account value added tax and other indirect taxes; - purchase prices - prices at which agricultural products are sold; - prices for construction products; - retail prices - prices at which trade organizations sell products to the population, enterprises, organizations; - tariffs for freight and passenger transport - payment for the movement of goods and passengers, collected by transport organizations from the senders of goods and the population. - tariffs for paid services rendered to the population; - prices serving foreign trade turnover. According to the degree of regulation, there are: - free prices - prices set by producers of products and services under the influence of market conditions, the laws of supply and demand without any state influence; - regulated prices - prices set under the influence of supply and demand, but their value is regulated by the state or individual subjects of the Federation. There are direct and indirect methods of regulation. Direct regulation is carried out by setting fixed, marginal prices, allowances, marginal profitability. Indirect regulation is carried out by changing taxes and interest rates; - fixed, fixed prices - prices set by the pricing authorities. They are appointed for a limited range of goods and products; - contractual prices - prices established by agreement of the parties in the course of purchase and sale. By concluding a contract, the seller and the buyer assume certain obligations. Depending on the territory of action, there are: - unified across the country (or zone) prices - prices set for basic types of products that are subject to state regulation. These types of products include: natural gas, electricity, defense products, precious metals and alloys, etc.; - regional (local) prices - prices set by manufacturers, pricing authorities of regional governments. Prices of housing and communal and household services rendered to the population are regional. 56. PROFIT OF THE ENTERPRISE, ITS ESSENCE AND FORMATION The main purpose of any business is to make a profit. Profit - economic value, defined as the difference between total revenue and total costs, the difference between income and expenses. Profit is an indicator that most fully reflects the efficiency of production, the volume and quality of manufactured products, the state of labor productivity, and the level of cost. For an enterprise, profit is the main source of replenishment of its own working capital, material incentives for employees, financing of the social sphere, etc. As the most important category of market relations, profit performs the following functions: - characterizes the economic effect obtained as a result of the activity of the enterprise; - is the main element of the financial resources of the enterprise; - is a source of formation of a profitable part of budgets of different levels. Under the conditions of commercial calculation, the profit of an enterprise acts not only as the main result (main indicator, evaluation criterion) of the financial and economic activities of the enterprise, but also as a source of its development, financing of innovative and investment projects, satisfaction of other needs, including material ones, as members of this labor collective and owner, and society as a whole. Therefore, the main thing in the system of its distribution should be a combination of interests of business entities, society as a whole and specific employees. The implementation of this requirement determines the basic principles of its distribution: the priority fulfillment of financial obligations to society as a whole (represented by the state), the maximum provision of the needs of expanded production at the expense of profit, its use for material incentives for workers, and the direction for the development of the non-productive sphere. In countries with market economies, profits are taxed. Taxable income is gross income, less deductions to reserve funds, income from tax-exempt activities, deductions on capital investments. As a result, the company remains the so-called net profit. Net profit - this is the part of the profit that remains at the disposal of the enterprise after the payment of taxes established by law. The company's net profit is used for its own economic purposes. Net profit is the only source of funds for the payment of dividends in joint-stock companies, distribution between participants in proportion to their shares in limited liability companies. In the conditions of market relations, each enterprise seeks to increase the amount of profit that would allow it to firmly hold its position in the market for its products and ensure the dynamic development of its production in a competitive environment. Measures to increase profits include: increase in output; increase in product quality; sale or lease of surplus equipment and other property; reduction of production costs due to more rational use of material resources, labor force and working time; market expansion, etc. 57. PROFITABILITY OF THE WORK OF THE ENTERPRISE Cost-effectiveness is a quantitative ratio of two values - the results of economic activity and production costs. The essence of the problem of increasing economic efficiency is to increase economic results for each unit of costs in the process of using available resources. Profitability - this is a relative value (complex integral indicator), expressed as a percentage (or coefficient) and characterizing the efficiency of the use in production of (advanced) resources of materialized labor or current production costs. Product profitability - this is an indicator of production efficiency, determined by the ratio of the total (balance sheet) profit to the average annual cost of fixed production and normalized working capital. Production profitability - this is an indicator of production efficiency, determined by the ratio of the total (balance sheet) profit to the average annual cost of fixed production and normalized working capital. An enterprise engaged in economic activity is interested not only in obtaining maximum profit, but also in the efficiency of using the funds invested in production, calculated by the amount of profit received by the enterprise for a certain period of time (month, quarter, year), per one ruble of production assets, capital, turnover (sold products), investments, current production costs. When analyzing the economic activity of an enterprise and developing plans for the development of production, indicators of profitability of capital and products, investments and turnover, etc. are distinguished. Their calculation is usually performed according to the formula P = (P / 3) X 100, where P - profitability,%; П - profit, rub.; 3 - the amount of resources used or current costs, rub. Cost-effective means that justifies the costs, expedient from an economic point of view. return on assets: Phot = C / Os. return on assets is the output for 1 rub. average annual cost of fixed assets. capital intensity: Femk \uXNUMXd Os / Q, where Q is the output. capital intensity - this is the average annual cost of fixed assets attributable to 1 rub. products. Profitability of sales (turnover): Rp = profit / sales volume x 100%. Profit (gross or net) and sales are taken for the same reporting period, usually a year. Return on fixed capital: Rock = profit / fixed capital x 100%. Return on equity: Rsk = profit / equity x 100%. The return on equity characterizes the efficiency of the use of capital invested in production at the expense of own sources of financing. 58. TAXATION OF THE ENTERPRISE Tax - the only legal (established by law) form of alienation of property of individuals and legal entities on the basis of obligation, individual gratuitousness, irrevocable, secured by state coercion, not bearing the nature of punishment or indemnity, in order to ensure the solvency of public authorities. The function of the tax is the direction of the legal impact of the norms of tax law on social relations that have constancy, revealing the essence of the tax and realizing the social purpose of the state. Tax system - this is a set of prescribed taxes, principles, forms and methods of their establishment, change or cancellation, payment and application of measures to ensure their payment, tax control, as well as bringing to responsibility and measures of responsibility for violation of tax legislation. The principles of taxation are directions for finding compromises between the opposing interests of taxpayers (to keep savings) and the state (to form a budget). These principles are diverse and numerous, but at the same time, the most important ones can be singled out among them. First of all, it is necessary to highlight the principle equality and justice. The distribution of the tax burden should be equal, that is, each taxpayer should contribute a fair share to the state treasury. Both legal entities and individuals must take a material part in financing the needs of the state in proportion to the income they receive under the patronage and support of the state. But taxation should be universal and evenly distributed among taxpayers. The second approach to the implementation of the principle of equality and justice is the ability of the taxpayer to pay taxes. In this case, this approach is not tied to the structure of budget expenditures. Everyone pays their share depending on their ability to pay. Important in the formation of the tax system is the principle universalization of taxation. The principle of simultaneity taxation means that in a normally functioning tax system it should not be possible to impose two or more taxes on the same source or object. A rational and sustainable tax system is impossible without compliance with principle of stability of tax rates. The implementation of this principle is ensured by the fact that tax rates should be approved by law and should not be revised frequently. Differences in taxes depend on the nature of taxable income and expenses. The nature of these incomes and expenses underlies the classification of taxes. Taxes may apply: - in the market of goods or factors of production (labor, land and capital); - from sellers or buyers of goods; - from households or companies; - from the source of income or from the expense item. 59. TYPES OF TAXES The general principles of building the tax system are determined by the Tax Code of the Russian Federation. Objects of taxation are income (profit), the cost of certain goods, certain types of activities of taxpayers, transactions with securities, the use of natural resources, the property of legal entities and individuals, the transfer of property, the value added of products, works and services and other objects. It is stipulated that the same object may be taxed by one type of tax only once for the period of taxation specified by law. Tax exemptions may be established by law. The taxation system is three-level: federal taxes of Russia, taxes of the republics within the Russian Federation and taxes of territories, regions, autonomous regions, autonomous regions (regional taxes); local taxes. Federal taxes include: value added tax (VAT); corporate income tax; the choice of a simplified or traditional system is left to the taxpayer; other federal taxes paid by enterprises, customs duties. The taxes of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation include: corporate property tax; payment for water withdrawn by industrial enterprises from water management systems; forest income; tax on the needs of educational institutions. Local taxes are established by local authorities, their composition and payment procedure may be different in different territories. The most common of them are: advertising tax; land tax; tax on transactions for the purchase and sale of foreign currency is set as a percentage of the transaction amount; housing maintenance tax. The Tax Code provides for the streamlining of the taxation system, in particular, the construction of a unified tax system, the abolition of irrational taxes and other obligatory payments, as well as a significant reduction in the number of currently applied taxes and fees. It provides for the abolition of taxes and other obligatory payments that violate the unity of the economic space of Russia and impede the free movement of goods and services across its territory, the unification of taxes and other obligatory payments, including those with a similar tax base; minimization of taxes and fees that have a targeted focus; the abolition of taxes paid on proceeds from the sale of goods (works, services), as well as numerous small taxes and fees that provide insignificant revenues, but are expensive in terms of their administration. The unification of the three obligatory payments to state off-budget social funds (except for the Pension Fund of the Russian Federation) is envisaged by the introduction of a social tax with the division of the amounts of proceeds from this tax and their transfer to the Social Insurance Fund of the Russian Federation, the Employment Fund of the Russian Federation and the mandatory medical insurance funds. Taxes are divided into direct and indirect. Direct taxes are imposed directly on income or property. Indirect taxes include taxes on goods and services paid in the price of goods or included in the tariff. The owner of a product or service, upon their sale, receives tax amounts, which he transfers to the state. In this case, the relationship between the payer (consumer) and the state is mediated through the object of taxation. 60. BASICS OF COMMODITY POLICY Product is an economic good produced for exchange. The product has two main properties: - consumer value; - exchange value. The consumer value of a product is its ability to satisfy one or another human need, its usefulness. The exchange value of a commodity is its ability to be exchanged in certain quantitative ratios for another commodity. Commodity policy - this is an activity related to the planning and implementation of a set of strategies and measures to form competitive advantages in terms of current and long-term goals of the enterprise. The methodological basis for developing a commodity policy is a systematic, situational approach. Decisions in the field of product policy represent the result of the interaction of three variables: the goals of the enterprise, its resources and market opportunities. A strategic approach in product policy means ensuring that the product range complies with the strategic goals of the enterprise. Market opportunities are determined by studying market conditions. Conjuncture - this is a set of conditions in their interconnection, the prevailing situation, the state of affairs in any branch of public life. Under demand it is necessary to understand the need for a product, supported by purchasing power. The level of demand is determined by the amount of goods that the buyer is willing to purchase under given conditions for a certain period of time. Both formal and intuitive methods are used to forecast demand. Proposal - this is an ideal readiness and a real opportunity for a commodity producer to produce and put on the market a certain amount of this product. Price - this is a certain amount of money that the buyer pays, and the seller receives for this product. The development of a commodity policy requires a clear understanding of the goals of production, marketing and export in the future, the presence of a strategy for the production and marketing activities of the enterprise, good knowledge of the market and the nature of its requirements, an understanding of its capabilities and resources (research, scientific and technical, production, marketing, etc. .) now and in the future. The essence of planning, formation and management of the assortment as the most important component of the product policy is that the producer offers a certain set of goods in a timely manner, which, in general, corresponding to the profile of his production activity, would most fully satisfy the requirements of certain categories of buyers. The set of goods offered by the manufacturer on the market is called the assortment. Assortment management involves the coordination of interrelated activities - scientific, technical and design, integrated market research, marketing, service, advertising, demand stimulation. The difficulty of solving this problem is to combine all of the above elements to achieve the ultimate goal - the optimization of the assortment, taking into account the set strategic market goals. 61. COMMODITY NOMENCLATURE AND COMMODITY STRATEGIES OF THE ENTERPRISE Each company can offer the market one product or several of its types, one or several groups of products. Trade item - this is a separate integrity, characterized by indicators of size, appearance, price (TV "Electronics", toothpaste "New Pearls"). Product range - this is a group of goods that are similar to each other in terms of the set of functions performed; the nature of meeting the needs of the target market; distribution channels; price range. Commodity nomenclature - a set of product lines (assortment groups) and product units offered to customers by a particular seller. Commodity nomenclature is characterized by indicators of breadth, depth, saturation, harmony. The breadth of the product range is determined by the total number of product groups. Product line depth - this is the number of options for the proposals of each individual product within the assortment group. For example, an enterprise produces the following types of cutters: cutting, cutting, passing, boring, therefore, the depth of the "cutters" position is 4. Saturation of the commodity nomenclature - the total number of its constituent individual goods. Under the harmony of the product range imply the degree of similarity of goods of different assortment groups in terms of their end use, requirements for the organization of production, distribution channels, etc. The formation of a commodity policy includes the development of a strategy and tactics for its implementation. Commodity strategy - This is a long-term course of commodity policy, designed for the future and providing for the solution of fundamental tasks. Commodity strategy involves 3 areas of work with the product: product innovation; product modification; product elimination. The formation of a product range is a continuous process that continues throughout the entire life cycle of a product, starting from the moment the idea of its creation was born and ending with the withdrawal from the product program. The assortment formation system includes the following main points: determining the current and future needs of buyers, analyzing how the organization's products are used and the characteristics of consumer behavior in the respective markets; assessment of existing analogues of competitors in the same areas; a critical assessment of goods and services produced by the organization in the same range from the standpoint of the buyer; resolving issues of including goods in the assortment, exclusion from it due to changes in the level of competitiveness, diversification; consideration of proposals for the creation of new products, improvement of existing ones, as well as new ways and areas of application of goods; development of specifications for new or improved products in accordance with the requirements of buyers; exploring opportunities for the production of new or improved products, including issues of price, cost and profitability; testing (testing) of products, taking into account potential consumers in order to determine their acceptability in terms of key indicators; development of special recommendations for the production departments of the organization regarding quality, price, name, packaging, service, etc. in accordance with the results of the tests, confirming the acceptability of the product characteristics or predetermining the need to change them; assessment and revision of the entire range. 62. THE CONCEPT OF PRODUCT QUALITY In the conditions of market relations, the relevance of quality management is due to the need to manufacture products with high competitiveness. High product quality is the most significant component that determines the competitiveness of products. For the Russian economy, ensuring a stable high quality of products that meets the requirements of the consumer is of great importance also because without this condition, the national economy of Russia will not be able to integrate into the world economy and take its rightful place there. The problem of quality is the most important factor in improving the standard of living, economic, social and environmental security. Quality (K) - is a set of characteristics of an object related to its ability to satisfy conditional or implied needs. [ISO 8402 Quality management and quality assurance]. Under the object refers to anything that can be described or measured: a product, service, process, system, organization, or individual(s) or a combination of them. Product quality assurance - actions planned and systematically performed by the commodity producer organization that create confidence that the quality of the product will meet the requirements. A high level of quality of products and services contributes to an increase in demand for products and an increase in the amount of profit not only due to sales volume, but also due to higher prices. Quality as an economic category has a dual character. Quality is assessed by both the manufacturer of the goods and the consumer with their own criteria for assessing quality. Both are involved in the process of "creating quality". A written guarantee of product compliance with established requirements (standards) is given by a procedure called product certification. quality of products - a set of properties that reflect the level of novelty, reliability and durability, efficiency, ergonomic, aesthetic, environmental and other consumer properties of products, giving it the ability to satisfy the conditional or expected needs in the system of industrial relations. Requirements for product quality are formed by consumers (customers), developers, manufacturers, as well as government agencies (priority belongs to the consumer) and are fixed in the relevant regulatory and technical documents and contracts. The current legislation defines and legally consolidates the relations of participants in social production related to ensuring the quality of scientific, technical, industrial, construction, agricultural and other products, transport, supply, trade and other types of work and services, provides for the protection of the rights and interests of the consumer. It should provide for strengthening the impact of the economic mechanism, economic levers and incentives on ensuring the quality and competitiveness of products developed and used, works and services performed in the conditions of market relations, the democratization of public life, and the development of competition. 63. PRODUCT QUALITY INDICATORS Each of the main groups of product quality indicators, classified according to the homogeneity of the characterized properties, contains a number of subgroups and indicators. Purpose: classification, composition and structure, social (timely entry to the market, social address and consumer type, obsolescence, etc.), functional (power, performance, speed, memory size, speed, efficiency, etc.). Reliability: reliability (probability of failure-free operation, probability of failure, mean time to failure, failure rate, etc.), durability (average resource, average resource before decommissioning, average resource before overhaul, service life, warranty period, etc.), maintainability (probability of recovery at a given time, average recovery time, average downtime, etc.), persistence (shelf life); economical use of material resources, energy, labor resources: specific consumption of raw materials and materials, energy intensity, efficiency of energy consumption, labor resources, etc. Ergonomic: compliance of the product with the motor ability and human senses, etc. Aesthetic: informational expressiveness (significance - trademark, originality, stylistic conformity, conformity to fashion, rationality of form, perfection of production performance and presentation, clarity of execution of brand names, packaging and accompanying documentation, resistance to damage). Environmental: physical (mechanical - levels of dust emission, soil compaction, noise; electromagnetic - levels of radio interference, biological activity of the electromagnetic field); radiation (radiation levels of alpha, beta and gamma particles); chemical (the content of toxic substances released into the environment, the stability of toxic substances); microbiological (the level of pathogenicity of microorganisms isolated from preparations of microbiological synthesis); the presence of signs of environmental friendliness, etc.). Safety: mechanical (deformability, wear, corrosion resistance, noise and vibration levels), electrical (electrical protection response time, probability of electric shock, etc.), thermal (probability of hypothermia and overheating, level of thermochemical aggressiveness, etc.), fire and explosion ( the probability of a fire or explosion, etc.), biological (probability of biological hazard, etc.), the presence of safety signs, etc. Patent Law: patent purity, patent protection, etc. Standardization and unification: applicability, repeatability, inter-project unification, etc. Manufacturability: basic (labor intensity of manufacturing, technological cost of production, etc.), additional (coefficient of application of standard technological processes, specific material consumption, material utilization factors, relative labor intensity of procurement work, relative labor intensity of preparing the product for operation, etc.). Transportability: overall dimensions, weight, range of permissible temperatures, humidity, pressure and shock loads during transportation, time and costs for preparatory and final transportation work. Reuse or disposal (destruction): recycling coefficient, recycling (labor intensity and cost of disposal, etc.), destruction (labor intensity and cost of destruction, etc.). Service: the presence and remoteness of service structures, the level of quality of services, etc. Economic and commercial: full production cost, one-time costs of the consumer (price of products, packaging costs, etc.), current costs of the consumer - the price of consumption (use). 64. CERTIFICATION OF PRODUCTS AND QUALITY SYSTEMS Certification of products - an action carried out with the aim of confirming with the necessary reliability the conformity of products to specific standards or specifications and issuing an appropriate document. Mandatory certification is subject to products, the state standards for which contain requirements to ensure the safety of life and health of people, environmental protection. Production, sale, use, as well as import of such products without a certificate of compliance with the specified requirements of state standards should not be carried out. Products intended for export are subject to mandatory certification even if it is determined by the legislation of the importing country or by the contract. To confirm the high quality of the product, the manufacturer has the right to certify it for compliance with any requirements established by state standards or technical specifications. The Federal Law "On Technical Regulation" defines certification as a form of confirmation of compliance of objects with the requirements of technical regulations, the provisions of standards and the terms of contracts, carried out by the certification body. Voluntary certification is carried out using confirmation of compliance with national standards, standards of organizations, voluntary certification systems and contract terms. Mandatory certification provides for the possibility of establishing the compliance of an object only with the requirements of technical regulations, which is the first and main distinguishing feature of this type of activity. As a member of the certification system, a testing laboratory, in order to be recognized as competent for testing specific products, must comply with the requirements of GOST R 51000.3-96. A certificate of conformity is a document certifying the compliance of an object with the requirements of technical regulations, the provisions of standards or the terms of contracts. The certificate of conformity includes: - name and location of the applicant; - name and location of the manufacturer of the certified products; - name and location of the certification body that issued the certificate of conformity; - information about the object of certification, allowing to identify this object; - the name of the technical regulation for compliance with the requirements of which certification was carried out; - information about the conducted studies (tests) and measurements; - information about the documents submitted by the applicant to the certification body as evidence of product compliance with the requirements of technical regulations; - validity period of the certificate of conformity. Certification of products based on the results of its certification tests. On the basis of their positive results and if there are conditions at the manufacturing enterprises that ensure the stable quality of the certified products and its effective control, a certificate is issued - a certificate of conformity. 65. INNOVATIVE ACTIVITY, SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL POTENTIAL OF THE ENTERPRISE Innovative activity - this is a kind of activity that is associated with the transformation of innovation ideas into a new improved product introduced on the market. Innovative activity involves a whole range of scientific, technical, organizational, financial and commercial activities. Innovation process is the creative process of creating and transforming scientific knowledge into new products that are accepted by consumers. The main difficulty in implementing changes in the enterprise is to determine the optimal ratio between maintaining the stability of the production system and carrying out the necessary changes. There are two concepts of development. Marketing - the production of products caused by the needs of the market. The concept of "technology push" is based on R&D and technology capabilities. Any change in the organization is associated with the identification of problems in the development of the company and the formation of a vision for the future of the organization, which are impossible without assessing the existing potential. Organization potential - these are resources of all kinds that can be used to achieve the goals of the enterprise. Potential assessment is carried out in all areas of the organization: production, scientific and technical, marketing, resource, organizational, etc. For its assessment, the SNW analysis method can be used (identifying the strengths, neutrals and weaknesses of the organization in all types and areas of activity) . Any changes related to the improvement of the technical and technological level of production, the development of the production of fundamentally new products, a change in the direction of business, are based primarily on determining the innovative component of the existing potential. In doing so, one should distinguish between: - scientific and technical potential; - innovative potential. If scientific and technical potential characterizes the organization's ability to produce new knowledge and technical solutions (inventions, industrial designs, know-how), then innovative potential - the degree of readiness of the enterprise to implement an innovation (innovative project), both “our own” (created on our own in R&D departments) and “foreign” (acquired in the form of patents, licenses for inventions and know-how, etc.). The choice of the method and direction of innovative activity of an enterprise depends on the resource and scientific and technical potential of the enterprise, market requirements, stages of the life cycle of equipment and technology, and features of industry affiliation. When designing, developing and implementing innovations, it is necessary to determine the necessary costs for their implementation, possible sources of financing, evaluate the economic efficiency of innovations, compare the effectiveness of various innovations by comparing income and costs. 66. INNOVATIVE PROJECT. CHALLENGES TO BE SOLVED WHEN INNOVATION MANAGEMENT The creation of innovations is associated with a special type of management - project management. Project - is a set of tasks or activities related to the achievement of a planned goal, which usually has a unique and non-recurring character. The concept of "project" can also be considered as: - activity, event, involving the implementation of a complex of any actions that ensure the achievement of certain goals; - a system of technical, organizational, legal and settlement and financial documents necessary for the implementation of any actions. The emergence of innovation on the market is the result of performing various and relatively isolated works: scientific research on various topics; design development; creation of prototypes of the product and their testing; preparation of production of products; release of an experimental batch; studies of consumer reaction to the appearance of a new product; conducting an advertising campaign; organization of serial production of the product; setting up a sales network, etc. These and other works not mentioned in the list are performed by different divisions of the company. Some part of the work can be carried out by other firms under special contracts. The project has the following distinguishing features: strict and reasonable goals that must be achieved while meeting a number of technical, economic and other requirements; the presence of internal and external interconnections of operations, tasks and resources that require clear coordination in the implementation of the project; certain dates for the beginning and end of the project; limited resources; a certain degree of uniqueness of the goals of the project and the conditions for its implementation; the inevitability of various conflicts. Many projects are unique, in their own way, well-defined activities aimed at producing concrete results in a multifunctional environment within a specified time frame and within the allocated resources, involving a group of people with diverse skills and knowledge and working under specific leadership. Any project develops at the intersection of various environments: social, technical, organizational, business and political. A change in each of them can lead to a change in the requirements or goals of the project, so the manager’s job is full of difficulties: he has to work in an atmosphere of conflicting interests, different understandings of the project and respond in a timely manner to emerging changes. The need to analyze the expectations and intentions of the project participants and, therefore, the ability to anticipate their actions introduces a large share of uncertainty in the work of the manager. Project management is a professional creative activity based on the use of modern scientific knowledge, methods and technologies and focused on achieving the implementation of projects as targeted changes with limited financial, time, human, material and other resources. Projects differ depending on the sector of the economy and the social sphere (industry, construction, transport, healthcare, tourism, etc.); the implementation period, the volume of necessary investments (short-term, medium-term, long-term); degree of coverage of the stages of the innovation process (full innovation projects, including research and development, development and development, development of innovation and its commercialization, incomplete innovation projects, including individual stages of the innovation process). 67. MARKET OF INNOVATIONS. MARKETING IN THE INNOVATIVE SPHERE Innovation market is a set of innovative types of products and processes, legal entities and individuals selling or acquiring scientific and technical high technology products. Intellectual property of firms - developers of innovations, as a rule, has legal protection. Therefore, at the first stage of innovation, these firms often do not have direct competitors. Marketing in the innovation sphere has the following features: - the possibility of implementing innovations in various fields and fields of activity; - Orientation to an experienced, often - a collective buyer; - mandatory advertising, as the consumer must know the benefits of a new, usually unfamiliar product; - mandatory after-sales service, which is associated with the technical complexity of high-tech products; - the need to take into account the scientific and technical level of potential consumers, since many engineering and technical innovations do not find buyers due to the technological backwardness of consumers. In the process of marketing research, it is necessary to determine the preliminary effectiveness of innovations, i.e., first of all, economic efficiency, expressed in the ratio of costs and results of the implementation of an innovative project. The effectiveness of innovations is evaluated on the basis of the following main indicators: - the cost of the project, taking into account the sources of its financing; - level of return on capital; - internal rate of return; - payback period of investments. The investment process begins with the expenditure of own or borrowed funds. It is assumed that in the future the income from the implementation of the project should exceed the costs associated with it. Financing an investment project involves the presence of the company's own funds or borrowing funds from external sources. It is assumed that borrowed funds (credit) are provided with the condition of obligatory repayment, and they must be returned with interest, which is a payment for the use of credit resources. From the point of view of an enterprise (organization) - the borrower, a credit transaction is a financing of the investment activities of this enterprise, i.e., receiving a certain amount of money and using this amount at its own discretion, subject to mandatory repayment and payment of interest. For the creditor, funds transferred to the borrowing enterprise for a certain period on a repayment basis in order to receive interest represent an investment of its capital in order to obtain guaranteed income. P. Doyle distinguishes the following types of innovations. new old products, which represent new ways of using products familiar to consumers. New markets are new consumer groups of the product. New Ways to Do Business are innovative approaches to the supply of long-standing products and customer service. 68. INNOVATIVE STRATEGIES Goal offensive strategy is to take a leading position in the market. It is associated with the role of a pioneer and is based on its own creative possibilities. A necessary and important condition for the implementation of this strategy is the introduction of innovations before competitors. For its implementation it is necessary: effective innovative activity; management of the company, prone to new ideas; good knowledge of the market; effective marketing; employees of the creative warehouse; possibility of risk sharing. There are several innovative offensive strategies. 1. Creating a new market is a rather rare strategy when a unique product is produced based on a new idea that has no analogues. 2. Acquisition of companies - a strategy that involves the absorption of a company that has significant intangible assets (developments and technologies, methods and models of doing business, engineering and technical workers, image in the market, etc.). 3. Robbery strategy - a strategy, the essence of which is that, based on a new technology, a company launches a well-known product on the market that has significantly improved characteristics, which reduces the overall size of the market. 4. The strategy of continuous improvement ("kaizen") - a strategy consisting in the improvement of production technologies and quality due to highly educated and professionally trained personnel, which is of key importance. 5. Strategy of comparative advantage - a strategy based on the production of a product that combines the properties of several goods, without compromising the characteristics of the base product (for example, the production of mobile phones with built-in video cameras). 6. Licensing, or imitation, strategy - a strategy in which a new technology or product is acquired from other enterprises, for example, by purchasing a license. Often, for firms, a license is much cheaper, faster to acquire, and more reliable than doing their own R&D. Stabilization innovation strategies are used by firms that do not claim to be the first to bring innovation to the market, but strive to maintain their leading positions. As a rule, the innovations of recognized leaders are borrowed with the introduction of some changes into the products, i.e., analogue products are created. A defensive strategy involves deliberately slowing down a new product to market until the leader does. In doing so, the firm forgoes a possible high level of initial income in exchange for the security of a late entry into the market, which is provided by knowledge of the results of the sale of the product. Dependent strategy assumes that the company focuses on product development and technology of large leading companies. Its goal is self-preservation through the performance of contract work for these companies. It is widely used in the production of parts for factories for the assembly of finished products. The defensive strategy is based on the fact that research and development is carried out without pretensions to occupying leading positions by the company and their goal is to keep up with others in the field of technical and technological development and, if possible, increase the technical level of production. A selective (selective) strategy involves the concentration of resources in certain, most effective areas, which creates the conditions for a transition to an offensive strategy. 69. INVESTMENT PROCESS. CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS The subjects of investment activity carried out in the form of capital investments are investors, customers, contractors, users of capital investment objects and other persons. Investors make capital investments in Russia using their own and borrowed funds. Investors can be legal entities and individuals formed on the basis of a joint activity agreement and not having the status of a legal entity, associations of legal entities, state bodies, local governments, as well as foreign legal entities and citizens. Formation of sources of financing of the investment process represents the transformation of savings and attracted monetary and other assets into investment resources. The totality of market sources can be divided into two groups - internal and external. In turn, internal sources are divided into own and borrowed. Own funds are the basis of all investment projects. Own resources, through which it is possible to increase the volume of investment financing, include two global financial flows - profit and depreciation. At the same time, their value is regulated by the state through tax policy. Depreciation is primarily a source of coverage for the recovery of real functioning capital. Unlike depreciation, profit allows recovery on an extended scale. The presence of profit allows you to make financial investments, that is, to receive income from this process and often control the financed business. Investments in objects of entrepreneurial activity are carried out in various forms. According to the objects of investment of funds, real and financial investments are distinguished. Material investments are associated with the acquisition or creation of elements of fixed capital and are carried out, as a rule, as part of an investment project. Intangible (potential) investments are carried out when creating intangible benefits, they express investments in the training and retraining of personnel, research and development work (R&D), the creation of industrial designs of new products, etc. Financial investments express capital investment in financial assets, including all types of payment and financial liabilities. There are financial investments in government securities, the funds from the sale of which come to cover the budget deficit, and portfolio investments in equity securities (stocks and bonds of joint-stock companies). There are also investments: - by type of investment resources: investments in cash, investments in natural-material form, investments in the form of intangible assets; - according to the mechanism of financing and lending: direct, indirect, investments in the purchase of separate property complexes; - by payback period: quick payback, medium-term payback, long-term payback; - by type of ownership: public, private. 70. INVESTMENT ACTIVITIES. INVESTORS Investment activity - a set of practical actions for the implementation of investments. It can be carried out at the expense of own financial resources and on-farm reserves of the enterprise, as well as borrowed and attracted financial resources of investors, investment allocations from the state budget, foreign investments. Investment activity can be in the form of capital-forming and financial investments. Capital-forming investments involve an increase in the production tangible and intangible assets of the enterprise. Investments aimed at the creation and reproduction of fixed assets, which are usually long-term, are called capital investments. Financial (portfolio) investments - the placement of funds in the financial assets of the enterprise in the form of shares, bonds and other securities. The processes of economic renewal and growth are determined by the quality of investments and the speed of their implementation, as well as their size and structure. In investing, in general, no positive shifts happen without investment savings and proper material resources. Before making an investment, an enterprise needs to conduct a comprehensive project analysis, including technical, commercial, institutional, social, financial, economic and environmental analyzes. Implementation of portfolio (financial) investments involves the analysis of investment risks and profitability of securities. The main goal of forming an investment portfolio is the maximum possible mutual repayment of risks associated with a particular form of capital investment, which ensures the reliability of the deposit and the highest guaranteed income. The following groups of investors are represented on the Russian investment market. 1. Strategic investors, i.e. investors who have the goal of being on the Russian market for a long time and an action strategy that is resistant to climate change in the Russian investment market. The emergence of a strategic investor results in significant changes in the activities of the enterprise. The strategic investor, as a rule, takes full control over the production and financial activities of the enterprise. 2. Venture investors who have entered the market in recent years and do not set long-term goals of dominating it. A significant part of these investors is focused on obtaining ultra-high income for a short period of time on intermediary, trading and financial transactions, which is associated with increased risk. 3. Portfolio investors, ie. e. investors who invest in the securities of one or more enterprises and thus form a "portfolio" of various securities. However, they do not require full management of the borrower's activities. The main goal of a portfolio investor is the subsequent resale of the securities of the enterprises in which the funds are invested (for example, to a strategic investor). 71. INVESTMENT POLICY OF THE ENTERPRISE Investment Policy - this is a system of economic decisions that determine the volume, structure and directions of long-term investments (investments) both within an economic object (enterprises, firms, companies, etc.), a region, a country (republic, state), and outside them with the aim of development of production, entrepreneurship, profit or other end results. Through investment policy, the solution of many problems is achieved, for example, improving the structure of production and accelerating the pace of its development, balanced and efficient sectors of the economy, obtaining the greatest increase in production and income (profit), etc. Of particular importance are investments in improving the skills of employees, their knowledge and experience, which ensure the growth of the creative potential of society, in social, environmental and other measures. In the context of the widespread use of economic methods of management, overcoming crisis situations and transition to market relations, it is necessary to ensure the scientific validity of investment policy for the future, to link the practice of planning (forecasting) investments with a new economic mechanism and to ensure a radical improvement in the use of long-term investments, increasing their efficiency as a further condition acceleration of the socio-economic development of the country. The features of investment policy in modern conditions are: - an increase in the share of long-term investments for technical re-equipment and reconstruction of existing enterprises (productions) and, accordingly, a decrease in its share for new construction; - direction of investments mainly in the basic branches of engineering, agriculture; - improving the ratio between capital investments in resource-producing, processing and consuming industries in favor of the latter; - increase in the share of long-term investments in the active part of fixed assets. State regulation of investment activity should be carried out by economic methods through the mechanism of taxation, depreciation policy, the provision of budget allocations for financing investments. Investment policy is always aimed at achieving a social effect through investment or profit. It can also be implemented in all spheres of the national economy. The principles for its implementation are as follows: - non-interference of state authorities and administration, public organizations, legal entities and citizens in investment activities that do not contradict the current legislation; - voluntary investment; - security of investments; - equality of all participants, investors, regardless of ownership and types of activities; - freedom of choice of criteria in the implementation of investment activities. 72. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING Planning - this is the development and adjustment of the plan, including foresight, justification, concretization and description of the activities of the enterprise (object) for the near and long term. Planning at the enterprise gradually covers the work of people and the movement of resources (material and financial) aimed at obtaining a given end result. A. Fayol identified four basic principles of planning, calling them common features of a good program of action. 1. The principle of unity suggests that planning in an organization should be systematic. The system means the existence of a set of interrelated elements and the presence of a single direction for their development, oriented towards common goals. The elements of planning in an organization are the individual units that are part of it, and the individual parts of the planning process. 2. Participation principle closely related to the principle of unity. This principle means that each member of the organization becomes a participant in planned activities, regardless of the position and function performed by him. That is, the planning process should involve all those directly affected by it. Planning based on the principle of participation is called participatory. 3. The principle of continuity assumes that: - the planning process at the enterprise should be carried out constantly within the established cycle; - the developed plans should continuously replace each other (the second - to replace the first, the third - to replace the second, etc.). The second of the conditions for the continuity of planning - the constant following of plans one after another - companies, as a rule, comply with. At the same time, it is not uncommon for the planning process to be interrupted: firms develop a plan during a certain part of the year, approve it, and stop planning until the next period. 4. Flexibility principle associated with the principle of continuity and consists in giving plans and the planning process the ability to change its direction in connection with the occurrence of unforeseen circumstances. To implement the principle of flexibility, plans must be drawn up so that they can be changed, linking them to changing internal and external conditions. Therefore, plans usually contain certain reserves. However, there are certain limits to planning reserves: - the reserves included in the indicators should not be too large, otherwise the plans will be inaccurate; - low reserves entail frequent changes in plans, which blurs the guidelines for the company's activities. 5. The principle of accuracy means that every plan must be drawn up with a degree of accuracy that is compatible with a certain amount of uncertainty. In other words, plans should be specific and detailed to the extent that the external and internal conditions of the firm's activities allow. 73. PLANNING AS A SYSTEM All enterprises should consider the plan as a system and, when developing it, provide for the following. Definition of goals and objectives. In the current conditions of the formation of a market system in Russia, enterprises are independent economic entities and carry out the production and sale of products in order to obtain a profit sufficient for self-financing development, growth or retention of market share, ensuring an increase in output and sales volumes compared to the previous period. Of great importance is the introduction of the latest achievements of scientific and technological progress, the use of advanced technologies and taking into account all the factors that help to survive in a competitive environment. Resources. First of all, it is required to determine the need for financial, material and labor resources and optimize their structure to achieve the goals. It is advisable to evaluate the choice of the type and efficiency of activity in relation to profit to the average annual cost of fixed assets and working capital. Each enterprise must achieve the effective use of attracted resources and constantly solve the problem of maximizing the return on assets. Setting proportions. When developing a plan, it is required to ensure a balance of indicators, a certain correspondence between them. Of great importance is the determination of the optimal share of own working capital, the level of development of the material and technical base, the provision of transport services, etc. Organization of the implementation of the plan. We are talking here about the definition of economic, organizational and technical measures aimed at the most complete satisfaction of social needs at the required level of profit, as well as about ways and means of achieving the goals set. Control over the implementation of the plan. Constant and timely verification of the implementation of the plan is necessary to ensure the desired development of the economic process, identify shortcomings and determine ways to eliminate them. In the control process, it is necessary to sum up the results of development - the progress of the plan for a certain period (day, week, month, etc.), assess the actual state of affairs and decide on corrective actions. The implementation of strategic directions of activity is provided for by the entire system of plans. From the point of view of an enterprise operating in a market economy, the following types of plans can be distinguished: - long-term plans-forecasts, developed for 10-15 years, aimed at solving many strategic directions of the enterprise; - medium-term plans-forecasts concretize long-term plans. They are developed for 3-5 years. At the level of ministries, so-called framework forecasts are compiled for the same period. In recent years, in Russia, the five-year plans of the enterprise began to be classified as long-term, and plans for the next 2-3 years - as medium-term plans. The latter also provide for the implementation of certain strategic areas of activity of enterprises; - current (short-term) plans link all activities of the enterprise and the work of all its structural divisions for the coming financial year. 74. PERSPECTIVE AND CURRENT PLANS OF THE ENTERPRISE. MANUFACTURING PROGRAM Long term plans (from 5 to 15 years) are usually associated with investment projects. The range of output in them in physical terms is usually limited to the main names, without internal decoding of product groups. The output of products for the future is necessarily planned in terms of money, and its composition includes the main products and others. Short term plans (for a month, a quarter, half a year, a year) are associated with operational, detailed production plans. The implementation of short-term plans is monitored online. Information on the release of the most important types of products in physical terms is transmitted to the statistical authorities on a daily basis, where it is summarized by region and the country as a whole. Enterprises provide information on the production and shipment of goods and services in actual prices (including and without VAT and excises), as well as on the turnover of retail trade and public catering on a monthly basis - in the order of federal state statistical observation. If necessary, a research plan is drawn up to create new or modified types of products, plans and programs are developed for developing new or improving products. The subject of production planning is to determine the list of products that will be produced, as well as the necessary production conditions. Planning a production program includes establishing the volume of production, its range, production time, as well as the quality and quantity of resources required for this. At the same time, design is taken into account from the position of manufacturing a product of a certain required quality. Assortment planning should be based on a compromise between the sale of products, which is designed for a wide range (as this improves sales opportunities), and the production program. A wide range requires special equipment, its frequent readjustment, which leads to an increase in costs. A compromise is reached on the basis of assortment narrowing by means of aggregation: in the presence of a known variety of products, numerous components of its types are unified. When determining production volumes, it is recommended to take into account whether the enterprise produces one type of product or several. Based on the marketing research data and the strategic goals of the enterprise, a sales program by nomenclature and assortment by years of the medium-term planning period. The sales program is formed in physical and value terms, taking into account the projected sales prices. It is the basis for the development of a production plan (production program). The production plan contains a plan for the release of the main types of products manufactured by the enterprise in physical terms, justified by the calculation of production capacities, taking into account the commissioning of new production facilities, changes in labor productivity, the structure of products, improving the quality and competitiveness of products. 75. PLANS FOR TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT AND ORGANIZATION OF PRODUCTION, CAPITAL CONSTRUCTION, PURCHASES The effective operation of enterprises in a market economy largely depends on how reliably they foresee the long-term and short-term prospects of their development, i.e., forecasting. The central section of the enterprise development plan is the production plan (production program), which establishes tasks for the production of certain types of products in kind and value terms, and provides for a further improvement in product quality. Plan of technical development and organization of production. This plan should include the following subsections: - development of new types of products and improvement of the technical level of products; - introduction of progressive technologies; - increasing the level of mechanization and automation of production; - improvement of the system of management, planning and organization of labor and production at the enterprise. In the same section, calculations of the expected effect from innovation activities in the management and production areas should be given. For each area of innovation, specific measures are developed, the required investment volumes and the expected economic effect are calculated. Depending on the goals defined by the strategic plan of the enterprise, the priorities of innovative activity are set. This allows you to focus limited investments on the most significant areas for the enterprise. Capital construction plan. This section of the plan includes: determination of the required volume of capital construction and its distribution by facilities, determination of the volume of new fixed assets and production capacities put into operation, determination of the volume of necessary capital investments and sources of financing, which may be: the enterprise's own funds borrowed from banks funds, investments of third-party investors interested in making a profit from investments. The main indicators of the capital construction plan are: putting production capacities into operation on the basis of technical re-equipment and reconstruction; commissioning of production capacities by expanding existing production capacities and building new fixed assets. The scope of capital works includes the cost of all types of construction works, equipment installation works, the cost of equipment, which is provided for in the estimates and plans for construction, as well as the costs of design and survey, drilling and other types of work. Procurement plan (logistics) This section defines the need for basic material and technical resources and the sources of their receipt (main suppliers, supplies under long-term contracts, industrial cooperation, etc.). The development of a logistics plan should be preceded by the formation of scientifically developed norms for the consumption of material resources, as well as measures to save them. 76. PLANS FOR WORK AND PERSONNEL, COST, PROFIT AND PROFITABILITY В plan for labor and personnel contains an analysis of the dynamics of labor productivity and calculates the prospective growth in labor productivity, as well as indicators of labor intensity. In addition, the average hourly output per worker is calculated. When planning labor productivity, the influence of a number of factors is taken into account: structural shifts in production (changes in the share of certain types of products in the total volume of production), the introduction of new technologies, mechanization of manual labor, improvement of management and organization of production and labor, changes in production volumes, etc. On this basis, the need for labor resources is determined, sources for recruiting additional labor resources and methods for improving the skills of personnel working at the enterprise are outlined. It also calculates the wage fund for time wages or determines the standards for calculating wages for other forms of wages. Plan for cost, profit and profitability of production includes the determination of all costs for the production and sale of products in value terms, per unit of output. Comparison of costs in the planning period with the proceeds from the sale of products in the same year allows you to determine the economic efficiency of the enterprise in the planning period. To do this, it is necessary: to determine the size of the planned profit, to calculate the cost for each type of manufactured product, to determine the level of profitability of products and the entire production, to take into account the possible reduction in production costs, to establish an economically justified level of production costs, to identify unreasonable costs and take measures to eliminate them . The planned profit is defined as the difference between the funds that are planned to be received from the sale of products and the planned costs for the production and sale of products. The same section provides the dynamics of the expected profit and profitability of production by years of the prospect under consideration. Plan for environmental protection. This section provides for environmentally oriented measures, including measures to reduce emissions and discharges of harmful substances into the air and waste water through the construction of treatment facilities, as well as measures to create and develop low-waste and waste-free technological processes. All sections of the enterprise plan are closely interconnected. The plan for the social development of enterprise collectives provides for an increase in the impact of social measures on the development of production and an increase in its efficiency. The generalizing section of the plan, which reflects the results of the previous sections, is the plan for the costs of production and sales of products. When developing this section, the task is to increase the efficiency of production in every possible way, the most rational use of material, labor and financial resources. 77. FINANCIAL PLAN OF THE ENTERPRISE The final stage in the preparation of the medium-term plan is the preparation of the financial plan (budget) of the enterprise based on the calculations carried out at the previous stages. The financial plan includes income balance и enterprise expenses for each year of the planning period. The financial plan of the enterprise provides: - provision of financial resources necessary for the implementation of production and economic activities, timely implementation of activities outlined in all sections of the annual plan; - identification of reserves and mobilization of resources for the rational use of production capacities, working capital, ensuring maximum production efficiency, achieving high profitability and profit; determination of financial relationships with the state (payment of taxes) and banks providing credit to the enterprise. The financial plan reflects: income and receipts of funds, expenses and deductions of funds, relations with the state, banks, investors, distribution of profits. The results of these calculations are summarized in the main planning document - the balance of income and expenses. If, when compiling the balance sheet, expenses exceed income, then borrowing (short-term or long-term loans) is provided to cover the deficit. However, the task of the company's management is to constantly monitor the ratio of own and borrowed funds. The revenue part of the financial plan takes into account: cash at the beginning of the planning period; income from the sale of products; non-operating income; credit; other supply. After that, the amount of income is calculated. The expenditure part (payments) includes: current costs, including variable costs, fixed costs; capital investments; loan repayment; dividends. After that, the amount of payments is calculated and the balance of funds is calculated. An important role in the development of a long-term plan for the development of an enterprise was acquired by economic and mathematical methods and the use of a modern computer. In addition to the automation of calculations, the use of computers makes it possible to analyze various options for the development of an enterprise under changing external conditions (changes in tax policy and customs legislation, the abolition or introduction of benefits, market fluctuations in demand for products, price dynamics, etc.). Depending on the scale of the units for which operational planning is carried out, there are intershop and intrashop planning. Intershop planning includes the development, regulation and control of the implementation of production programs by the shops as a whole, coordinates the work of the main shops among themselves and their connection with the auxiliary shops and services of the plant. The coordination of the work of the main workshops is that the operational plans take into account the actual state of the size of the regulatory reserves at all stages of production. The purpose intrashop planning is the development of planning targets for individual sections, teams, jobs. Tasks are compiled for each month of the planned year, broken down by shifts or days. At the workshop level, regulation and control over the implementation of planned targets is also provided. 78. CONTROLING At operating enterprises, it often becomes necessary to conduct additional verification of the production process, due to the lack of visibility of this process. In practice, control and revision are used. At the same time, it is assumed that a feature of control is the constancy of its implementation, for example, for quality control of raw materials and materials used, product quality control, control over the use of working time. Control carried out by officials within the relevant departments. Audit is carried out on a one-time basis, it is carried out, as a rule, by officials from the audit departments. The audit is carried out at the workplaces that are most important for the production process as a whole. In this case, not continuous, but single checks are carried out. In principle, control and revision is understood as a comparison between what actually exists and what should be according to the plan. In this case, as a rule, deviations are detected, the causes of which should be investigated. Analysis of deviations reveals both external and internal production causes. The consequence of this is the adoption of corrective decisions that allow not to repeat the mistakes of the past period. The task of controlling is the early identification of counteracting factors, bringing them to the attention of management in order to force him to act taking into account these factors. At the same time, controlling is a synthesis of control and planning. It acts in the formation and coordination of plans, in their organizational implementation, coordinates and concentrates information flows and serves as the basis for proposals for the future goals of the enterprise. In this case, for example, internal accounting, statistical indicators, cost-effectiveness calculations, company reporting data and comparison of planned data with actual data are used. Controlling is not only related to the past, but is largely oriented towards the future, since the analysis of deviations often lags behind as an incentive; with appropriate "plan-fact" values, a new vision of the plan may be required, for example, based on factors of the external economic environment. Controlling has, along with the feedback function, the function of ensuring progress. Controlling involves the use of a system for accounting for production costs according to standards (standard costing) or at least a normative method for planning, accounting, controlling and analyzing production costs with their mandatory division into conditionally constant and variable. Under controlling conditions, costs and results are planned and accounted for not only by product types, as in domestic practice, but also by customer groups, market segments, cost centers and financial responsibility. Controlling involves managing the activities of an enterprise by deviations from a given goal and includes an information system that provides daily or ten-day information on the deviation of actual indicators (sales volume, costs, profits, investments, etc.) from planned (normative), which allows you to outline ways for further development business entity. 79. BUSINESS PLAN OF THE ENTERPRISE Business plan is an internal planning document that sets out all the main aspects of planning the production and commercial activities of the enterprise, as well as determining ways to solve financial and economic problems. The business plan is the basis for managing both the project itself and the enterprise implementing this project. Indeed, thanks to the business plan, the management of the enterprise has a rare opportunity to look at their own enterprise as if from the outside, through the eyes of an outside expert. The purpose of a business plan may be, for example, to attract investment both within an existing enterprise, and in determining the strategic and tactical directions and landmarks of the company itself in the business world. The business plan in most cases has an addressee. It can be an investor partner, senior management or government bodies, so the business plan must take into account the interests of the person to whom it is addressed. A standard business plan has a specific structure and sequence of sections. It includes the following blocks. Summary (introduction) - a brief summary of the subject of the business plan, i.e., the rationale for the attractiveness of a new business or investment project. From the very beginning, the business plan justifies the need to attract certain resources and describes what kind of return a new business or investment project can provide. The general part, which describes the goals and strategies of the business plan, the subject of the business plan, the characteristics of products or services, the current state of the market, the history of the development company and the prospects for the development of a new business, the justification for the need to create or develop a new business, or the need for investment. It also describes the management team that will be involved in the project. The marketing plan shows the results of market research for new products, evaluates the customer profile, competitors' strengths and weaknesses, and other market factors. This section needs to show that there are a sufficient number of customers in the market for a given product or service, and it should also be shown that consumers will prefer this particular product or service, rather than the product or service offered by competitors. Here it is also necessary to indicate what should be emphasized in the strategy of advertising and marketing of products, in the pricing policy of the enterprise. Operational plans are plans for the creation and development of the production of products or services that are the subject of a business plan. This section describes the mechanism for launching a new business, the sequence of actions for the creation and development of new production facilities, the organization of distribution channels, supply networks, the composition and number of personnel. The business plan should include such sections as a capital investment plan, detailed by type of cost, a research and development plan, a plan for improving products or services, as well as a plan for improving production technology and a plan for resource support of the enterprise. Each section of the business plan should contain data that can be used to calculate the corresponding item in the financial plan. 80. FINANCE OF THE ENTERPRISE Enterprise Finance - a set of economic relations that arise in connection with the formation, distribution and use of funds in the process of production and economic activities of enterprises (firms, organizations, etc.) of all forms of ownership. The variety of monetary relations, the formation and use of a whole system of funds in the process of circulation of funds create a complex set of relationships between the enterprise: with suppliers - the acquisition of material assets and services necessary for its activities; contractors - payment for construction and installation, repair and other works; with buyers - when selling goods and providing services; budget - for taxes, deductions, payments and appropriations; by a bank - for loans, storage of funds, settlement transactions, etc.; with workers and employees - on wages and other calculations. The process of substantiating the movement of resources and the corresponding financial relationships forms the basis financial planning. Its main tasks are: determining the volume of financial resources for the production and sale of products, expanding production, solving social problems; formation of relationships with the financial and credit system, other organizations, fulfillment of financial obligations to the budget; establishment of optimal proportions between the accumulation fund and the consumption fund of the enterprise; disclosure of internal reserves of cash growth. Financial plans have all links of the financial system, their form and composition of indicators are determined by the specifics of the economic entity. Thus, enterprises (firms, companies, etc.) operating on a commercial basis make up: balances of income and expenses; institutions carrying out non-commercial activities - estimates; cooperative organizations, collective farms, public associations and insurance companies - financial plans; public authorities - budgets of different levels. Financing of activity of the enterprise can be carried out at the expense of own and borrowed funds. Own financial resources are formed at the expense of the authorized capital, profit, depreciation fund of the enterprise, charitable or sponsorship contributions and other sources. Borrowed funds - these are loans, loans provided by banks and other organizations, temporary financial assistance to other enterprises, the issue of securities (obligations) for specific projects and other sources. One of the main sources of financial resources of the enterprise is the initial capital, which is formed from the contributions of the founders of the enterprise and takes the form of authorized capital. The profit of the enterprise characterizes the efficiency of its activities. It is the main source of financial resources of the enterprise, ensuring its functioning and development. Profit is characterized by a system of indicators: balance sheet profit, taxable and non-taxable profit, net profit, profit received from the sale of products, works, services, income from non-sales operations, profit from the sale of property. The company plans its income and expenses for the short and long term. Its financial stability, the rhythm of all economic activities, the timeliness of payments to various state funds, tax authorities, local budgets, as well as settlements with suppliers depend on this. 81. FINANCIAL RESOURCES OF THE ENTERPRISE Enterprise financial resources - this is the money available at the disposal of a particular economic entity. Financial resources reflect the process of formation, distribution and use of enterprise income. Financial resources ensure the circulation of fixed and working capital of the enterprise, relationships with the state budget, banks and other organizations. The sources of financial resources of the enterprise are: - own funds; - borrowed funds. Own funds are formed from the authorized capital, additional capital, reserve capital, retained earnings, depreciation fund of the enterprise, charitable, sponsorship contributions, special-purpose financing and other sources. Own capital (funds) is formed from the moment the enterprise is established from the contributions of the founders or by subscribing for shares and takes the form of authorized capital. The funds of the authorized capital are directed to the acquisition of fixed assets and the formation of working capital necessary for the normal functioning of the enterprise. The organization of the authorized capital, its effective use is one of the main and most important tasks of the financial service of the enterprise. The authorized capital of an enterprise determines the minimum amount of its property that guarantees the interests of its creditors. In the process of production and economic activity, the enterprise, using the initial capital, creates value, expressed in the price of products sold. After the sale of products, the value takes on a monetary form - the form of revenue, which is divided into qualitatively different components. Part of the company's revenue is used to reimburse the invested costs (purchase of materials, fuel, components, wages of employees, etc.), which take the form of cost. Prior to the receipt of revenue, these costs are financed from the working capital of the enterprise advanced into production. If the revenue exceeds the cost, the financial result indicates a profit. The profit received by the enterprise does not remain completely at its disposal: part of it in the form of taxes goes to the budget. The profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise is the main source of financing the needs and development of the enterprise, as well as the formation of reserve capital. In addition to its own funds, the enterprise attracts borrowed financial resources, since it cannot always cover its needs only from its own sources. Borrowed funds are loans, loans provided by banks and other organizations, temporary financial assistance to other enterprises, the issue of securities for specific projects, bonded loans and other sources. Borrowed funds for the enterprise are a paid source of financing and are returned at the expense of the enterprise's profit. 82. BALANCE SHEET OF THE ENTERPRISE Balance sheet allows you to assess the solvency, financial stability, degree of dependence on creditors of the enterprise. It characterizes the ratio of fixed and working capital, the composition of the property that the enterprise has, the structure of working capital, etc. The balance sheet of an enterprise reflects the financial condition of the enterprise at the beginning and end of the reporting year and is a table consisting of two parts. The first part shows the assets, the second - the liabilities of the enterprise. Balance sheet assets contain information about the placement of financial resources at the disposal of the enterprise. The asset balance consists of two sections: - fixed assets; - current assets. К non-current assets include: intangible assets (patents, licenses, trademarks, service marks, organizational expenses, goodwill); fixed assets (part of the property used as means of labor in the production of products, performance of works or services; land plots and objects of nature management, buildings, machines, equipment); construction in progress (costs for construction and installation works); profitable investments in material assets (residual value of property provided for a fee for temporary possession and use in order to generate income); long-term (for a period of more than a year) financial investments (enterprise investments in securities of other organizations, loans provided to other organizations, etc.). Non-current assets have low liquidity and are used for more than one year. Current assets include: inventories (raw materials, materials, work in progress, finished products, shipped goods, deferred expenses), receivables (bills receivable, customers, buyers, debt of subsidiaries, advances paid), short-term financial investments, cash (the most liquid part of current assets). Liabilities of the balance - the second part of the balance sheet of the enterprise, which reflects the sources of formation of property. Liabilities of the balance sheet consist of sections: capital and reserves (authorized capital, additional and reserve capital, retained earnings of previous years and the reporting period); long-term liabilities (outstanding amounts of loans and borrowings that are due to be repaid more than 12 months after the reporting date); short-term liabilities (borrowed funds, accounts payable, debt to subsidiaries, to personnel, to off-budget funds and the budget); deferred income (funds received in the reporting year, but related to future reporting periods, such as rent); reserves for future expenses and payments; other short-term liabilities. Both parts of the balance sheet of the enterprise are always balanced: the total sum of the indicators of the lines for the asset is equal to the total sum of the indicators of the lines for the liability. This amount is called the balance sheet. 83. FINANCIAL STATEMENTS OF THE ENTERPRISE Financial statements is a unified system of indicators on the property and financial position of the organization and on the results of its economic activity. It is compiled on the basis of accounting data. When compiling and submitting financial statements, it is necessary to be guided by the Federal Law of November 21, 1996 "On Accounting", the Accounting Regulations "Accounting Statements of an Organization" (PBU 4/99), approved by Order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated July 6, 1999 No. 43n , other provisions on accounting, the Chart of Accounts for accounting of financial and economic activities of organizations and the Instructions for its application, approved by order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated October 31, 2000 No. 94n. In accordance with the order of the Ministry of Finance of Russia dated July 22, 2003 No. 67n "On the Forms of Accounting Statements of Organizations" and the Accounting Regulations "Accounting Statements of an Organization" (PBU 4/99) for organizations that are legal entities under the legislation of the Russian Federation (except for credit organizations, insurance organizations and budgetary institutions), the following forms are included in the annual financial statements: - balance sheet (form No. 1); - income statement (Form No. 2). Also, as appendices to the balance sheet and income statement, financial statements are compiled: - statement of changes in equity (Form No. 3); - cash flow statement (Form No. 4); - appendix to the balance sheet (form No. 5); - report on the intended use of the funds received (form No. 6). In addition, the reporting includes an explanatory note and an auditor's report confirming the accuracy of the organization's financial statements if it is subject to mandatory audit in accordance with federal laws. Financial statements should give a reliable and complete picture of the financial position of the organization, the financial results of its activities and changes in its financial position. Accounting statements formed on the basis of the rules established by regulatory acts on accounting are considered reliable and complete. If, when preparing financial statements, an organization reveals insufficient data to form a complete picture of the financial position of the organization, the financial results of its activities and changes in its financial position, then the organization includes relevant additional indicators and explanations in the financial statements. According to Art. 15 of the Federal Law "On Accounting", all organizations, with the exception of budget ones, submit annual financial statements in accordance with the constituent documents: - founders, participants of the organization or owners of its property; - territorial bodies of state statistics at the place of registration. State and municipal unitary enterprises submit accounting reports to the bodies authorized to manage state property. 84. PROMOTION OF GOODS. TYPES OF PROMOTION Merchandising - this is the activity of planning, implementing and controlling the organization of contacts between sellers and buyers, the physical movement of materials and finished products from their places of production to their places of use. Tasks: 1) ensure the delivery of goods in the required quantity to a place and at a time that most suits the consumer; 2) organization of transportation, storage and customer service; 3) customer service; 4) optimization of costs for organizing the distribution of goods. Distribution channel - a set of firms or individuals that assume or help transfer ownership of a particular product or service to someone else along the way from producer to consumer. Functions: 1) research (collection of information); 2) stimulation (creation and dissemination of information); 3) establishing contact; 4) adaptation of goods (production, sorting, packaging); 5) holding negotiations; 6) organization of commodity circulation (transportation, warehousing). There are two basic channels of movement: 1) direct; 2) indirect. Direct channels involve the movement of goods and services from the producer to the consumer without intermediaries. Direct channels are considered appropriate under the following circumstances: 1) there are few consumers and they are geographically concentrated; 2) the goods are highly specialized in terms of purpose; 3) there is a sufficient network of own warehouses in the markets where the company trades. Direct distribution channels are called in a different way zero-level channels. The costs of direct marketing projects, such as electronic media, direct mail, telemarketing, are increasing at a faster rate than advertising costs. Direct marketing is a powerful tool to help organizations gain new customers and strengthen relationships with existing ones, among direct marketing tools electronic communication is becoming the most common. Indirect channel movements are associated with the movement of goods and services from the producer to an independent intermediary, and then to the consumer. Indirect channeling tests are appropriate in the following cases: 1) the number of buyers is large enough and they are geographically dispersed; 2) quite often urgent deliveries of small consignments of goods are required; 3) you can save a lot on transportation costs by supplying large quantities of goods to a small number of wholesalers. To characterize indirect channel movements, the concepts of channel length and width are tested. The channel length is the number of independent participants along the path of the product. The channel width is determined by the number of independent participants at any stage of product distribution. A firm can take three possible approaches to addressing the issue of the number of intermediaries. 1 Extensive marketing strategy involves the placement and sale of the company's products through the largest possible number of outlets and warehouses in order to ensure maximum market coverage and large sales. 2 The strategy of selective (or selective) marketing provides for limiting the number of resellers depending on the nature of their clientele, service, level of staff training. 3 targeted marketing strategy (exclusive) is to choose a single reseller in a given geographic region, which is given the exclusive right to sell their company's products in their region. 85. INDICATORS OF THE FINANCIAL STATE OF THE ENTERPRISE Enterprise liquidity is the ability of an enterprise to turn its assets into money to cover all necessary payments as they fall due. All assets of the enterprise, depending on the degree of liquidity, are divided into the following groups. 1. The most liquid assets (A1) - amounts for all items of cash that can be used to perform current settlements immediately. This group also includes short-term financial investments (securities). 2. Marketable assets (A2) - assets that require a certain amount of time to convert into cash. This group can include accounts receivable, other current assets. 3. Slowly realizable assets (A3) - the least liquid assets are stocks, VAT on acquired values. 4. Hard-to-sell assets (A4) - assets that are intended for use in business activities for a relatively long period of time. This group can include articles 1 of the asset section of the balance sheet "Non-current assets". The first three groups of assets (the most liquid assets, fast-selling and slow-selling assets) during the current economic period can constantly change and relate to the current assets of the enterprise. Current assets are more liquid than the rest of the property of the enterprise. Liabilities of the balance according to the degree of increase in the terms of repayment of obligations are grouped as follows. 1. The most urgent liabilities (P1) - short-term bank loans, payables for wages, social insurance and security, debt to the budget. 2. Short-term liabilities (P2) - bank loans and other loans payable within 12 months after the reporting date, accounts payable. 3. Long-term liabilities (P3) - long-term loans and other long-term liabilities - items V of the balance sheet section "Long-term liabilities". 4. Permanent liabilities (P4) - articles IV of the balance sheet section "Capital and reserves" and separate articles VI of the balance sheet section that were not included in the previous groups: "Deferred income", "Consumption funds" and "Reserves for future expenses and payments". An enterprise is considered liquid if its current assets exceed its short-term liabilities. An enterprise may be liquid to a greater or lesser extent. To assess the real degree of liquidity of the enterprise, it is necessary to analyze the liquidity of the balance sheet. The liquidity of the balance sheet is defined as the degree to which the company's liabilities are covered by its assets, the period of transformation of which into money corresponds to the maturity of the liabilities. The balance is considered absolutely liquid if the following conditions are met: A1? P1 A2? P2 A3? P3 A4? P4. coverage ratio. A general assessment of solvency is given by the coverage ratio, which is also called the current liquidity ratio, the total coverage ratio in the economic literature. The coverage ratio is equal to the ratio of current assets to short-term liabilities and is determined as follows: Kp = (A1 + A2 + A3): (P1 + P2). The coverage ratio measures the overall liquidity and shows the extent to which current accounts payable are secured by current assets, that is, how many monetary units of current assets account for 1 monetary unit of current liabilities. If the ratio is less than 1:1, then current liabilities exceed current assets. 86. CREDIT creditworthiness, that is, the ability of an enterprise to repay loans on time is generally assessed in the same way as solvency. Currently, different banks use different methods to assess the creditworthiness of enterprises. If we take into account these methods and take into account the experience of assessing the creditworthiness of banks in other countries, then a circle of creditworthiness indicators will be formed, or rather, a system of such indicators. The ratio of earnings to net assets shows how effectively assets are being used to generate profits. It is important to decide what profit is taken into account - only from sales or total. The ratio of profit to sales revenue. For this indicator, it is more correct to take into account not all profits, but only profit from sales, since only its amount is comparable to sales volume. This indicator is very important for assessing the possible increase in profits in the event of an increase in sales. Ratio of sales volume to net assets. In this case, the reservation about whether all net assets should be taken into account is the same as when considering the indicator of the ratio of profit to net assets. The growth of this indicator is favorable for the enterprise, but only on condition that the implementation is not unprofitable. The ratio of sales to the cost of fixed assets. This indicator evaluates the efficiency of the use of buildings, structures, machines, equipment. Ratio of sales proceeds to net current assets. Net current assets are current assets minus short-term debts of the enterprise. Shows the effectiveness of the use of current assets. The content ratio is close to the turnover of current assets. The ratio of sales proceeds to equity (capital and reserves). This is the turnover of own sources of funds. The indicator requires an assessment of the real value of equity capital. In the assets of the balance sheet, in particular, intangible assets and reserves correspond to their own sources of coverage. Ratio of sales proceeds to inventories. The indicator gives an approximate definition of the period for which stocks are needed (for example, its value equal to 4: 1, according to the annual balance, indicates a three-month turnover of stocks). A high level of the indicator indicates a rapid inventory turnover. The ratio of fixed assets to the value of assets. Fixed assets - the production potential of the enterprise, as a result of the use of which one or another sales volume is formed. The level of this indicator is not the same in different industries and fields of activity. The ratio of inventories to net current assets. This is an estimate of the level of working capital tied up in inventories, work in progress, finished goods. An increase in the indicator may mean the accumulation of obsolete stocks or difficulties in marketing products. The ratio of short-term debt to capital and reserves. If short-term debt is several times less than equity, then you can pay off all creditors in full. The ratio of receivables to sales revenue. This indicator gives an idea of the size of the average period of time spent on receiving money due from buyers. The ratio of current assets to short-term debt. This indicator is the current liquidity ratio. It is advisable to apply it taking into account the state of current assets. The ratio of liquid assets to short-term debt of the enterprise. Liquid assets are current assets less inventories and other items that cannot be immediately converted into cash. 87. THE CONCEPT OF CAPITAL INVESTMENTS capital investment - these are investments in new construction, expansion, reconstruction, technical re-equipment and maintenance of existing production, as well as investments in the creation of inventories, an increase in working capital and intangible assets. Capital investment - an integral part of capital-forming investments. They represent the costs directed to the creation and reproduction of fixed assets. Capital investments are a necessary condition for the existence of an enterprise. Neglecting them, the company can increase its profits in the short run, but in the long run this will lead to a loss of profit, the inability of the company to compete in the market. The composition of capital investments includes: the cost of construction and installation works; the cost of acquiring fixed assets (machines, machines, equipment); costs for research and development (R&D), design and survey work, etc.; investment in labor resources; other costs. The main purpose of capital investments - commissioning new and maintaining existing production facilities, improving conditions and increasing labor productivity, protecting the environment and rational use of natural resources, developing new types of products and improving their quality. Capital investments can be: general - their total amount in a given investment object; new - excluding the use of existing production assets; additional, determined by the difference in total capital investments for two options for solving an economic problem (for example, when choosing options for new equipment, reconstructing enterprises, etc.); conjugated, i.e., those that increase in related industries in the absence of capacity reserves; concomitant, necessary for the normal functioning of the consumer's means of labor (for example, the cost of building buildings and structures for the operation of new equipment, expanding the repair base, etc.). The need for capital investments is always great, while the sources of their financing - credit, state budget funds, enterprise profits, depreciation, and others - are limited, so they should be used effectively, getting the maximum result for every ruble spent. The most important areas for the use of capital investments are: - new construction, i.e., the construction of new enterprises on newly developed areas; - expansion of existing enterprises through the construction of their second and subsequent stages, the commissioning of additional workshops and industries, the expansion of already functioning main and auxiliary workshops; - reconstruction, i.e., a partial or complete reorganization of production carried out in the course of the enterprise's activities without the construction of new or expansion of existing main workshops. Reconstruction also includes the expansion of existing and constructed new auxiliary facilities, the construction of new workshops to replace the liquidated ones; - technical re-equipment of an existing enterprise, i.e., raising the technical level of individual production sites and units through the introduction of new equipment and technology, mechanization and automation, and modernization processes for worn-out equipment. 88. ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF CAPITAL INVESTMENTS The efficiency of capital investments is formed at four stages: when planning capital investments, designing capital construction, in construction production, in the process of developing newly commissioned design capacities. Accordingly, at each stage of the investment process, special ways to improve the efficiency of capital investments can be identified: - planning stage - improvement of the sectoral structure of capital investments, their primary direction in the development of progressive industries; increasing the share of capital investments in the technical re-equipment of the industry, reconstruction and expansion; concentration of capital investments at start-up facilities to be put into operation in the planned period, rational distribution of productive forces; - industrial production design stage - wide use of advanced achievements of science and technology; maximum use of standard projects; observance of the principle of complexity of design; wide unification of building elements of structures; - construction stage of industrial enterprises - comprehensive industrialization of building production; improvement of the organization and technology of construction and installation works; increasing the level of specialization and cooperation in construction; improving the quality of construction; improvement of planning, management and systems of economic incentives for construction production; - stage of operation of newly commissioned industrial enterprises and facilities - ensuring the integrated commissioning of fixed assets and related industries, advance training of personnel and the necessary elements of working capital (raw materials, materials, fuel) for newly built enterprises; organization of timely development of the designed technology for the production of products. Many areas for improving the efficiency of capital investments and fixed assets are common to all sectors of the national economy. However, the specific manifestation of certain regularities depends on the specifics of production, the purpose of products and the means and objects of labor used. Economic efficiency of capital investments expressed primarily in the economic result, which is achieved as a result of their implementation. Therefore, the economic efficiency of capital investments is measured on the basis of comparing their value with the economic effect resulting from the increase. For the purpose of a comprehensive analysis of the economic efficiency of capital investments, such indicators as specific capital investments, capital intensity, capital productivity, labor productivity, production costs, etc. are taken into account. 89. FINANCIAL IMPROVEMENT OF THE ENTERPRISE The fate of enterprises producing goods and services depends on the nature and structure of market needs, the ability and ability to predict them, as well as the degree of adequate response. The market economy is characterized by such phenomena as the uneven development of the economy, fluctuations in production and sales, the possibility of significant declines in production. To measures of anti-crisis management Bankruptcy companies include: - reorganization measures (reorganization, external management); - liquidation measures (bankruptcy proceedings); - global agreement. External administration of the debtor's property is introduced on the basis of an application that may be filed by the debtor, the owner of the debtor or the creditor. In this application, the expediency of this procedure must be substantiated and the candidacy of the external manager should be proposed. External management of the debtor's property can be used only if there is a real possibility of restoring the solvency of the enterprise. The maximum term of external management is 18 months; for the entire period, a moratorium is introduced on the satisfaction of creditors' claims against the debtor. Reorganization, as well as external management, can be carried out on the basis of a petition from the owner of the enterprise - the debtor or creditors. The basis for the reorganization is the real possibility of restoring the solvency of the enterprise to continue its activities by providing it with financial assistance from the owner or other legal or natural persons. A year after the start of the reorganization, at least 40% of all debt obligations must be satisfied. The duration of the rehabilitation process should not exceed 18 months. In some cases, the court may decide to extend the rehabilitation period for another 6 months. During the reorganization, the owner can retain his influence on the activities of the enterprise, subject to significant financial investments on his part. competitive production. In the event that, when opening a case on insolvency (bankruptcy) of an enterprise, there is no application for the introduction of external management (reorganization), and there is also no conclusion of the arbitration court that it is impossible to really restore solvency through the implementation of these procedures, a decision may be made to start a competitive production. The purpose of bankruptcy proceedings is to satisfy the claims of creditors and declare the debtor free from debts, as well as to protect the parties from each other's illegal actions. Bankruptcy proceeding begins after the debtor enterprise is declared bankrupt and, in essence, is the liquidation of the enterprise and the sale of its property. After the decision to open bankruptcy proceedings has been made: - it is prohibited to transfer or otherwise alienate the debtor's property, repay its obligations (except for payments to creditors-mortgage holders and payments related to the costs of bankruptcy administration); - the deadlines for the fulfillment of all debt obligations are considered to have come; - the accrual of fines and interest on all types of debt is terminated. The bankruptcy trustee is appointed by the arbitration court and the former head of the enterprise is also released from his duties. 90. FOREIGN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF THE ENTERPRISE Foreign economic activity - this is a set of methods and means of trade, economic, scientific and technical cooperation, monetary and financial and credit relations with foreign states. Enterprise - participant of foreign economic activity is an independent legal entity that has its own property and acquires property and personal non-property rights in its own name, and bears obligations. These enterprises can act as a plaintiff in court, arbitration and arbitration. In foreign economic activity, export, import, re-export and counter transactions are distinguished. Export is the export of goods from the customs territory of the country abroad without the obligation to re-import them and the possible provision of services and rights to the results of intellectual property to foreign persons. Import - the purchase of goods from a foreign seller, its importation into the customs territory of the buyer's country. Re-export - the purchase of goods from a foreign seller, its importation into the territory of the buyer's country, the resale of this product in its original form abroad to a foreign buyer. Countertrade (counter transactions) is an organizationally linked export-import operation, where the exporter undertakes to accept all or part of the cost of the buyer's counter-imported goods as payment for the cost of his goods. Barter cooperation based on commodity exchange can serve as an example of counter transactions. At the present stage of economic development, two directions of the foreign economic activity of the enterprise are distinguished: joint ventures and the conclusion of foreign trade contracts with foreign counterparties. foreign trade contract is an agreement on the conclusion of a transaction (purchase and sale, work, services, etc.) between two or more counterparties located in different countries. Export policy of the enterprise - this is the development of a strategy and principles for the company's activities in the foreign market, the formation of an export assortment of goods, as well as determining the pace of renewal of export products, prices, quality levels, guarantees and after-sales service. The Customs Code of the Russian Federation establishes the procedure for state control over the organization of export-import flows across the customs border. customs tariff - this is a set of rates of customs duties levied on participants in foreign economic activity when crossing the border. Customs duty - this is the amount of payment collected by the customs authorities when importing and exporting goods, calculated, as a rule, as a percentage of its customs value. Customs value - this is the price actually received or payable for the goods when crossing the customs border of the country upon importation. Foreign investment in the real sector of the Russian economy is one of the conditions for overcoming the investment crisis in Russia. To attract foreign capital, it is necessary to create a favorable investment climate. In determining the types and content of contracts, the International Rules for the Uniform Interpretation of Trade Terms (INCO-TERMS) play an important role. The purpose of Incoterms is to develop a set of international rules for the interpretation of the most common trade terms in foreign trade. Thus, the uncertainty in the various interpretations of such terms in individual countries can be reduced to zero or significantly reduced. Author: Petrova Yu.A.
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