Pedagogy. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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Pedagogy. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

General characteristics and features of the teaching profession
Professional activity and personality of the teacher
General and professional culture of the teacher
Pedagogy, as a science, is its object. Its role in the development of society
The connection of pedagogy with other sciences
The categorical apparatus of pedagogy: education, upbringing, training, self-education, socialization
Pedagogical activity, pedagogical system, pedagogical process
Education as a social phenomenon and pedagogical process. Education as a purposeful process of education and training in the interests of a person, society and the state
Russian education system
The concept of "methodology of pedagogical science". Methodological culture of the teacher
Scientific research in pedagogy, its main characteristics. Methods and logic of pedagogical research
The content of education as the foundation of the basic culture of the individual
Goals, objectives and patterns of learning
Learning principles
Forms of organization of training
The unity of the educational, upbringing and developmental functions of education
Didactics, its main categories
Didactic systems
State educational standard
Teaching methods
Motivation and stimulation of learning
The essence of education, its tasks and content
Patterns and principles of education
Education as socialization
Education methods. The choice of methods and techniques of education
Methods for the formation of personality consciousness
Methods of organizing activities
Incentive methods
The role of relations in the system of comprehensive personality formation. Phenomena of integrativity and generalization
Educational team and its influence on personality development
Moral (ethical) education
socially oriented education
Aesthetic education
Physical education
Labor education
Education of patriotism and culture of interethnic relations
Self-education of students and factors influencing it
Methods of self-education and pedagogical guidance of self-education
Joint educational activities of the school, family and community
Functions and main activities of the class teacher
The teacher at school, his professional suitability and professionalism
The structure of the teacher's activity
Family as a social institution
Relationships between children and parents in the family
Parenting Styles
Methods of raising children in the family
Management and principles of management of pedagogical systems. The state nature of the management of the education system
Functions and culture of the leader
The main functions of pedagogical management: pedagogical analysis, planning and control
The role of the organization in management
School work and the emergence of pedagogical thought in primitive society
Education and school in the ancient world
Education and school of the ancient East
Education and school among the Eastern Slavs
Upbringing and education in the Middle Ages in Byzantium
Education and school in Western Europe in the early Middle Ages
Education and pedagogical thought in the Renaissance in Western Europe
Education and training in Kievan Rus and the Russian state (until the XNUMXth century)
Education and pedagogical thought in Western Europe and the USA in the XNUMXth century
School and pedagogy in Russia in the XNUMXth century
School and Pedagogy in Russia until the 90s. XNUMXth century
School and pedagogy in Russia in the late 1917th and early XNUMXth centuries. (until XNUMX)
Foreign school and pedagogy in the first half of the XNUMXth century
The development of school and pedagogy in Russia after the October Revolution (1917)
School and pedagogy in Russia at the end of the XNUMXth century
Leading trends in the modern development of the world educational process

1. General characteristics and features of the teaching profession

The emergence of the teaching profession has objective grounds. Society in the process of development gradually realized the need to transfer the experience accumulated by the ancestors.

In ancient times, all people, adults and children, took part in all spheres of life on an equal footing, which was explained by the need to fight for survival. Later, a new sphere of people's life began to take shape and take root - to a certain extent, the organized transfer of knowledge and skills to a new generation. The improvement of society and the increase in the level of labor activity contributed to the need for greater organization of training and the provision of this to certain people. Thus, a certain group of people was gradually formed - educators and teachers. At the same time, the concept of "education" appeared much earlier than the concept of "education", this is due to the fact that people's awareness of the presence of knowledge and skills as a certain value occurred much later than the need for children to adapt to life in the environment, which was originally the main task of education. .

Since the emergence of the teaching profession, teachers have been assigned, first of all, an educational, single and indivisible function. A teacher is an educator, a mentor.

All peoples and at all times had especially authoritative, outstanding teachers and figures of pedagogical science. So, in China, Confucius was considered a great teacher, his teachings were not questioned and discussed. The Czech humanist educator Jan Amos Comenius was the first to develop pedagogy as an independent branch of theoretical knowledge; he introduced such commonly used concepts as "class", "lesson", "vacation", "training". The Swiss educator Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi showed active care for orphans, not looking back at costs and his own needs. The great teacher of Russia was Konstantin Dmitrievich Ushinsky - the father of Russian teachers. He specifically pointed out the importance of the role of the teacher in the development and formation of the moral, humane personality of a person.

The teaching profession refers to a group of professions whose subject is another person. The essence of the teaching profession is to interact with people, aimed at improving, transforming, shaping the personal qualities of a person. Being associated with a person, this profession requires special responsibility and a sense of duty. The teacher must have a certain type of thinking, which is explained by the nature of his activity. A feature of the teaching profession is its duality: on the one hand, the teacher must have knowledge about a person, his age-related psychological characteristics, patterns of development, etc., on the other hand, he must fully master the subject of his subject specialization. The initial task of the teacher is to establish contact with students, then transfer knowledge, develop skills and abilities that correspond to a particular subject area, identify social goals and concentrate the efforts of other people to achieve them. Thus, in the teaching profession, the ability to communicate becomes a professionally necessary quality. The main difficulties on the way to achieving the teacher-student contact necessary for a full-fledged educational activity is the traditional adherence to an authoritarian system of education or lack of experience, accompanied by the absence of a certain line of behavior associated with a constant search for the right pedagogical position. The peculiarity of the teaching profession lies in the fact that by its nature it has a humanistic, collective and creative character. In the process of development of the teaching profession, it has two social functions: adaptive and humanistic. The adaptive function is associated with the adaptation of the human personality to the full functioning in the existing society. The content of the adaptive upbringing of a person depends on the time and various political and social conditions. Humanistic is aimed at the harmonious, full development of a person, taking into account his individual characteristics, from the position of a humanistic orientation, the teacher is the guardian of the human personality, as the greatest value that remains unchanged under any conditions. Both of these functions should be implemented in a complex, each of them plays an important role in the formation of personality.

The collective nature of the teaching profession has its own characteristics. Unlike other professions that involve working with people, the teacher must not only lead and manage, but also cooperate. That is, the final result of the teacher's work depends not only on his actions, but also on the impact on the student or student team of other teachers, parents, comrades and many environmental factors. To organize the active and purposeful functioning of the student team requires a lot of effort and pedagogical experience.

The creative nature of pedagogical activity is its most important feature. The share of creativity in the teacher's work determines his contribution of his own capabilities, abilities and efforts to his activities. Pedagogical creativity has a wide scope and covers such aspects of pedagogical activity as planning, organization, implementation and analysis of results. The experience of research in this area shows that the greatest creativity is shown by experienced teachers who have a large amount of accumulated information for research, analysis and development of non-standard solutions based on this. There are some of the most general rules of heuristic search: analysis of the pedagogical situation; designing the result in accordance with the initial data; analysis of the available means necessary to test the assumption and achieve the desired result; evaluation of the received data; formulation of new tasks. The creativity of a teacher can manifest itself not only in the process of implementing the educational process, but also in their own development and improvement of personal and professional qualities.

2. Professional activity and personality of the teacher

Pedagogical activity as professional takes place in educational institutions specially organized by society: preschool institutions, schools, vocational schools, secondary specialized and higher educational institutions, institutions of additional education, advanced training and retraining.

Another nature of pedagogical activity is spontaneous, due to the fact that a person is influenced by various external and internal factors that affect his development.

Professional pedagogical activity has a systemic character, manifested in the unity of goals, motives, actions and results. The main, historically established, goal of the teaching profession is education. The teacher, realizing his activities, should strive to form a person's personality, capable of successful life in modern society, taking into account the possibilities of self-realization of a person, based on his interests and aspirations. The main objects of pedagogical influence are the educational environment, the activities of the pupils, the educational team and the individual characteristics of the pupils. Among the leading tasks of the teacher, the formation of the educational environment, the organization of the activities of the pupils, the creation of the educational team, the development of the personality of the individual are distinguished.

All properties of pedagogical activity are manifested through pedagogical action, which is the total unity of goals and content. The primary task in which the pedagogical action is manifested is cognitive, which, upon completion, turns into the task of designing and transforming. The whole process of pedagogical activity is reduced to solving many problems of different levels of complexity, classes and types. Moreover, pedagogical tasks in most cases are not amenable to algorithmization and often require non-standard heuristic solutions that arise in the process of hard work, including research, analysis, forecasting, experiment, control and conclusion. Each new step of the teacher becomes for him a source of new information, which is transformed into accumulated experience.

The main types of pedagogical activity are traditionally upbringing and teaching.

Educational work is subordinated to the goal of the harmonious development of the personality. Within the framework of educational activities, the teacher must organize a team of pupils and direct its activities towards solving educational problems leading to the achievement of the goal. The success of solving the problems of education is determined by the presence of positive changes in the minds of pupils, manifested in behavior, emotions and daily activities. Educational activity is distinguished by the lack of formalization of the specific actions of the teacher, he can only predict his actions and guide the pupils. In each case, the choice of means and methods of education depends on the individual characteristics of the pupil or the atmosphere and composition of the group of pupils. It is quite difficult to evaluate the result of the work of the educator, since it does not have strictly defined criteria and assessments, it is largely determined by the initial state of the ward's upbringing.

The essence of teaching is more logical. Teaching or learning is usually carried out within a specially organized spatial and temporal framework, is amenable to planning, algorithmization and elaboration, has clear goals and corresponding tasks, as well as certain criteria for assessing their achievement.

Primary in pedagogical activity is still educational work, in connection with this, when preparing teachers, care must be taken to form their readiness for the competent organization of educational and educational processes in conjunction with subject knowledge.

The structure of pedagogical activity. The components of pedagogical activity, being interrelated and interdependent elements, differ from each other and have isolation to some extent, which allows them to be considered independently of each other. In pedagogical activity, the following components are distinguished: constructive, organizational and communicative.

The pedagogical profession imposes some requirements on the personality of the teacher, namely, he must have a stable social and professional position, which is expressed in his relationship to the world around him, the profession and the subjects of pedagogy. The position of the teacher reveals his personality, the nature of social orientation, the type of civic behavior and activity.

The social position of the future teacher is formed starting from childhood, continues to develop in the process of learning in a general education school and is the basis for the formation of views and beliefs related to the teaching profession.

There are also professionally determined requirements for the teacher, they are divided into two groups. The first includes psychological, psychophysiological and physical readiness, and the second includes scientific, theoretical and practical competence as the basis of professionalism.

The professional readiness of a teacher is determined by the correspondence of his personal and professional qualities in the professiogram, which combines their idealized version into three interrelated complexes: general civic qualities; qualities that determine the specifics of the teaching profession; special knowledge, skills and abilities in the subject.

The most important role in the activity of the teacher is played by his personal orientation, reflected in the professiogram and characterizing his socio-moral, professional-pedagogical and cognitive orientation.

The basis of all types of activity of the teacher is his ideological conviction, which determines his moral basis. The choice of the profession of a teacher should, first of all, be based on love for children, the desire to help them in self-improvement and self-realization by opening ways for them to achieve these goals. The professional orientation of the teacher acts as a core around which all his professional qualities are formed. An important and inalienable quality of a worthy teacher is his dedication, willingness to work in spite of time and territorial boundaries, putting his professional duty above all else.

The cognitive activity of the teacher is determined by his desire to master new knowledge, interest in the new in pedagogical science and the teacher's subject area, and the ability to self-educate. One of the main factors of cognitive interest is love for the subject being taught.

3. General and professional culture of the teacher

Determining the teacher's professional and pedagogical culture, one should first consider such concepts as "professional culture" and "pedagogical culture". Professional culture - this is a developed ability to solve professional problems, the basis of which is a developed professional thinking.

Considering the issue of pedagogical culture, they have in mind the following concepts: methodological, moral and aesthetic, communicative, technological, spiritual, physical culture of the teacher's personality. Pedagogical culture is to some extent inherent in every person or other source that influences the formation of personality, professional and pedagogical culture is a characteristic of a person who is called upon to carry out the educational process within the framework of professional specially organized activities.

In pedagogical science, a set of provisions has developed that makes it possible to define the concept of professional and pedagogical culture:

› professional and pedagogical culture is a universal characteristic of pedagogical reality, manifested in different forms of existence;

› professional and pedagogical culture is an internalized general culture and performs the function of specific designing of a general culture in the sphere of pedagogical activity;

› professional pedagogical culture is a systemic education that includes a number of structural and functional components, has its own organization, selectively interacts with the environment and has the integrative property of the whole, not reducible to the properties of individual parts;

› the unit of analysis of professional and pedagogical culture is pedagogical activity that is creative in nature;

› features of the implementation and formation of the teacher's professional and pedagogical culture are determined by individual creative, psychophysiological and age characteristics, the prevailing socio-pedagogical experience of the individual.

Professional and pedagogical culture consists of three main components:

axiological, technological and personal-creative.

The axiological component includes a set of pedagogical values accepted by the teacher and perceived from different sources throughout life and professional activity. The culture of a teacher from this point of view is determined by a set of these values, the distribution of priorities among them, the ability to identify new values in the world around, life processes and the pedagogical sphere. In pedagogy, a system of objective values has historically developed, which determine the level of skill and development of the teacher, depending on the subjective perception and acceptance of these values by him.

The technological component represents pedagogical activity as a process of solving pedagogical problems. Recently, there has been an increased interest in the concept of "pedagogical technology". This is due to many reasons, for example, the fact that the development of pedagogical science has not only a theoretical side, but also needs practical experiments, developments that allow us to explore various theories and hypotheses. Pedagogical theory largely diverges from the actual practice of education and training, in this case, pedagogical technology acts as a link: models are built on the basis of theoretical calculations, and a technology for their implementation is developed. Pedagogical technology contains such an important component as "technology of pedagogical activity". Considering it, it is worth noting that pedagogical activity must certainly have a holistic, systematic, purposeful character, which is the basis for developing the technology of pedagogical activity. This technology is built as a system of step-by-step solution of the problems of pedagogical analysis, planning, goal-setting, organization, evaluation and correction. That is, the technology of pedagogical activity is the implementation of techniques and methods for managing the educational process in an educational institution. There are various ways to solve pedagogical problems. Based on the condition that the goal and activity of the subject of training correspond to the conditions for the implementation of this activity, in each specific case, the most appropriate methods for solving the problems that make up the educational process are selected.

All methods of solving problems are divided into algorithmic and quasi-algorithmic. Algorithmic methods are used when it is possible to choose unique solutions depending on the initial data.

Quasi-algorithmic methods cover all other types of tasks; these methods prevail in the technology of pedagogical activity. The teacher, solving any specific problem that arose in a real situation, builds a solution based on the models that exist in his memory, thanks to the accumulated experience. In connection with the noted feature of the professional thinking of the teacher, the following groups of pedagogical tasks are distinguished:

› analytical and reflexive - tasks of analysis and reflection of a holistic pedagogical process and its elements;

› constructive and prognostic - the tasks of building a holistic pedagogical process in accordance with the general goal of professional and pedagogical activity, developing and making a pedagogical decision, predicting the results and consequences of pedagogical decisions;

› organizational and activity - the tasks of implementing the best options for the pedagogical process, combining diverse types of pedagogical activities;

› evaluation and information - the tasks of collecting, processing and storing information about the state and prospects for the development of the pedagogical system, its objective assessment;

› correctional and regulatory - the tasks of correcting the course, content and methods of the pedagogical process, establishing the necessary communication links, their regulation and support, etc.

The personal-creative component of pedagogical culture is manifested in the ability of the teacher to creatively implement the technology of the pedagogical process, relying on theory, to carry out practical activities, making a personal contribution, enriching it with new techniques and methods, to be in constant search for optimal solutions. The culture of a professional teacher is distinguished by his ability to find heuristic solutions, develop new, most effective ways out of the current situation based on his own experience and the experience of colleagues. The creative mental activity of the teacher causes a complex synthesis of all mental spheres of the teacher's personality: cognitive, emotional, volitional and motivational.

4. Pedagogy as a science, its object. Its role in the development of society

Pedagogy is an applied science that performs certain social functions. Like any other science, pedagogy has its own subject of research. Initially, the subject of pedagogy research was considered to be the upbringing and preparation for life of the younger generation, or, in other words, children. However, in the middle of the XX century. this definition of the subject of pedagogy has been questioned. And, as a result, the subject of modern pedagogy is the education and qualified leadership of not only children, but also adults of all ages. The word pedagogy itself comes from the Greek words payes - children and ago - to lead. The literal translation of the word "paydagogos" is "teacher". The main task of pedagogy, as a science, is to identify, form, accumulate and systematize knowledge about the upbringing and education of a person. The quality of the resulting society, its development and tendencies to progress depend on the quality of the pedagogical impact on the development and formation of the human personality. The issues of studying pedagogy include: the study of the process of development and formation of personality; the influence of the essence and patterns of development on education; formation of the goals of education; research, accumulation and improvement of methods of education.

The most important concepts of pedagogy are upbringing, training and education produced in various educational institutions, social institutions, and the family. Education, as a social phenomenon, acts as a means of preparing an emerging person for life in an existing society, developing in him the properties and qualities necessary for this, instilling appropriate cultural skills. Being inextricably linked with education and training, upbringing is responsible for generating incentives and motivation for education, preparing a person for the learning process.

To the tasks of pedagogy includes the formation, designation and study of the laws of upbringing and education, management of education and upbringing systems. At the same time, patterns are understood as connections between artificially created and naturally formed conditions and results.

The study and generalization of pedagogical experience, the processing of new pedagogical theories and, as a result, the identification of such approaches that can be used in mass pedagogical practice. Identification, research and accounting of pedagogical errors and causes leading to undesirable results as a result of the use of certain methods of influence. Within the framework of pedagogical activity, the most and least favorable conditions for the full development of the personality are identified. Development of theoretical models of educational infrastructure. Introduction into pedagogical practice of the most promising of them. Forecasting the development of educational and upbringing systems. Tracking the constantly changing requirements of modern society for its members, followed by taking into account the results in the development of new methods in pedagogical activity.

The results of pedagogical influence are determined in accordance with the assessment of upbringing, education and development of the individual.

Pedagogical science has a great and undeniable influence on the development of society. Developing, pedagogical science accumulated more and more knowledge available to people at every stage of the development of production, science and art. And each new generation had access to more voluminous, perfect knowledge, which gradually formed into an interconnected system containing information about the world around. In addition, the pedagogical influence on the formation of a person's personality at each historical stage was carried out using new, progressive methods within the framework of that time. Developing, pedagogy improved due to the accumulated pedagogical experience, analysis and identification of the most effective and positive methods and means used in training, education and upbringing. Thanks to pedagogical science, man himself developed, getting a clearer picture of the structure of the world, its inherent processes and patterns. The consequence of all this was the development of a society replenished with a more intellectually and culturally developed new generation, and, accordingly, making ever higher demands on a person’s education, the ability to easily integrate into the life of society and fully realize their potential within its framework.

5. The connection of pedagogy with other sciences

Pedagogy has a close connection with other sciences, such as philosophy, psychology, medicine, biology, sociology and political science, etc. The development of pedagogy as a science proceeds in close relationship with many sciences, and all of them are parts of one whole scientific understanding of the world and man.

Philosophy, studying the actions of the general laws of human existence and thinking, is the basis for the creation of pedagogical theories. Based on the philosophical models of the description of the world, models of pedagogical influence are built. At the same time, different directions of philosophical thought are used, as a result of which various, often contradictory methods of education arise. Religion plays a significant role in the educational process. Proponents of this approach consider science incapable of knowing the highest truth, which can only be approached through the "supermind". According to neo-Thomists, the main purpose of religion is the education of the individual, and education should have as its main goal the development of an undivided desire to get closer to God.

Pedagogy, based on the theory of existentialism, involves the development of the individual as a separate isolated world, thanks to which everything around exists. Objective knowledge and dogmas are rejected altogether. The subject of observation and research of this philosophical trend is the individual being of a person.

In contradiction to existentialists and neomysts, there is a theory of dialectical materialism, the followers of which exalt the role of society, the collective. Personality is perceived as an object of social relations. Consciousness is considered the result of the emergence and activity of matter. Teachers, relying on the methodology of dialectical materialism, consider the process of education to be decisive in the formation of the personality.

The founders of pragmatic pedagogy are guided in their activities mainly by the experience gained by a person as a result of his own activities. Therefore, the main methods of education and upbringing in this approach is practice as a means of learning and acquiring knowledge.

Pedagogy has the closest and most direct connection with psychology and physiology, this connection is traditional, since the methods of pedagogical influence should primarily be based on the laws and mechanisms of the activity and development of the individual, and psychology is studying them. Each section of pedagogical science borrows developments from certain sections of psychology. The interaction of pedagogy and psychology became the basis for the emergence of such new scientific areas as pedagogical psychology and psychopedagogy, however, pedagogy deals with the impact on the formation of the human personality, and psychology is mainly interested in the development of the human psyche. Therefore, despite the active interaction, each science is completely autonomous and has its own subject of research. Physiological data about the human body is used in pedagogy in terms of determining the capabilities and abilities of a person for learning, the effectiveness of information perception through various senses.

The connection between pedagogy and medicine is obvious. Children with congenital or acquired defects that affect the development of mental or physical activity need to apply corrective pedagogy to them. Even when carrying out standard pedagogical activities, it is necessary to take into account the medical indications of the student and, in accordance with them, if necessary, adjust the pedagogical process. So, for example, people with visual impairments should not be offered a large amount of visual material, and when teaching people with hearing impairments, on the contrary, focus on visual perception.

The connection of pedagogy with history and literature is indisputable. History makes up a significant part of the materials for upbringing and educational activities, being a storehouse of biographies of historical figures, the experience of the ancestors of various social groups and peoples. Based on historical data, pedagogical science grew and improved, taking into account the mistakes and successes of teachers of the past. Exploring the changes in the development of the individual from ancient times to the present day, many innovative methods of teaching, upbringing and education have arisen and still arise. Literature is an indispensable attribute of all the main categories of pedagogy and an indispensable assistant for teachers of various fields. Getting an education is unthinkable without specialized literature on subjects studied as part of the acquisition of a particular profession. Such literature is one of the main sources of information, without which the accumulation and replenishment of knowledge would be practically impossible. Fiction plays an important role in the process of education, helping a person to choose the right landmark in the search for the right ideology, moral position, in his opinion, forms a person’s worldview, provides a basis for reflection, analysis, classification, comparison, thereby increasing a person’s ability to learn.

Sociology is connected with pedagogy by planning the state and content of society and its social groups. Pedagogy performs its functions in accordance with the order of sociology for an adequate personality at a given time and in a given social group, characterizing it with certain qualities, the development of which is directed by the pedagogical process.

Political science and pedagogy have common ground in the educational process, since the core of educational policy is always the state ideology. The tasks of pedagogy include the formation of a personality ready for life and activity in the existing and predicted state political environment.

Only close complex interaction of pedagogy with other sciences can provide a full-fledged scientific approach to the subject of its research and the correct construction of the pedagogical process.

6. The categorical apparatus of pedagogy: education, upbringing, training, self-education, socialization

Pedagogical categories name the basic pedagogical concepts, which include education, self-education, socialization, education, training.

One of the basic concepts in pedagogical science is the concept of "education". This concept can be formulated as a purposeful and organized process of personality formation. The concept of education can be characterized from a pedagogical or social point of view.

social education - this is mainly the use of many years of experience of ancestors. Initiation to the achievements of mankind in science and art, communication with nature and being in a society of one's own kind. The experience of previous generations is constantly multiplied and modified under the influence of time, but it always, undoubtedly, plays an important role in the education of new generations. Education, being a necessary attribute of the development of society, has a historical character. Under the influence of educational work, society is formed and progresses, creating in turn favorable conditions for the creation of an educational system based on its traditions. Education is closely related to the socio-political structure of society, which plays a decisive role in predicting the result of exposure. In modern society, education occurs both purposefully and randomly. There are many institutions, one of the main goals of which is precisely the directed educational activity, these include the family, work teams, educational institutions. In addition, there are many sources of information that perform a secondary educational function and, nevertheless, they play an important role in the process of personality formation. Such sources include television, radio, fiction, etc. Under the influence of education through public institutions, a person forms a certain attitude towards the world around him, goals and principles, moral values arise.

In the conditions of such a number of educational factors, their actions must be brought into relative conformity and meet the single goal of education. In special educational institutions for upbringing, a certain, purposeful, controlled impact on a person by teachers and the team is understood with the aim of forming the given qualities in a person and aimed at solving specific educational tasks. On the other hand, the educational goals also include the formation of the moral values of each person individually, with a focus on his inner world.

Education is not limited to external influences on the human personality, the most important quality of a person is his ability to self-educate. You can talk about self-education only from a certain age. Already at the early school age, the child begins to realize himself as a separate person, as a result of which there is dissatisfaction with some subjective qualities, which in turn gives rise to motivation for self-change, encourages the manifestation of will. A child, a teenager, an adult constantly overcomes character traits, habits, addictions that are unacceptable in his opinion, strive to get closer to the ideal in his understanding. The task of the teacher in this case is to assist in this desire and the implementation of the process of self-education.

Unlike upbringing, which is a purposeful impact on a person, socialization occurs as a result of the spontaneous interaction of a person with the outside world. The process of socialization is driven, on the one hand, by the desire of a person to live in society, to be accepted by it and to occupy a certain place in it. On the other hand, each person strives to be a separate, independent, significant person. This desire not only stimulates the individual development of a person, but also determines the influence of the subject on society, thereby forcing it to continuously develop progressively. The means of socialization depend on the age and social environment of the person.

Education - this is the process of perception, assimilation and ability to use a complex of systematized knowledge. There are preschool education, general education school, vocational education, secondary specialized education, higher education, postgraduate education, advanced training and retraining of personnel. Each type of education has its own specifics, its own methods and involves different training of the teaching staff for the implementation of the educational process. At different stages of education, certain goals are pursued that correspond to the age and psychological characteristics of students. In a general sense, the process of education implies the mastery of a person with certain skills and abilities in any area, the development of thinking, the ability to self-educate. As a result of education, a person should be formed who not only has a certain set of knowledge in a certain area, but is able to apply the knowledge gained for qualified professional activity, to replenish the missing elements of the knowledge system with the help of logical reasoning and conclusions from practical activities. The educational system largely depends on the society in which it exists, and society is also directly dependent on the state education system, this is explained by the fact that as a result of education such personal qualities as intelligence, morality, emotional stability develop.

One of the main categories of pedagogy is education. Education is the apparatus of education, that is, in order to provide a person with a proper education, one must train him well and correctly.

Training - this is an established, regulated, purposeful process of interaction between students and teachers, characterized by the active interaction of both parties. From the point of view of students, learning is a process of perceiving material, mastering new knowledge, acquiring skills and abilities. The teacher, for his part, assumes a leading role, determining the system for presenting the program material, ways of conveying information to students in an accessible form, based on the age, social and other characteristics of the students. An essential element of education is the excitation of students' interest in the material offered for assimilation, the activation and stimulation of the educational and cognitive activity of the latter. The concept of training has a close connection not only with conformity, but also with educational activities. While teaching, the teacher also educates his students, instilling in them along the way, as a result of personal interaction, ideological, moral, worldview attitudes.

7. Pedagogical activity, pedagogical system, pedagogical process

Pedagogical activity is an organized, purposeful, coordinated process aimed at the upbringing, training and education of the human personality. The result of pedagogical activity is a harmonious, comprehensively developed, emotionally stable, socially adequate person, capable of self-learning and self-education. Pedagogical activity can be considered as the relationship of the following components: preparation and systematization of material for the implementation of pedagogical activity; stimulation and awakening the interest of students in various types of activities, including joint; establishing the contact between the teacher and the pupil necessary for successful interaction. The teacher and the student are directly involved in the implementation of pedagogical activity. The teacher, being the subject of this activity, has his own views on the methods of influence, while the student, being a specific person with his own individual characteristics, also influences pedagogical activity, perceiving its impact in a certain way. The combination of these factors of influence on the educational process is called the style of pedagogical activity, reflecting the specifics of the methods of influence and interaction. The determining link in the choice of style is still the teacher, since he is the managerial, guiding side of joint activity. Usually, the teacher, depending on his ideas about what is the result of the work performed, adheres to one or another style. The content of pedagogical activity can be developed with a focus on the course of the learning process, learning outcomes, adequate planning of the educational process.

To achieve the intended goals in upbringing, training and education, a coordinated, controlled, carefully designed process is needed, which is called pedagogical. In the course of the pedagogical process, the experience, knowledge and efforts of the teacher are gradually processed into the pre-planned personal qualities of the student. A necessary condition for the pedagogical process is its integrity. Integrity refers to the preservation of all components of the process. The essence of the pedagogical process consists in an interconnected set of training, education and upbringing, aimed at achieving a single goal of forming a harmoniously developed personality. All components of the pedagogical process are closely interconnected, without losing their autonomy, features inherent only in this internal process. Thus, the dominant function of upbringing is upbringing, the function of education is education, and the function of education, respectively, is education. But it is impossible to become an educated person without receiving proper education, the learning process in general is closely connected with upbringing and education, carrying out developing activities and cognitive activity of a person. Carrying out the pedagogical process, it is necessary to clearly identify that part of the pedagogical impact that currently dominates. When teaching, where the main goal is to transfer certain knowledge to students, the teacher must be clearly aware that what is acquired in the learning process will have a direct impact on education, and especially the self-education of a person. The upbringing of a person largely determines his attitude to education, gives rise to motivation for the latter, forms goals, which may also include the desire to receive education. The teaching process must be controlled. At each stage and in each direction, control is carried out by appropriate methods that have their own specifics. Each of the internal processes pursues one common global goal - the formation of a personality with specified qualities, its inherent methods, methods and the use of specially prepared materials.

Pedagogical system is the relationship of all components, methods, processes, directions and other constituent parts aimed at achieving a variety of pedagogical goals. If the well-established interaction of all components remains stable in the face of constant changes in the internal structure and frequent innovations, then they say about the existence of the system. When external and internal fluctuations of various factors disrupt the established interaction, the system collapses and another system with other properties inherent in it may appear in its place. The pedagogical system, like any other, is characterized by a complete coincidence of goals and results. Goals, results, as well as the pedagogical process, acting as a link between the initial data and the final product, are the main components of the pedagogical system. The pedagogical system is characterized by manufacturability, which means a stable internal organization of the system, which is based on a certain logic, and not a simple set of interconnected data.

8. Education as a social phenomenon and pedagogical process. Education as a purposeful process of education and training in the interests of a person, society and the state

The concept of "education" appeared in the early Middle Ages and is traditionally interpreted as the creation of a person in the image and likeness of God. At present, the concept of "education" has lost its religious connotation, however, the concept of cultural development, which reflects, including religious views and norms of behavior.The purpose of education can be considered as state and personal.Education is of great national importance and is aimed at improving the life support of society, the development of its civilization and culture.For a particular human person, obtaining education is aimed at acquiring skills, knowledge and skills in a particular professional orientation, the ability to apply them in practice, the development of one's own mental and spiritual potential, the ability to self-learning.Education does not happen by itself, it requires significant and targeted efforts on the part of society and the state, as well as from the defense of the object itself and the subject of education. For a successful education process, the state is obliged to provide a material basis and create an organizational structure for the educational system. It is the responsibility of society to provide a moral and spiritual framework to motivate and create incentives for education. In order to increase the effectiveness of the education of society as a whole, it is necessary to appropriately direct the educational and teaching processes, starting from the early age of the child.

From the point of view of a particular individual, education is made up of the results of specially organized education received in institutions designed for this purpose, knowledge and skills acquired through self-education, and information, the source of which is a variety of everyday informants surrounding a person, to whom a person can turn because of his interests or affecting him spontaneously. The main element in obtaining education is the general education school. The knowledge gained in the process of schooling is of a basic nature and largely determines the further direction of a person’s education, helps him determine his inclinations for a particular activity and creates the prerequisites for choosing a profession. School education is characterized by active management by the teaching staff and the process of self-education controlled by them.

Modern living conditions give a person a huge number of opportunities for self-acquisition of knowledge, so it is difficult to objectively assess the level of education of a person as a whole. It is even more difficult to assess the dominant direction of education, since a person, being in constant search, can be interested in and improve his skills and abilities in different fields of science and activities at different periods of life.

A modern educated person is considered to be such, provided that he possesses not only professional opportunities, but also certain spiritual and moral values. Education is aimed at the formation of a comprehensively developed, holistic personality that meets the standards and requirements of modern society. Education, being a part of the pedagogical process, should contain elements that help to instill in a person socially acceptable norms and rules of behavior, to create a correct idea of the functions and capabilities of a person in society.

9. Russian education system

Education system, which is of great importance in the process of preparing an individual for life and self-realization in society, places great responsibility for its organization on the state apparatus. The Russian Federation has created many social institutions designed to provide the population with the opportunity to receive various types of education. The activities of each of them are managed and regulated by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation. The implementation of the pedagogical process, including the education system, takes place in stages. The first stage is the system of preschool education, followed by a general secondary school, vocational education, secondary specialized education, higher education, postgraduate education, a system of advanced training and retraining of personnel. For the implementation of pedagogical activities at each stage, social institutions suitable for this have been created, organized taking into account the specifics of the age characteristics of students and in accordance with the main direction of education. In Russia, various organizational and legal forms of educational institutions are allowed, that is, they can be municipal, private, religious, have the status of public organizations. Depending on this, educational institutions can use various training and education programs, characterized by different methods for achieving the goal. However, all social institutions that perform educational functions are subject to the actions of the legislation of the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation. Pre-school educational institutions have been created in addition to the educational activities of the family. They are designed to assist in the full development of the physical and mental abilities of a child under the age of 6 years. Such institutions are especially important for children with various deviations in mental or physical development and in need of corrective pedagogical influence.

General educational institutions include three levels: elementary school, junior high school, high school.

At the first level, children are mainly trying to develop motivation for learning and provide a general basis for knowledge about the world around them, which takes place in combination with physical and aesthetic development.

Incomplete secondary school gives an idea of the basics of the scientific worldview and prepares students for a fulfilling life in modern society.

The third level is not obligatory, since after graduating from an incomplete secondary school, one can continue their education in specialized vocational schools. Complete secondary school involves some differentiation of education, paying great attention to profile education.

A special place in the education system is occupied by special educational institutions created for children with developmental disabilities. Such institutions are called upon, in addition to ordinary education, to engage in the social adaptation of their pupils.

To professional educational institutions include schools, technical schools, colleges that perform educational functions aimed at training mid-level specialists. The educational process in such institutions is built taking into account the creation of opportunities for students to continue their education in higher educational institutions.

To higher education institutions include institutes, universities, academies. Receiving higher education, a person is preparing to become a specialist of a certain level of the corresponding profession. The possibility of obtaining education at this level gives the presence of a complete secondary or secondary vocational education.

Postgraduate education provide postgraduate studies, doctoral studies, residencies that produce specialists of higher qualification. Obtaining postgraduate education includes mainly research and inventive activities.

In addition to those listed in the Russian educational system, there are institutions additional educationsuch as music, art, sports and other schools. Additional education is also provided by various advanced training courses and retraining of personnel.

For children left without parental care and without a family, institutions for orphans have been created in Russia.

In the education system of the Russian Federation, the content of education is largely regulated by the relevant documents adopted by law.

Such documents include, for example, syllabus - this is a document approved by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation that determines the composition of academic subjects, the sequence of their study and the number of study hours allocated for their study in certain study groups.

Training program - a document approved by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation, which determines the content of education for each individual subject and includes a system of scientific, ideological, moral, aesthetic and worldview ideas, as well as information about the skills and abilities that need to be instilled in students.

10. The concept of "methodology of pedagogical science". Methodological culture of the teacher

Methodology is "a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities" [1] ... Any scientific research has a basis in the form of theories, provisions, concepts, which constitute the methodological basis of this science. Methodology has a significant impact on the development of science. The methodology of pedagogical science can be represented as four levels: philosophical, general scientific, concrete scientific, technological. The basis of pedagogical methodology is a set of pedagogical ideas that reveal the essence of being and underlie the study of natural and social phenomena. The philosophical basis of pedagogical science is also explained by the fact that pedagogy was a part of philosophy for a long time before it became a separate scientific trend. But even now pedagogical science continues to develop under the influence of philosophical concepts. Due to the fact that there are many conflicting theories in philosophy, in pedagogy to this day, essentially opposite views and methods on the development and education of the younger generation are used. So, for example, one of the foundations of pedagogical methodology is the philosophical concept that Socrates and Plato adhered to, based on the natural predisposition of a person to certain abilities and opportunities. The environment is of secondary importance and cannot radically affect the formation of personality. The opposite concept, which was advocated by Heraclitus, Democritus and Epicurus, is based on the opinion that external conditions and the social environment are the dominant factors in the development and formation of the human personality.

In modern pedagogy, both of these concepts are reflected. Many methods of pedagogical activity are based on the synthesis of these views, explaining that the natural characteristics of a person and the social and social requirements for him should be taken into account in the aggregate. The content of the pedagogical process is decisively influenced by the needs of society, but at the same time, a person, already born, has inclinations and abilities for any kind of activity. The tasks of pedagogical science include the development of the initial abilities of a person, inducing motivation for self-development in this area, as well as adjusting the direction of this development in accordance with the needs of society.

General scientific methodological basis contains two approaches of pedagogical influence.

The system approach is a reflection of the idea of the interconnectedness of all phenomena and processes of the surrounding world. With this approach, the relationship between pedagogical theory and practice is of particular importance: practical experience is a kind of source of true knowledge that requires theoretical conclusions and developments based on them.

The axiological approach forms the basis of humanistic views. A person is considered as the highest goal of society and is the central concept of this pedagogical trend.

The concrete-scientific level includes the following main areas of development of pedagogical thought:

1) orientation to the personal development of a person, which is the main goal of pedagogical activity;

2) activity is the basis for the development and formation of personality. Knowledge of the world and the acquisition of new knowledge and experience should occur through all kinds of activities corresponding to the age characteristics of a person;

3) the dominant factor in human development is direct communication with other people;

4) the main means of achieving pedagogical goals is a culture that reflects the values and intellectual level of society that affects human development;

5) the ethnopedagogical direction is based on the unity of nations and peoples;

6) synthesis of all scientific knowledge about a person and their use in developing the content of pedagogical activity.

The technological level of pedagogical methodology is the research base of pedagogical science. At this level, an analysis of various pedagogical areas is carried out in order to obtain reliable information about a particular approach. Research is divided into fundamental and applied. Fundamental research includes the development of new pedagogical methods and the advancement of theories. Applied research studies already existing methods in order to identify and eliminate shortcomings, and also contains justifications for the relevance or unsuitability of certain pedagogical approaches. The object of research can be hypotheses that have only a theoretical basis and for approval, requiring practical confirmation of their suitability in specific conditions. The study takes place, as a rule, in several stages: empirical, hypothetical, theoretical, experimental and prognostic.

In pedagogical practice, the concept of methodological culture is of great importance. Each teacher, as an independently thinking person, is an adherent of certain views on the correctness of pedagogical methods. This determines the direction of its impact on students. Acceptance of some and rejection of other views gives his professional activity a certain direction. And here the main criterion is the unity of views and goals of those methodologies on the basis of which the teacher acts. The most dangerous pedagogical influence will be that which is based on randomly selected, and therefore possibly contradictory, provisions from different theories. The methodology used by the teacher should be based on theories that do not have fundamental disagreements in matters of upbringing, training and education, which have the same objects as the main goal and are practically combined with each other.

11. Scientific research in pedagogy, its main characteristics. Methods and logic of pedagogical research

Research methods - these are ways of knowing objective reality, which are a means of obtaining and analyzing information about the object of research.

An essential factor in the development of pedagogy is the constant replenishment and improvement of the methods of its research. The enrichment of pedagogical science with new methods is largely due to its close connection with other sciences. In relation to the research activities of pedagogy, there is constant progress. Initially, pedagogical thoughts and conclusions arose on the basis of philosophical and sociological theories. But, starting from the XNUMXth century, the content of pedagogical science began to be replenished at the expense of theoretical conclusions based on practical observations. G. Pestalozzi, A. Diesterweg, K. D. Ushinsky, L. N. Tolstoy, P. P. Blonsky, A. S. Makarenko, S. T. Shatsky and other special organized pedagogical experiments in order to identify patterns in the processes of education and training began to be carried out in the XNUMXth century. And by the beginning of the XNUMXth century. the term pedagogical experiment adopted a formalized definition and became widespread. Prominent representatives of experimental pedagogy were German and American scientists V. Lai and E. Meiman, S. Hall, E. Thorndike.

The research process for obtaining reliable data must be structured accordingly. In many ways, its content determines the understanding of the essence of the phenomena being studied, the correctness of which is ensured by philosophy.

In pedagogical science, research activity has a certain specificity, due to the ambiguity of the course of pedagogical processes. Unlike other sciences, in pedagogical practice it is impossible to ensure equal conditions for several experiments. Due to the fact that the "material" and the conditions of experimental activity are constantly changing, the results will also differ. After all, it is enough to change one small component in the conduct of the experiment, and the composition of the extracted information can change significantly. In this case, the veracity of the data obtained is achieved due to the quantitative component of the research and the generalization of the results obtained. When conducting research activities in pedagogy, one should strictly adhere to the moral and ethical rules in relation to the objects of experiments. In the course of pedagogical processes, it is very important not to harm the health and development of students, which is achieved by careful thoughtfulness in planning, conducting and organizing experimental pedagogical activities.

Currently, there is a whole system of pedagogical research, which includes: pedagogical observation, research conversation, study of school documentation and products of students' activities, pedagogical experiment, study and generalization of advanced pedagogical experience, sociological research methods, mathematical statistics, theoretical analysis of pedagogical ideas, etc. .

Pedagogical supervision - the simplest and most accessible research method. It allows you to study the perception of the subjects of pedagogical influences in the natural environment. When implementing this method, the direction and object of research are clearly defined, the results of observations are carefully recorded with their subsequent processing with the aim of the final conclusion. Observation can be effective in its systematic, organized and mass application, and also needs to be synthesized with other methods of pedagogical research due to the fact that it is superficial and does not have access to the inner content of pedagogical phenomena.

Pedagogical conversation is an additional method of pedagogical research. In the course of a specially directed conversation, the attitudes of both sides of pedagogical activity to certain pedagogical facts are revealed. With the correct, carefully thought-out content of the questions, it is possible to find out the reasons for the manifestation of active interest or lack thereof among students, to reveal the dependence of the quality of perception of the material on the emotional, creative approach to its presentation by the teacher. To obtain the most complete and reliable information, a pedagogical conversation should be built according to certain rules and conducted by a qualified specialist. The conversation process does not have a universal character, but is adjusted taking into account the personal characteristics of the object of research, a well-thought-out plan is needed, the elements of which may vary during the conversation, depending on the situation and the interlocutor's desire to answer the proposed questions, discuss this or that topic. A pedagogical conversation is not always successful and is not a reliable source of information received, since there is no confidence in the veracity of the thoughts and facts presented by the interlocutor.

Experience learning - a traditional, widely used method of pedagogical research. It consists in studying and analyzing the practical experience of historical and modern teachers and schools that have achieved sustainable positive results in their activities. When using this method, the main attention is paid to approaches and methods that are at odds with the established dominant canons of pedagogical theory and practice. Often, empirically emerged methods of teaching or education lead to progress in achieving the main goals of pedagogy. But if such pedagogical techniques remain hidden from pedagogical science as a whole, are not subjected to analysis and theoretical substantiation, they will not have scientific value and will not receive wide practical application. It follows from this that the study of experience is a very important and productive method of pedagogical research, invariably accompanying the development of pedagogical science as a whole.

The study of school documentation and the products of student activity makes it possible to establish many of the most important relationships that further influence the preparation of curricula and programs. The main sources of information for this method are class magazines, reader's forms, lecture notes, class schedules, teachers' calendar and lesson plans, progress sheets, students' notebooks. By studying the materials listed, it is possible to determine the impact of the organization of the educational process on the progress and health of students, the role of performance assessment as an incentive for learning, compare the content of educational material with the creative activity of students, and get an idea of interests through the analysis of selected literature.

Sociological methods of pedagogical research include questionnaires, ratings, and the method of competent assessments. These methods are effective due to their massive character. For example, with the help of a questionnaire, it is possible to conduct a survey of a fairly large number of people in a relatively short period of time, thus finding out the attitude to many pedagogical facts at once and making a comprehensive analysis. Rating - assessment by the subjects of certain processes and phenomena in pedagogical practice. The concept of the method of competent assessments, close to the rating, involves the assessment of behavior, the perception of educational material, the manifestation of creativity and activity of students by competent persons, i.e. teachers.

Pedagogical testing is now widespread in all types of educational institutions. Two areas of testing can be distinguished: speed determination and power determination. In the first case, testing time is strictly limited, while revealing the ability of students to quickly navigate the situation, the ability to switch from one topic to another, the ability to use several ways of thinking at the same time. According to power tests, where a lot of time is allotted for answers, the depth and thoroughness of the knowledge of the tested are determined, and speed does not play a role.

Methods of mathematical statistics are quantitative in nature and are used for quantitative analysis of the collected information. Using this method, it is possible to establish the percentages of various indicators and, on the basis of this, take measures to improve certain aspects of pedagogical activity. Quantitative or mathematical methods in pedagogy are an apparatus for forecasting, modeling, and computerization of pedagogical processes.

12. The content of education as the foundation of the basic culture of the individual

For the successful implementation of the educational process, the very content of education is of great importance. Since education aims not only at the intellectual, but also at the moral and aesthetic development of a person, the content of education can be conditionally divided into two parts. The first includes a set of systematized scientific, professionally oriented knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as teaching methods for their full and correct use in future professional activities. The content of the second part of education is the state political and cultural ideology, the social status of society, historical experience and moral and aesthetic ideas.

Definition of the content of education - not an easy task. The history of the formation and development of pedagogical science knows many mistakes that adversely affect the formation of a person's personality due to incomplete or excessive content of education that lags behind the current state of science or does not correspond to the age characteristics of students. There are several factors that influence the constantly changing content of education. The most important factor is the needs of society. Previously, for example, the school education system included only the study of the basics of mathematics, reading and writing. With the development of science and the expansion of the spiritual life of society, the content of education also changed. The development of production required from the educational system the training of specialists of a higher class, which, of course, enriched and expanded the content of education. Another factor that influenced the content of school education was a change in the social sphere of society, due to a change in the political ideology of society. Until a certain time, it was believed that only selected people belonging to certain strata of society could receive education.

Another significant factor is the subjective influence of the teacher himself on the content of education through the methods he is an adherent of. Much depends on the interpretation of the question of the development of the mental abilities of students.

In pedagogical science, a whole system of requirements for the content of school education has been developed. One of the points of the system indicates that the content of education should be aimed at the formation of a comprehensively and harmoniously developed personality. It is for this reason that the school curriculum includes not only subjects that provide knowledge of scientific foundations, but also such disciplines as physical education, music, labor, and fine arts. The second point testifies to the civic-patriotic and ideological orientation of schoolchildren's education. An important requirement for the content of the school educational program is the construction of the material on a strictly scientific basis. This means that schoolchildren should be offered for assimilation only firmly established and verified scientific facts. It is also necessary to constantly review and, if necessary, update and supplement the content of education in accordance with the current state of science, the political state of the state, and the social status of society. The content of education should be built taking into account the relationships between individual subjects, and the internal structure of the content of each discipline should be a system of knowledge based on the logic inherent in a particular science. The last requirement is also that students understand that all sciences have a direct or indirect connection with each other and constitute a systematized totality, and not a simple set of disparate information. Any education should combine theoretical foundations and practical skills and should correspond to the age characteristics of students. School education should fully provide the student with knowledge and skills sufficient for the next stage of education.

The direction of development in the content of education for a long time had the character of differentiation, however, assuming a constant increase in the number of subjects studied, it cannot be unlimited. Therefore, at present, the integration of academic disciplines with a similar focus and related goals is becoming increasingly important. The foundations of the modern educational system are humanization, integration, the most complete use of world scientific and cultural achievements, the widespread use of information technology and the achievements of modern technology. The content of modern education is increasingly saturated with the humanitarian component of educational material. The main ideological line of humanitarianization is that every person, regardless of his profession and type of activity, needs to have an idea about the history and geography of his country and the world as a whole, to know his native language and literature.

The humanization of education consists in restructuring the content of education with an emphasis on a personality-oriented worldview. The teaching of disciplines is carried out taking into account the human factor. Each item is presented from the position of a specific application in order to improve the level of human life. Humanistic education is aimed at the formation of optimistic views on the life process, the skills of self-organization and self-regulation of behavior.

In the conditions of the current state of the ecological situation in the world, the education system includes disciplines that have the main goal of developing a person's idea of the inseparability of human existence with nature. It is important to instill in students an understanding of the world as a harmonious coexistence of human achievements with natural resources, to develop an appropriate culture of using natural resources.

The use of world scientific and cultural achievements implies periodic replenishment and modification of the content of education in accordance with world changes in various scientific and cultural fields. The development in the field of information technology has had a significant impact on the entire educational process. The high pace of this development and the breadth of application of its results have led to the creation in many educational institutions not only of new disciplines, but also of new organizational units: departments, computer centers, computer courses, etc. The use of modern information technologies, mainly through computers, significantly accelerated and simplified the process of education and self-education of the individual, made it more accessible (distance education).

13. Goals, objectives and patterns of learning

Training - this is a purposeful process aimed at the formation of personality through the transfer of scientific knowledge and the assimilation of the cultural experience of society. Already in ancient times, people felt the need to educate the younger generation in order to create conditions for a full-fledged existence and activities in the existing society, as well as in order to learn about the world around, its properties and features. The main goal of education in a broad sense is the progressive development of society. The tasks of training include the transfer of socio-cultural experience, the systematic presentation of scientific knowledge and skills, the creation of a basic platform for continuing education at higher levels. The learning process can be represented by the following main functions: educational, educational and developmental.

To the function of education includes the mastery of scientific knowledge and skills by students, as well as the ability to rationally apply them in practical professional and everyday activities.

The educational function has something in common with the educational one, as it is designed to induce motivation and form internal incentives for education. In addition, educational goals include the formation of worldviews, moral, aesthetic, cultural and patriotic education, acceptable in the existing society.

The meaning of the developing function is revealed already in its very name, it provides a full-fledged, versatile development of the personality, intellectual and aesthetic abilities, mental and emotional aspects.

The role assigned to the student is important. In modern pedagogy, a person subjected to pedagogical influence is perceived as an active subject, capable of directly and indirectly influencing the learning process, directing it in a direction more acceptable to a particular individual.

The concept of natural has roots in primitive society. Even then, different groups and peoples had traditions that were a reflection of the generalized experience of their ancestors in the form of rules for the behavior and upbringing of children. However, these rules can hardly be called regularities, since they did not have a sufficient basis to be considered as such. Regularity is called essential, objective, stable and invariably repeated under certain conditions of the relationship. Regularities are integral components of any scientific theory.

For effective learning, it is necessary to know and use those most important patterns on the basis of which it should be carried out. The patterns of the learning process can be conditionally divided into general and particular. The general patterns of the learning process cover the entire didactic system and refer to the global learning processes in pedagogy. Such patterns are used to achieve learning success in general, without paying attention to particulars. There are several basic learning patterns:

1) a pattern that determines the purpose of education, as a result of the needs of modern society, associated with the level of its development, scientific and cultural achievements;

2) the content of education is subject to laws that connect it with scientific and technological progress and the social status of society, as well as covering the age and psychophysical characteristics of students, the material aspect;

3) the pattern of learning quality establishes the relationship between adjacent stages of learning, learning outcomes and its content, the conditions for the flow and duration of the learning process and the ability of students to perceive and assimilate material;

4) there is also a pattern of teaching methods and the result of their application;

5) the pattern of learning management establishes the framework and rules for the corrective impact on this process, and also establishes the importance of feedback;

6) external and internal incentives for learning naturally affect its productivity.

More specific patterns of learning are divided into several types: didactic, epistemological, psychological, cybernetic, sociological and organizational.

The use of regularities as a supporting platform for the development of educational processes is beyond doubt and, if implemented correctly, leads to sustainable didactic effectiveness. The teacher, in turn, must clearly know and understand the basic patterns of learning and strictly adhere to them. For example, if stimulating activities are ignored, students will lose interest in the learning process. If the teacher pays little attention to emotional contact with students, a creative approach to conducting lessons, it will hardly be possible to achieve the proper level of learning.

14. Principles of learning

To organize the educational process, specific instructions are needed that are not contained in the laws of education. Practical guidance is contained in the principles and rules of training.

Didactic principles - a set of provisions reflecting the most acceptable and productive teaching methods, organizational specifics, content and standards corresponding to a specific level of development of society. The principles of learning are based on its laws and create a support base for building a competent and effective learning process. The principles of learning are a system of interrelated components. Many modern researchers of pedagogical theory and practice have been developing and substantiating the most important principles of education, after analyzing which it is possible to identify the most general basic principles for building a learning system.

1. The principle of consciousness and activity. This principle reflects the need to develop motivation for learning and stimulate learning activities. This principle is based on the understanding that without the efforts of the trainees, the learning process will not have results. Training should be conscious, meaningful, purposeful from the point of view of the student. On the part of the teacher, conditions should be created for this, that is, the material should be presented in a form that is understandable and accessible to the entire group of students, it is necessary to explain to the students the importance and practical value of the subject being studied, individual abilities and peculiarities of students' thinking should be taken into account, opportunities for teamwork should be created and encouraged in every possible way. creative thinking.

2. The principle of visibility has been popular since ancient times and is quite effective, being intuitive. Using, where possible, visual material, the teacher opens another channel of perception for students - visual, which significantly increases the efficiency of assimilation of new information and contributes to the intensity of learning, as it allows you to present maximum new material in a short time. Considering this principle in the development of the pedagogical process, one should not forget that an excessive number of all kinds of illustrations and diagrams scatters attention and can lead to the opposite effect.

3. The principle of systematicity and consistency gives a systemic character to the learning process, which is a necessary condition for the effectiveness of any impact. As a result of training, a person should form a clear, clear and generally understandable picture of the world with its inherent system of interrelated patterns and concepts. The knowledge system should be created in a logical sequence and offered to students in the same sequence. The skills and abilities already acquired by a person in the learning process must be systematically applied in real or artificially created conditions, otherwise they begin to weaken. Self-learning abilities include the ability to think logically and draw logically sound conclusions and conclusions. The underdevelopment of logical thinking in a person creates problems in his mental activity, which by no means contributes to the formation of systematized knowledge and makes a person incapable of replenishing them independently.

4. The principle of strength. The purpose of this principle is a strong and long-term assimilation of the acquired knowledge. This goal is achieved through the development of interest and a positive attitude of the student to the discipline being studied. To do this, the teacher should strive to establish positive emotional contact with students. After all, in many respects the attitude to the subject is determined by the attitude to the teacher who teaches it. Having aroused interest in the discipline being studied, the teacher greatly facilitates the students' assimilation of the material related to it. This is due to the fact that a person’s memory easily and permanently captures what causes active interest. The strength of knowledge is also facilitated by the consolidation of the material covered and the frequent repetition of the most important points, having understood which it is possible to restore the picture of a certain part of knowledge as a whole.

5. The principle of accessibility implies the development of the content of the learning process, taking into account the capabilities of the trainees. An important condition for accessibility is the correct sequence of presentation of educational material. To assimilate new information, the student must have the appropriate basic knowledge. It is necessary to correlate the complexity and volume of new knowledge with the age of students and their individual characteristics, such as health status, learning ability, psychophysical condition. The teacher must accustom students to overcome difficulties in the process of understanding and mastering new knowledge, as well as build elements of educational material in order of increasing complexity.

6. The principle of scientific character lies in the careful selection of information that constitutes the content of training that meets the following requirements: students should be offered for assimilation only firmly established, scientifically based knowledge, methods of presenting this knowledge should correspond to the specific scientific field to which they belong. A person needs to be instilled with an understanding that science is becoming increasingly important in the life and daily activities of a person, and not only is a necessity for professional activities. Students must understand and be aware of the scientific picture of the world, the interconnection of all scientific fields, their general focus on improving the quality of human life in this world.

7. The principle of connection between theory and practice is based on the central concept of philosophy: practice is the main material for cognition. Practical activity plays an undeniably large role in pedagogical science. The practical side of pedagogy includes the experience of ancestors, observations of teachers, experimental pedagogical activity, etc. Practically acquired knowledge is the most reliable source of information. However, in itself, the information obtained in the course of practical activities cannot be the engine of pedagogical science and has no value. The possibility of using the results of pedagogical practice is carried out by their thorough processing, which includes systematization, research and analysis, conclusions and the creation of pedagogical calculations and theories on their basis, which, subject to further successful research, will be included in the system of pedagogical scientific knowledge. Theory does not always emerge from practice. Many scientists develop new methods of pedagogical influence based on the synthesis of various theoretical knowledge of pedagogical science, put forward hypotheses and assumptions that require a mandatory practical experiment in order to identify their truth, effectiveness and applicability.

15. Forms of organization of training

The coordinated interaction of the teacher and students under certain conditions, according to the appropriate rules and within the established time frame, from an external point of view, reflects the essence of the form of organization of education. Forms of organization of training can have a different classification depending on the criterion. According to the quantitative criterion, training can be group, mass, collective and individual. According to the criterion that determines the time interval for conducting classes, the forms of training can be organized in the form of a classic lesson (45 minutes), a paired lesson (90 minutes), a paired shortened lesson (70 minutes) and a short lesson (30 minutes). The forms of organization of training also differ, depending on the place of training, into 2 categories - school and out-of-school.

In didactics, there are three main and most common forms of education: class-lesson, individual and lecture-seminar.

The class-lesson system of education, which arose as early as the XNUMXth century, was formed and developed thanks to the activities of the great figures of pedagogical science I. Loyola, I. Sturm, Ya. A. Comenius. The class-lesson form is characterized by the division of students into classes according to the criterion of age and level of training, strict compliance with a pre-developed and approved curriculum, regulated alternation and duration of classes, in accordance with the schedule, the leading and leading role of the teacher, the use of various forms and types of creative and cognitive activities. The advantages of this form of education lie in the strict organization and professional development of the content, the possibility of implementing various options for collective teaching methods, and economic feasibility. The advantage of the class-lesson teaching system, expressed in a strict organization, is a fixed lesson schedule, a permanent composition of study groups (classes), a permanent teaching staff, assigning certain classrooms to the relevant academic disciplines, etc. All this creates an opportunity for students to feel more confident in a familiar, stable environment, which naturally increases the effectiveness of the learning process. The unification of students by age groups creates the prerequisites for improving the process of socialization, mutual learning, the formation of skills and abilities of collective communication and joint activities, helps a person find his place and determine a possible role in a group as a model of society. The leading role of the teacher is aimed at ensuring the focus of the efforts of students, thereby helping to navigate the variety of school and educational practices, forms cultural and behavioral norms in children, stimulates motivation for learning and reveals ways for further educational activities. The disadvantages of the class-lesson form of education are that the content of the school curriculum is focused on the average student, thereby not creating optimal conditions for the full development of the most gifted or, on the contrary, the lagging students of the class. The monotony of everyday learning activities in general contributes to a decrease in the interest and cognitive activity of students.

The unit of the class-lesson form of education is a lesson - an organized limited and strictly defined in terms of meaning and content, a period of time that is part of the educational process. Each lesson, being only a small part of the entire learning process, is ultimately of great importance, reflecting the quality of the final result, because the main part of school education consists of an ordered set of such parts that are interconnected with each other.

The individual form of education is not currently widespread, as it is not cost-effective. The dominance of the individual form of education was observed in the 10th century. At that time, teachers recruited small groups of students for training and education: 15-XNUMX people of different ages and levels of training, and conducted classes with them, presenting the educational material to each individually. The content and time interval of training were strictly individual. At the same time, the use of governesses and nannies was especially widespread, who were hired to educate and educate children of a certain social stratum of society. As a rule, such a person brought up and simultaneously taught children several disciplines, the direction of education and upbringing was regulated by the requirements of the society of that time through the parents of the child, while the inclinations and individual characteristics of the pupil did not matter. Currently, tutors can act as representatives of the individual form of education, designed to make up for the shortcomings in the depth of school education in any particular discipline.

The lecture-seminar system is used mainly in higher educational institutions and institutions of postgraduate education. Having arisen with the advent of the first universities, this system has not undergone significant changes and, as before, its main forms are lectures, seminars, colloquia, practical and laboratory classes, tests, exams, work practice. This form of education is designed for people who already have the skills of self-learning and self-education, who have a conscious motivation and desire to acquire knowledge, and who are capable of independent search and assimilation of new information.

16. The unity of the educational, upbringing and developmental functions of education

Education, the leading goal of which is the transfer of knowledge, is not limited only to the direct systematized assimilation by students of information in certain disciplines. It also has a great influence on the development and formation of personality. Knowledge, as an object of assimilation by students, can be divided into three interrelated and complementary components: theoretical, practical, and moral and ideological. The theoretical component includes the scientific side of education as its content.

Practical - implies the application of acquired knowledge, skills and abilities in professional and daily activities.

Moral and ideological - lies in the cultural, aesthetic and ideological education of the individual. A properly organized learning process allows the student to fully master both theory and practice, as well as to form a positive and adequate worldview of the student. In this regard, training is an important and effective means of educating a person. The influence of education on a person from the point of view of educating a comprehensively and harmoniously developed personality has given rise to a new concept in pedagogical science - education. This term did not appear immediately, only in the XNUMXth century did education stand out as an independent part of the pedagogical process, inextricably linked with the concepts of education and training. For the first time, the famous Russian educator-democrat N. I. Novikov mentioned the essence of the concept of education in his articles back in the XNUMXth century, but then education was identified with education and its functions and tasks were the same as educational ones. At present, education is understood as both training and the upbringing of the personality arising from it. N. G. Chernyshevsky gave the same characteristic to education: "three qualities - extensive knowledge, the habit of thinking and nobility of feelings - are necessary for a person to be educated in the full sense of the word." Summing up, we can conclude that education is the possession by a person of a certain system of scientific theoretical knowledge, practical skills and abilities associated with it, a sufficiently high level of development of mental and creative abilities, moral and aesthetic culture, ideological maturity and patriotism, which determine the essence and individual personality of this person. This definition reflects the essence of education from the point of view of a particular person and his goals. If you try to define the concept of education from a public or state point of view, then it will have a slightly different meaning. From this position, a person's education is identified with the level of intellectual and cultural development that can be achieved by graduating from a certain educational institution. In this sense, the concepts of "education" and "upbringing" are synonymous. But, in any case, the main and unchanged is the goal of education, which consists in the totality of the processes of education and training. When defining didactics, they often talk about it as a theory of learning and education, thereby emphasizing that its study includes not only the theory of the learning process, but also its influence on the moral, aesthetic, cultural and worldview aspects of personality formation. It follows from this definition that when developing a theory of learning, one cannot ignore the issue of creating conditions for the full-fledged, comprehensive and harmonious development and formation of a person's personality by training.

17. Didactics, its main categories

Didactics - a part of pedagogical science that studies the problems of teaching and education. The very word - didactics - comes from the Greek didaktikos, which means "teaching" in translation. The first to use this term in his writings was the German educator Wolfgang Rathke, interpreting it as the art of teaching. Later, A. Ya. Comenius interpreted didactics as "the art of teaching everyone everything." Didactics received the most formalized definition and a stable place in pedagogy thanks to the German figure in pedagogical science I. Herbart, who described didactics as a holistic, consistent theory of educative education. However, the main tasks of didactics remained unchanged throughout the development of pedagogy and didactics as its component. The tasks of didactics include the problems of developing methods, content and goals of learning, the principles of organizing educational institutions, the correspondence of the content of the educational process to the generalized characteristics of the subjects of learning, etc. Based on all this, didactics is the science of learning and education, which studies methods, goals and objectives , content and organization of these processes.

Didactics covers everything related to the learning process, at all levels and in all directions. The study of common goals, objectives, patterns and learning outcomes is carried out by general didactics. There are also private didactics dealing with the problems of specific areas and specializations of education, taking into account their specifics. Didactics performs both theoretical and practical functions, which is explained by the spread of its activities to the theoretical and practical aspects of education.

The main categories of didactics include teaching, learning, education, learning, knowledge, skills, purpose, content, forms, methods, means and learning outcomes.

Teaching is an organized and purposeful activity of a teacher aimed at achieving the designated goals, creating conditions for him to perceive and assimilate information and, as a result, the formation of knowledge, skills and abilities, as well as the ability to apply them in practice.

Training - the interaction of the teacher with the students, aimed at achieving the goal.

Education - intellectual and cultural-aesthetic development of the personality through training.

Teachings - implementation by the student of the processes of self-learning and self-education based on the information obtained in the learning process, and, as a result, the formation of new systematized knowledge, skills and abilities.

Знания - the theoretical part of the studied material, thoughts, ideas, conclusions that arose in a person in the learning process.

Skills - practical application of the acquired material, possession of methods and ways of types of scientific and professional activity.

Skills - well-established skills, repeatedly worked out in practice, characterized by a high level of quality and effectiveness.

Goal - the subject of the aspiration of the training system, which determines all aspects of its construction, modification and modernization, and is a criterion for the integrity of this system.

Content - an internal system of everything that a student needs to master and learn to use, and that purposefully influences the formation of his personality.

Organization - building a didactic process in the form of an ordered, coordinated system aimed at effectively solving the tasks.

Form - a way of organizing educational activities, taking into account the specifics of the direction of study, its local goals and objectives, the age characteristics of students, their level of preparation, etc.

Method - a way to solve problems and achieve the goal of learning.

Means - everything that helps to carry out the educational process and that without which its implementation would be impossible: the personal and professional qualities of the teacher, teaching aids, visual material, equipment of the educational institution, etc.

The results - the degree of realization of the intended goal, the level achieved by the students in the direction of the training produced, the consequences of the learning process in a professional and personal sense.

18. Didactic systems

Didactic system - this is a certain integral structure of the implementation of education, which differs in its own criteria, designated positions and views on this process. There are three fundamentally different didactic systems that were used in different historical time periods.

One of them was developed by the German philosopher and teacher I. Herbart. His system has many shortcomings and erroneous ideas about the learning process as a whole, which is explained by its authoritarian nature. The most widespread use of Herbart's didactic system dates back to the XNUMXth century. His system, based on the theory of ethics and psychology, has the main goal of forming a strong, strong-willed personality, with a specific ideology and morality, and is called the "scientific system of pedagogy." Herbart developed the main ideas on which, in his opinion, the theory of education should be based:

The idea of perfection, which determines the direction of aspiration and the ultimate goal of personality formation.

The idea of benevolence, interpreted as a conscious submission to the desires and aspirations of others for the purpose of consistent communication and interaction.

The idea of law, designed to regulate relations between people by defining the rights and obligations of everyone.

The idea of justice, according to which all unfair actions against any person should be punished and compensated.

The idea of inner freedom lies in the right to choose and direct volitional efforts in the direction corresponding to it.

In the didactic system of Herbart there is no relationship between education and upbringing. In his view, the tasks of education include only increasing intellectual and physical development, as well as accustoming to order. The leading role is assigned to the teacher, who undividedly manages the learning process in strict accordance with the curriculum and in the conditions of maintaining discipline and complete obedience. Such actions on the part of the teacher are aimed mainly at the formation of a strong-willed personality. The role of students is passive perception and assimilation of educational material. Pupils are not allowed to show creative abilities, a deeper interest than provided by the content of the material, to object to the teacher. Within the framework of this system, all students of the same group are considered equal, the individual characteristics of each are not taken into account, and the level of knowledge of each student must correspond to the intended goal. The teacher, in turn, has no right to enrich the lesson with additional information, encourage the achievements of individual students and exceed the level of a certain emotional contact with students. At the same time, in order to maintain discipline, the use of prohibitions, the imposition of restrictions and "soft corporal punishment" was allowed. Practical skills and abilities did not take place in Herbart's didactics, and therefore it practically did not play a role in a person's daily activities and did not prepare a person for a full life in society.

According to modern estimates, the Herbart system did not give any positive results in teaching, but, based on the errors of this system, other areas of didactics developed in spite of this one. One of them is the didactic system of the American philosopher, psychologist and teacher D. Dewey, which can be described as an alternative to the Herbart system.

In the Dewey didactic system, the decisive role in learning is assigned to the students themselves. The effectiveness of training depends on the cognitive and active activity of the students themselves. Moreover, verbal teaching methods are practically absent. The teacher in this system plays the role of an assistant, called only to determine the direction of the educational process and to provide assistance to students when they need it. The process of acquiring knowledge, skills and abilities, according to Dewey, occurs most effectively only as a result of the practical activities of students, overcoming the difficulties and problems that a teacher should create in accordance with the curriculum. Problems should correspond to the age characteristics and basic knowledge of the students. On the way to solving problems, students go through several stages: feeling the problem (difficulty), defining the problem, formulating the proposed solution, implementing this solution, analyzing the results. The basis of the Dewey system is practical activity, and the theoretical is used to a minimum, the curriculum does not have a clearly developed structure, but contains only indicative information in certain areas. The teacher himself can vary the curriculum in accordance with the needs and inclinations of the students. Dewey's didactic system has a progressive and democratic character, personality-oriented orientation. The disadvantages of this system include its theoretical insufficiency, the inconsistency of providing students with a system of scientific knowledge, which is necessary as a basis for finding solutions to overcome a particular problem situation. The Dewey system is completely opposite to the Herbart system, and, as a result, it is able to solve those problems that are weak points of Herbart's didactics.

The modern didactic system arose taking into account the achievements and mistakes of the didactics of Herbart and Dewey, and is the basis of modern pedagogical practice. One of the most progressive areas of the new didactics is teaching "through discovery". The system of such training was developed by the American psychologist and teacher D. Brunner. This system is based on the acquisition of knowledge through students making their own discoveries, based on their theoretical knowledge base. This way of learning encourages students to actively think, reason, experiment, formulate and generalize the results of their activities, as well as acquire skills and abilities.

Some of the main characteristics of modern didactics can be identified.

One of them is its methodological basis, based on the objective laws of the philosophy of knowledge. Much attention in the development of teaching methods is given to a combination of harmonious theory and practice.

The systems-structural approach to learning ensures the full and interconnected influence of all currently available scientific knowledge.

Modern didactics combines the managerial role of the teacher with the active initiative of students. The main thing is to achieve the goal of training, and compliance with any rules for its implementation is determined only by the desire for the fastest and most stable result.

The development of curricula and plans is carried out taking into account the maximum adaptation to the conditions of education and its subjects.

The technology of training and education should have a certain flexibility depending on the direction and specifics of specific types of training programs.

19. State educational standard

In our country, the education system is managed, regulated and controlled by the state, which imposes requirements on the content of education, guided by the goal of forming a person capable of full-fledged life in modern society. In carrying out its functions, the state creates and implements the State Standard of Education, which regulates the structure of the education system as a whole. It is the state standard that determines the level of education of graduates of all types of educational institutions available in the country, regardless of their legal basis. The educational standard consists of two main components: invariant and variable. The invariant component of education is practically constant; it forms the basic basis of the entire system as a whole and is subject to revision and adjustment extremely rarely. The variable component of the educational standard has a flexible structure that can be modified in accordance with the needs of society and the development of pedagogical science, which results in new progressive methods of education.

The content of the educational process is regulated by curricula, curricula and teaching aids of various types.

Education in a general education school is carried out in accordance with the curriculum. The curriculum is not the same throughout the country. The state develops a common basic curriculum that is invariant. In each region of the country by the relevant local education authorities, the content of the general curriculum varies according to the characteristics of this region, as well as depending on the nature of the educational institution. Many of these private curricula are varied. The curriculum is a certificate of the educational institution. The curriculum contains the organizational information of the educational process. More detailed information regarding the teaching of a particular discipline is contained in the curriculum. They include the content of the information offered for assimilation in this subject area, recommendations on teaching methods, the time interval allotted for the study of certain issues, a list of possible equipment and visual aids, and a list of references. Curricula may vary in accordance with the differentiation of education in many modern schools. This allows the parallel use of several curricula in the same school for different classes, in accordance with the profile of in-depth learning in this class.

An indispensable attribute of the learning process is educational literature containing information, illustrations, exercises and control tests or questions related to a particular subject. The state educational standard imposes many requirements on the content and design of educational literature. Basically, they all obey a common goal: the content of educational literature should be accessible and understandable, competently illustrated, aesthetically designed, include a sufficient amount of information presented in a logical sequence, have a stable basis and leave the possibility of additions or corrections in accordance with the development of science, culture and art. The textbook, as the main tool used in the learning process, should perform the following didactic functions: motivational, informational, and control and corrective.

The state requirements for the level of education of graduates of general education schools throughout the country are the same. To control the achievement of this level, the state standard provides for test and examination questions and tasks in the main subjects corresponding to some control stages of school education. The state also establishes general rules for maintaining records of educational institutions.

The main goal of the state educational standard is to maintain and create conditions for raising the level of education. The variable component of education allows introducing new teaching methods in specific educational institutions, supplementing the main course with additional disciplines, thus expanding the horizons of students and opening up more opportunities for them related to everyday life and future professional activities. General educational institutions with the highest level of training (gymnasiums, lyceums) are constantly competing with each other for the right to be considered the best in their city or region, which contributes to an increase in the level of education in general. The state is obliged to prevent a decrease in this level. Education must have a certificate of quality.

20. Teaching methods

Teaching method - joint activity of the teacher and students, aimed at achieving a specific learning goal. Didactic methods can be divided into three components: pedagogical and student teaching methods. Pedagogical methods refer to the actions of the teacher (teacher), student methods reflect the ways of learning from the point of view of students. Particular attention should be paid to teaching methods that imply the definition of the joint work of the teacher with the students. Teaching methods have objective and subjective sides. The objective side reflects the general basic essence of the method, while the subjective side reflects the manifestation of the skill and creativity of the teacher within the framework of the method and in accordance with its basic principles.

In modern didactics, there are a huge number of a wide variety of teaching methods. In this regard, it became necessary to classify them.

The most common of them is the classification of teaching methods according to the source of knowledge. This classification includes five methods.

1. practical method based on the acquisition of knowledge through laboratory experimental activities. The tasks of the teacher include setting the task and assisting students in conducting practical activities. An important stage of such training is the systematization and analysis of information obtained in the course of classes.

2. Visual method. The main role in the application of this method is assigned to the teacher. His tasks include explaining the material using illustrations, diagrams, tables, experiments, conducting experiments and various visual aids. Pupils in this method are given a passive role of perception and fixation of the received information.

3. Verbal method also involves active teaching activities. The functions of the teacher include the oral presentation of the material, according to a pre-thought-out scheme, in which they must be present: posing a question, researching and analyzing the content of this issue, summing up and conclusions.

Students should not only perceive and assimilate information, they can ask questions, express their point of view, put forward hypotheses, discuss, discuss certain opinions regarding the issue under study;

1) work with the book reflects the method of independent work of students, including reading, viewing, note-taking, analysis, systematization and other types of educational activities that are possible when working with educational literature.

2) video method - an innovative method of teaching using video material and an electronic teacher, used mainly as an additional method to strengthen knowledge or expand it. This method requires the student to have a high level of ability and motivation for self-learning.

Another type of classification proposed by M. N. Skatkin and I. Ya. Lerner is based on the division of teaching methods depending on the nature of the student's cognitive activity in mastering the material being studied.

This classification includes the following methods.

1. Explanatory-illustrative. One of the ways to transfer "ready-made" knowledge to students of the system is through any kind of didactic material. Students, in turn, must fix in memory and on paper the information received with immediate or subsequent comprehension, memorization and consolidation of the latter;

2. reproductive method involves, in addition to the perception of information, its practical use. The teacher offers various tasks and exercises, as well as artificially creates situations that require the application of the acquired knowledge in practice.

3. Problem presentation method is active on the part of the teacher. The teacher artificially creates a problem and clearly and in detail explains to the students the ways and means of solving it. The solution occurs in stages: understanding the problem, putting forward a hypothesis for its solution, practical experiment, analysis of the results. Pupils are assigned the role of observers, who must trace the logic and interconnectedness of all the actions of the teacher, learn the basic principles and stages of problem solving.

4. Partial search (heuristic) method learning is based on the independent activity of students, aimed at processing information in order to identify contradictions and problems arising in accordance with them, as well as finding ways to solve these problems and analyzing the results in order to identify the degree of their truth. The teacher in this case plays the role of an assistant and mentor, he is obliged to teach students how to competently go through all the stages on the way to identifying and solving problems, as well as to provide assistance when students have various kinds of difficulties.

5. The research method is the most effective in terms of learning, but its implementation requires a highly qualified teacher. The teacher, together with the students, forms the problem and manages the independent research activities of the students. Students choose research methods themselves, knowledge is obtained by them in the process of research and solving related research tasks. Knowledge obtained in this way is deeply and firmly settled in the memory of a person. The creative activity inherent in this method helps to increase interest and motivation in the learning process.

Another classification of teaching methods, which has recently become widespread, has been developed by Yu. K. Babansky. He identified three main groups:

Methods for organizing and implementing educational and cognitive activities, methods for stimulating and motivating educational and cognitive activities, methods for monitoring and self-control of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activities.

The methods included in the group of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities are numerous and quite diverse. They use all kinds of information sources: textbooks, lectures, visual aids, practical activities. Preference is given to a reasonable combination of theory and practice, knowledge is acquired both through the perception and comprehension of the proposed material, and in the process of research activities and analysis of its results. An important role is played by independent work, controlled by the teacher.

The methods of stimulating and motivating educational and cognitive activity are mainly aimed at awakening students' interest in the learning process. The activities developed using these methods are usually varied and emotional. Students are offered tasks in the form of situational forms close to real life, the solution of which requires a certain theoretical basis, thereby creating an idea of the applicability of the knowledge gained in everyday or professional life. Students are convinced of the benefits of acquiring such knowledge and skills, which arouses interest and creates incentives for learning. A good effect is given by tasks of a competitive nature, where, trying to prove himself, a person strives to master the necessary knowledge and skills as best and thoroughly as possible.

The methods of control and self-control of the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activity are aimed at the formation of the student's consciousness and are based on the assessment of the final result of training. The learning process includes various types of control and self-control, according to which a conclusion is made about the effectiveness of the classes for each individual student and for the entire training group as a whole. Assessment plays a significant role in these methods as a stimulus for obtaining knowledge. Often, students are asked to evaluate their own work, and then compare this assessment with the teacher's assessment, in this case, students are taught the ability to most objectively assess their level of knowledge and skills.

The existing classifications of teaching methods are not without drawbacks. In any educational process, in fact, a combination of elements of several methods is used at once, and speaking of the application of a particular method in a particular case, we mean its dominant position in relation to the others. Currently, in modern pedagogical science, several relatively independent teaching methods are distinguished: storytelling, conversation, lecture, discussion, work with a book, demonstration, illustration, video method, exercises, laboratory and practical methods, cognitive game, programmed learning methods, learning control, situational method.

Independence in this case means the presence of significant differences between the method and steel, features and properties inherent only to this method.

21. Motivation and stimulation of learning

Motivation is a prerequisite for successful learning. It occupies a leading place in the personality of each person and determines the direction and nature of his activity. The internal motives of a person encourage him to be active, overcome difficulties, persistently strive for the intended goal. Only if there is strong motivation, independent work of students will give the necessary results. In the process of inducing motivation, the determining role is played by the interest and curiosity inherent in a person, as well as his emotions and needs. The initial level of basic knowledge about any subject of study implies the presence of a huge number of emerging questions. Curiosity breeds interest in having the answers to them. The role of the teacher in this case is the correct form of presenting these answers. An important point is the active activity of students in a phased approach to a particular answer, that is, it is necessary to create an opportunity for students to "reach" the correct answer by solving feasible local problems. The student feels the importance and effectiveness of his activity, due to which his faith in his strengths and abilities increases, and, consequently, gives rise to interest and, as a result, motivation to continue learning. In addition, knowledge acquired as a result of one's own activity is stronger and more thorough. Constantly increasing the level of knowledge of students in this way, it is important to take into account the consistency of the stages, each stage should replenish the knowledge base to the level necessary for mastering the next stage.

To maintain the interest of students throughout the entire period of study, it is necessary to adhere to certain rules when organizing the study of new material: its volume must correspond to the age characteristics of students, all new information must have an obvious connection for students with what they have already studied and well mastered by them, there should be no new information too little, the teacher's speech should be competent and understandable to students, it is desirable to have a practical component in the process of learning new material and independent work.

To maintain motivation, students need to form a positive attitude towards the educational institution, teachers, and the training program. This is achieved by establishing a certain emotional contact between teachers and students, the presence of elements of informal communication through the organization of various types of extracurricular activities, respect for the personality of the student and his opinion, creating opportunities for discussions and discussions on educational and remotely related topics.

One of the most effective methods of inducing motivation is the student's ability to choose the direction of study, independent determination of the level of complexity of tasks and problem situations artificially created on the way to their solution. Such independence of the student increases his responsibility for the results of the work done, thereby encouraging him to justify his choice. A person learns to correctly assess his capabilities, in the process of which he reveals "gaps" in knowledge, which, in turn, gives rise to the desire to fill them. As a result of such work, a person’s self-esteem increases, he feels himself able to make the right choice and, on its basis, achieve certain results, which in itself is a motivation to continue similar activities.

To form the motives of educational activity, all possible ways of organizing the educational process that have a stimulating effect are used. Stimulus - the inducement of activity from the outside. But the incentive becomes effective only if it turns into an internal motive. The degree of influence of the stimulus is very individual and depends on the qualities, inclinations and characteristics of the human personality. Stimulation of a person should be carefully thought out and aimed at the formation of positive motivation.

By summarizing the pedagogical experience of different times and peoples, the basic rules for stimulating learning were identified:

1) act in accordance with the desires of students. Not to impose educational material on a person, but to arouse interest in it and, as a result, a desire to study it;

2) use identification. It is important to awaken in a person any positive aspiration, even if it is far from the training program and from training at all. Provided there is aspiration, desire or active interest in something, the teacher has something to rely on to gradually change the direction of activity in the right direction. The presence of any strong desires of a person creates the basis for the selection of specific incentives that are effective in this case;

3) take into account interests and inclinations.

Each person, except for the interest in learning, which may be completely absent, has a penchant for various kinds of activities: sports, fine arts, needlework, music, etc. Ignoring the extracurricular life of the child, the school, thus, moves away from his consciousness and becomes heavy burden. Of course, within the framework of the school curriculum it is impossible to take into account the diverse interests of all students, but there are some interests inherent in almost all children and adolescents, given which the teacher can achieve significant success in forming motives for studying school subjects. Undoubtedly, a person's desire for success, aesthetic beauty, prosperity. Implicit is the inner desire to search for the logic of the surrounding world. Based on all this, the teacher should strive to organize his activities in such a way that students feel the opportunity through learning to get closer to their goals, strengthen confidence in the benefits of learning, discover new abilities and opportunities, thanks to which their own significance and ability to influence any life processes;

1) use the intentions of students who have already chosen a local or global direction of their activity. The teacher should strive to assist in the implementation of intentions and show respect for them;

2) the stimulus of recognition is often dominant, and although it is not correct from the point of view of the teacher, it has a positive impact on the learning process;

3) recognize the virtues that every person must have. Paying attention to what the student does better than the rest, the teacher inspires him with confidence in his abilities, which gives rise to the desire to receive approval again and again, giving rise to vigorous activity;

4) approve of success. Approval should be given not only to "strong" students, but also to those who are lagging behind. The teacher should be able to highlight that part of the work of any student that deserves approval. Approval spurs the pursuit of success;

1) make the work attractive, thereby encouraging interest in its implementation;

2) give a chance, thereby opening up new ways to achieve the intended goal;

3) appeal to self-love, thereby convincing a person of his possibility of self-improvement, his potential, abilities;

4) show the student's achievements in comparison with his previous level, and not compare with other students;

5) use praise, but within reasonable limits and in appropriate cases. Praise should be really deserved, sincere, emotional.

22. The essence of education, its tasks and content

The concept of education is not unambiguous. On the one hand, education can be considered a specially organized, purposeful process of the formation and development of a personality. On the other hand, it educates society, the family, and the environment with all the spontaneous events that are often unpredictable and not amenable to planning. Considering the educational process as a specially organized activity in institutions intended for this, its main feature is purposefulness. In this case, the success of education largely depends on the nature and degree of cooperation between the educator and the pupil. Both parties must understand the ultimate goal and have internal motives to achieve it. The complexity of the upbringing process lies in the fact that it is impossible to unambiguously determine its results, as, for example, in training. The results of upbringing are not amenable to testing, they are changeable and ambiguous, and also largely depend on the individual characteristics of the individual. In fact, the process of upbringing lasts a lifetime, it is dynamic and continuous, since all the diversity of the human environment invariably influences this process. The organized process of education has a two-way character: from the educator to the pupil and from the pupil to the educator. Moreover, feedback is more important, because it is they that contain information about the individual characteristics of a person, his reaction to certain actions on the part of the teacher. In accordance with this, a further plan of the educational process is being developed, approaches and methods are selected that are most effective in this case.

In modern pedagogy, education sets itself a lot of tasks, the most important of which are:

1) holistic, harmonious, comprehensive formation of personality;

2) instilling socially adapted, cultural, socially adequate norms of behavior and life;

3) development of the moral and aesthetic aspects of the personality;

4) development of the volitional and emotional spheres of the human character, his purposefulness;

5) familiarization with the scientific, cultural, historical values of society;

6) education of patriotism and patriotic ideology in accordance with the modern policy of the state;

7) development of individual abilities, inclinations, desires and possibilities of the human person in the intellectual, physical or other area of life;

8) creation of conditions for various types of cognitive activity in order to broaden one's horizons, increase the level of education and cultural experience;

9) development of flexibility and ability to quickly and adequately respond to changes in external factors from the social, political and cultural life of society.

An important condition for the fulfillment of the above and other tasks of education is the correct understanding and solution of the issue of the content of education. The content of education as a whole consists of a system of knowledge, skills, beliefs, qualities and personality traits, behavior, ideology and views of a person, which are the ultimate goal of the educational process. The process of education from the point of view of modern pedagogical science has a multifaceted structure, and its content varies depending on the specific narrower direction at any stage or within the framework of any specially organized activity.

1. The formation of the foundations of a scientific worldview includes as content the views and beliefs that are formed through developed thinking and strong-willed purposefulness. Thus, in addition to mastering scientific knowledge in a given subject area, a person acquires the ability to further develop his intellect, learns to analyze, reason, systematize, explore, etc. Students' own practical and theoretical activities in the formation of a worldview, knowledge, and skills are of great importance. and the skills thus acquired are of particular value. Particularly relevant aspects in shaping the worldview of modern man are environmental, economic and political education.

2. Civic education is designed to develop patriotic feelings, respect and submission to state power, a culture of interethnic relations, and an appropriate political ideology. The content of civic education includes the achievements of the country in various fields of science and art, the history of the Fatherland, the signs and symbols of the Russian Federation and other countries, the customs and traditions of the peoples of Russia.

3. Moral education is inextricably linked with the process of socialization. Socializing, a person learns to behave appropriately and forms an attitude towards society as a whole, towards people, nature, cultural values, customs and rules adopted in his environment. The content of moral education can be considered humanity - a set of personal qualities that express the attitude of a person to a person. A humane attitude implies a person's ability to sympathy, understanding, responsiveness, tolerance, respect for the choices and characteristics of other people, understanding the human person as the highest value. The most effective means of humane education is the humane attitude of the teacher to the students. An important means is also the organization of various types of collective activities, the artificial creation of problem situations, resolving which, under the guidance of a teacher, children learn humanity and develop their moral position. The most important element of the content of moral education is conscious discipline and culture of behavior. In the education of morality, ideals are of great importance, in the role of which famous historical figures and literary heroes act, which are role models or examples of the negative qualities of a person, analyzing which children, under the influence of a teacher or their own thinking, strive to develop certain qualities in themselves. Moral education also includes the culture of communication, speech, behavior, and appearance.

4. Labor education forms hard work, responsibility, motivation for the practical application of theoretical knowledge, the development of cognitive activity through labor activity.

5. Aesthetic education is aimed at developing the abilities for creative thinking, spiritual values, emotional perception of works of art. The content of aesthetic education is understood as the totality of cultural and spiritual values of mankind, works of art, the ability to perceive, understand, feel beauty and recognize it among the many things surrounding a person.

6. Physical education is necessary for the formation of a holistic, harmoniously developed personality. Physical education includes the inculcation of elementary skills of physical activity, hygiene, maintenance of tone and health, theoretical knowledge about sports and physical education, as a necessary attribute of modern life.

23. Patterns and principles of education

The effectiveness of the educational process is largely determined by the teacher's knowledge and understanding of the basic patterns of mental phenomena of pupils, their specificity, which depends on various external and internal factors. Patterns are certain connections between the various components of education, the implementation of which helps to achieve the greatest success in education. The most important aspects of education are:

1) the established educational relations, implying a certain position of the pupil in relation to the educator, which is the basis for pedagogical influence;

2) the actions of the educator should be determined by the purpose of education;

3) the focus of education on the actual state of the social environment, that is, education should contribute to the formation of a personality adapted to life in modern society;

4) a harmonious combination of objective and subjective factors of education implies the creation of appropriate conditions, both on the part of teachers and on the part of the external environment;

5) the ability and motivation for self-education play an important role in the successful course of the educational process;

6) active participation in the educational process, both teachers and pupils;

7) the unity of all aspects of pedagogical activity;

8) ensuring the necessary level of qualification of teachers and the appropriate content of education;

9) reliance on the internal needs and interests of pupils;

10) the sequence of education should correspond to the logic of the intellectual and psychophysical development of the individual, take into account the basic knowledge and skills of a person;

11) the formation of positive relations in the team of pupils greatly simplifies the process of education and intensively affects its effectiveness.

The patterns of education determine the principles on which the organization of the educational process is built. Determining the principles of education, it is necessary to be guided by certain requirements for them. The principles should be comprehensive, have equal significance in the implementation of the educational process. In addition, it is important to follow the existing principles. In modern pedagogical science, a number of basic principles of education can be distinguished: social orientation, connection with life and work, reliance on positive education, unity of educational influences. Let's consider them in more detail.

Public orientation of education. Education is inextricably linked with the needs of society, but is regulated by the state. The upbringing of a new generation should contribute to the formation of a certain ideology, political views, and should be aimed at strengthening the state system. A teacher who plays the role of an educator is not free to choose the content of the educational process. He is obliged to follow the state strategy of education, and, in accordance with this, direct his efforts to the formation of certain personal qualities that correspond to the socially adequate type of personality. The best result can be achieved if the state, public and personal interests of all parties influencing education coincide. Compliance with the compliance of education with social norms can be taken by various measures that do not go beyond the state legislation in this area. Thus, observing the requirements of the state, education is given a social orientation. Such measures include the creation of private schools focused on training people of certain segments of society. Teachers, in turn, should strive to create real conditions for communication between pupils, thanks to which they develop behavioral and communication skills. It is important to include pupils in public and social life through a variety of practical activities. It is necessary to take care of the assimilation of such concepts as "state", "power", "law", "responsibility", etc. The tasks of the teacher include inducing an active interest in social activities, the desire to become part of society, thereby taking responsibility for its development .

The connection between upbringing and work activity presupposes the presence of practical activities in the process of upbringing. But, in addition to introducing pupils to the feasible participation in the labor activity of society, it is necessary to form a proper attitude towards work and workers. A person must understand the need for this part of life and respect the results of labor, the people of labor who create the material and spiritual values necessary for the life of society as a whole. The tasks of education include the development of the ability and motivation for one's own labor activity, the desire to contribute to the working life of society, while taking care not only of personal well-being, but also of the interests of the state. Pedagogical efforts should be directed to a person's awareness of the necessity and value of his labor efforts.

Reliance on the positive qualities of a person is one of the main provisions of education. Its basis is that in every person, even if he seems bad in everything, there are positive qualities that are predetermined by human nature. These include love for animals, responsiveness, kindness, generosity, philanthropy, etc. The educator must identify at least some of them, in order to use for the development of the rest, determined by the goal of educating qualities and bringing their totality to a harmonious combination. Acting in this direction, the teacher must adhere to a benevolent attitude towards the pupil, strive to cooperate with him, try to win him over, avoid confrontation and struggle, the manifestation of negative feelings and emotions. The teacher's interest in cultivating the best traits of a person's character and achieving a positive result of his efforts is important. Of great importance in this case is the attitude of the pupil to himself, which largely depends on the attitude of the people around him. The educator, who plays a leading role in the process of education, should strive to increase the self-esteem of pupils, encouraging their successes, not focusing on failures and creating a positive atmosphere in the team.

Unity of educational influences. Education will only be productive when the entire environment of a person that has a direct influence on the formation of his personality will have consistent goals of education that do not contradict each other. The efforts of specially organized institutions, families and the public must complement each other and be in mutual harmony. To achieve such conditions of education, each person involved in this process must remember and take into account the direction and requirements of other spheres of influence on his pupil. A huge role in the formation of personality belongs to the family. The most complete emotional contact is created in the family, there are trusting relationships, the authority of parents and other relatives. Only in the family is it possible to take into account the individual characteristics of a person as much as possible; among relatives and friends, a person is more willing to reveal himself, which is important for determining his desires and needs, abilities and capabilities. Using all this, you can achieve the best success in education. Parents, having access to such important and necessary information for the implementation of educational activities, should cooperate with the child's teachers, jointly solving controversial issues, helping each other to see the pupil from different angles in order to better understand him and choose the most effective means and methods of education. Provided that views or opinions on certain educational elements do not coincide, these contradictions should not affect the process of educating a person as a whole, become for him a source of internal contradictions and a negative attitude towards any subjects that inevitably affect his upbringing (teachers, parents etc.).

24. Education as socialization

The most important task of education is socialization, that is, preparing a person for life and activity in the existing society, instilling in him the norms of behavior accepted in society, understanding and assimilation of social values. In the process of education, a person strives to become a part of society, take an active part in its development and enjoy the rights provided by society. Interacting with the environment, a person acquires valuable and irreplaceable social experience, in practice he learns to correctly perceive and resolve various possible situations that inevitably arise in the process of communication and interaction. The process of socialization, being inextricably linked with education, lasts a lifetime. However, it consists of several levels or stages corresponding to the age periods of a person. At each stage, tasks of a different nature and level of complexity are solved. For example, in early childhood, a child only gets acquainted with the world around him, observes and gradually masters some of the simplest rules of behavior, first in the family, then in various public places and special children's institutions. The child learns to divide others into acquaintances and strangers, adults and his peers, and in accordance with this chooses a line of behavior. At an older age, a person is aimed at the formation of his own individuality, the development and determination of inclinations, desires, needs. In youth, there is a conscious identification of oneself with one or another social group, a life position, views, worldview are formed. Socialization, its depth, completeness and effectiveness depend on the quality of education. Education governs the process of socialization and controls its course. In modern pedagogical science, the basic mechanisms of socialization have been defined and studied in sufficient depth. These include: suppression, isolation, self-restraint, projection, identification, introjection, empathy, intellectualization, rationalization, cancellation of actions.

The essence of the mechanism of suppression lies in the external or internal displacement of thoughts, desires, feelings, etc. from consciousness. External suppression is created by the efforts of other people or the environment. Internal suppression comes from the conscious volitional efforts of the personality itself or occurs in an arbitrary way.

Insulation - a mechanism for suppressing thoughts, memories, impressions, associations that are unpleasant for a person. In the process of isolation, a person improves his mental state, tunes in to an optimistic mood, learns to cope with conflict situations.

Self limitation - belittling one's own capabilities and abilities in relation to the results of the activities of those around them. In small time intervals, self-restraint helps to avoid stressful situations and adapt to the situation that has arisen. However, the constant retreat in the face of difficulties, the fear of mistakes and failures gives rise to an inability to overcome them, hinders the development of the individual, and "kills" self-confidence.

The essence of the projection mechanism is the perception of people around as owners of their own qualities, the inability to objectively judge people, highlighting and multiplying in them what a person wants to see and ignoring against this background the main personal qualities of other people.

Identification - the most important mechanism of socialization. It consists in assimilation by a person of himself with any other personality, imitation of it. A person adopts the habits, views, interests of another person, copies his behavior, manner of communication, tastes. Identification can be conscious or spontaneous. Provided that the consciousness of a person accepts the qualities and attitudes of another in an unchanged form, without adaptation to one's own worldview, identification passes into introjection.

Empathy - the formation of the ability to sympathize, worry, worry about another person. This mechanism has a particularly strong influence on the process of socialization of emotional personalities.

Intellectualization - a mechanism that begins to operate when problem situations arise, when a person tries to find a way out, make a choice, overcome difficulties. Emotional people are more susceptible to the influence of external and internal factors of various kinds, they tend to exaggerate certain difficulties, so intellectualization occurs most intensively in them.

When performing actions, a person always strives to give them a reasonable explanation, to logically substantiate what drives the mechanism of rationalization. On the one hand, rationalization, justifying the actions of a person, affirms his faith in himself, on the other hand, constant satisfaction with his own personal qualities hinders their development and improvement.

Cancellation of actions - a mechanism that weakens responsibility for one's actions by recognizing their negative sides. Realizing and apologizing, a person considers the topic exhausted and frees his conscience from the "burden" of guilt. Getting used to such a solution to such situations, a person easily commits bad deeds, because he knows in advance how to get rid of the consequences.

The process of socialization is influenced by many factors. Their classification on the basis of mass influence was developed by Professor A. V. Mudrik:

1) macro factors - factors that affect humanity as a whole or large groups of people, for example, living in a certain climatic zone, on one continent, in one country;

2) mesofactors - the media, the national specificity of society, regional features of a political, cultural and social nature, environmental conditions;

3) microfactors - family, educational institutions, work and educational teams, friends and close acquaintances. All these factors influence the socialization of the individual.

It is important to match the pace of socialization with the pace of development of society, which do not always coincide. In this case, there is a slowdown in the development of both society as a whole and the people who replenish it. A person who is not prepared for the full realization of his abilities and aspirations, his potential in the conditions of the existing mechanisms of modern society, is distracted from the implementation of important goals for him to adapt to social requirements and norms.

25. Methods of education. The choice of methods and techniques of education

Under the methods of education one should understand those specific methods and techniques of educational work that are used in the process of organizing a variety of students' activities to develop their appropriate need-motivational sphere, views and beliefs, develop skills and habits of behavior, as well as its correction and improvement in order to form personal properties and qualities. (Kharlamov I.F.) Any methods are aimed at achieving the goal, but some of them lead to the achievement of the goal faster, others more slowly. It depends not only on the essence of the method, but also on the conditions of its application. The same method in different cases can lead to completely different results. The task of the teacher is to determine the most appropriate method in each case, as well as its adaptation to the specific conditions of the educational process. The methods of education, defined and studied in pedagogy, are taken from the experience of teachers of the past. They are of a general nature and cannot be applied in their pure form, since they will certainly turn out to be ineffective in this case. The educator, if he wants to achieve the best results of his activities, is in constant search and analysis of individual elements of education, ways of influencing the human personality. At the same time, the essence of the method chosen by him remains unchanged, only the ways to achieve the goal are processed. Such ways, developed by the teacher for use in specific conditions of education, are called techniques. The problem of creating new, most effective methods of education is constantly faced by teachers in all spheres of pedagogical activity. They can be taken from the experience of other educators or developed through their own practice. Knowledge of already known and proven methods of education, the ability to correctly apply them or use their idea is one of the main indicators of pedagogical skill. The totality of upbringing methods used in a complex by a teacher is a means of upbringing. The tool is a generalization of individual techniques that are most suitable for use in specific conditions of organized educational activities.

The method itself cannot be good or bad. Each method, having its own characteristics and specifics, is the most effective in a particular situation under certain conditions. The choice of methods of education and its conditions have a deep causal relationship. There are many factors that influence the choice of the optimal method in this case. The correct choice is possible only if the teacher knows the main general methods of education, their essence and features, the conditions of applicability, understanding the reasons why this particular method is preferred over another. Consider some of the main reasons for the choice of methods of education.

1. The goals and objectives of education are fundamental factors in determining methods.

2. Age of pupils. For each age there are their own methods of education, developed taking into account the mental and physiological characteristics of pupils of each age category.

3. Features of the relationship in the team and the educator with the pupils, emotional closeness, the level of trust, etc. In any team, there are certain stages in the formation and development of internal relations, along with this, the methods of education must also change or partially transform.

4. The personal characteristics of the pupils imply an individual approach to the education of each and, accordingly, an individual choice of methods of education that have the greatest success in relation to a particular person.

5. Means of education, such as visual aids, media, cultural and art objects. Depending on their availability and accessibility, methods of education are also selected.

6. Giving preference to this or that method, the teacher is guided by information about it, his own or someone else's experience of its application, analyzes all the general methods known to him. The most correct decision can be made if the teacher knows and understands a large number of different methods, has significant experience in education, and develops intuition. In other words, the choice of the optimal method in this case directly depends on the qualifications of the teacher.

7. Time factor. If there is enough time, then more humane methods of education are used, special care is taken for the mental health of pupils, and gradual and gradual progress towards the goal is made. With a lack of time and, at the same time, complex goals and objectives, more stringent methods of influence are used, requiring significant efforts of the pupil and high qualification of the teacher.

When choosing a method, all these and other highly specialized factors must be taken into account. It is important to set realistic, achievable goals, to complete all planned actions, to follow the logical and phased application of the chosen method. Completion in any started business is a good example for pupils and increases the authority of the teacher.

Currently, there are many general methods of parenting. In order to make it easier to choose the most suitable of them, the methods are classified, that is, ordered according to a certain attribute. Depending on the goals and objectives of education, when choosing methods, they are guided by the most appropriate classification. In modern pedagogy, the most objective and frequently used is the classification proposed by G. I. Shchukin, which is based on the orientation of the educational process. In accordance with this classification, the following groups of upbringing methods are distinguished: the formation of personality consciousness, the organization of activities and the formation of the experience of social behavior, the stimulation of behavior and activities.

26. Methods for the formation of personality consciousness

The main task of the methods of this group is the formation of beliefs, views, aspirations of pupils. In order to educate the personal qualities determined by the goal of education, it is necessary to convey to the pupils the meaning of these qualities, their significance in full-fledged daily and work activities, the importance of their presence. The pupil should form, first of all, a strong conviction in the need for these qualities, he himself should strive to educate them in himself, which will ensure his active inclusion in the process of education. To achieve this goal of the initial stage of educating the consciousness of the individual, one must strive to evoke deep feelings and experiences in the pupil related to this issue, to involve the emotional sphere of a person. Indifference hinders the development of personality. Only close active and purposeful cooperation between the pupil and the teacher can lead to the expected result.

There are a number of methods used to form the consciousness of the individual. Each of them has its own significance in the educational process. To achieve the best effect, the methods should be used in combination, complementing and reinforcing each other.

Quite complex in content, but easy to understand is the method of storytelling on an ethical topic. The peculiarity of this method is that the pupils themselves analyze the actions and deeds of the heroes of the story and draw conclusions. Thus, certain attitudes are formed towards certain qualities and features of behavior. The formation of these relationships occurs under the influence of emotional experiences and is not imposed by the teacher, that is, it is not a direct indication, due to which they have a stable effect and lay the foundation for the formation of their own personal qualities. The action of this method has a leading character, in advance forming the attitude of pupils to actions that they have not yet committed, thereby inducing volitional efforts in relation to their own actions. A story on an ethical theme must be composed according to certain rules that determine its effectiveness. The content of the story should correspond to the age of the listeners, be understandable and interesting to them. The younger the pupil, the more colorful and richer the decoration of the story should be. The environment should be conducive to the perception of the theme of the story. The artistry and literacy of the presentation affects the susceptibility in a positive way, and, therefore, is a necessary condition.

Clarification, suggestion and exhortation - a set of complexly used methods that require highly qualified teachers and are used in strictly defined cases. Suggestion is an impact on a person's consciousness in order to develop certain attitudes in him. It is effective under the condition of high authority of the educator. A person is susceptible to suggestion when he completely and unconditionally trusts his mentor, accepts everything he says in its purest form. Suggestion is often used as an aid to other methods to enhance their impact. Explanation can be applied only in those cases when it is really required, when it is necessary to convey to the pupil the meaning of this or that action or deed, to explain its consequences, positive and negative sides. But one should not resort to clarification in the case of obvious, unquestionable norms of behavior. exhortation contains elements of clarification and suggestion. It is designed to evoke feelings in a person, an emotional attitude to actions, to induce a desire to act for the benefit of oneself and others, to comply with social and public canons. When applying the method of exhortation, moderation must be observed, otherwise exhortation can take the form of notations that give only a negative effect, prompting a person to act contrary, in defiance.

Ethical conversation - a method of pedagogical influence, during which certain actions, deeds, views, beliefs, behavioral characteristics of a person or group of people are discussed, analyzed and evaluated. The purpose of this method of education is the formation and consolidation of moral views and beliefs. An ethical conversation can be planned in advance or arise spontaneously, as a result of some event or incident. In both cases, an ethical conversation is conducted according to certain rules: the conversation is based on the principles of equality and cooperation between the teacher and the students, any opinions and statements are heard, discussed and taken into account, the conversation should be of a problematic nature and raise issues that concern the students, corresponding to their age and psychological maturity. The teacher should build the guidance of the conversation in such a way that the pupils have the opportunity to come to the correct conclusion themselves. All participants should be included in the discussion, the atmosphere of the conversation should contribute to the emancipation of children, dispose to the fearless expression of one's own opinion. An ethical conversation can be individual, aimed at discussing a specific act of a person. In this case, it is especially important to create a trusting atmosphere of communication, to show the pupil an interest in his problems, a sincere desire to help.

Dispute - active discussion of specially prepared topics, taking the form of a dispute. The purpose of the dispute is the formation of views and beliefs that are born in the process of a reasoned, logically constructed dispute, a clash of opposing points of view, identifying erroneous opinions, substantiating and proving their fallacy. The participants of the dispute are notified in advance about the content of the topic and have the opportunity to think over and logically build their speech, to give it the greatest persuasiveness. The task of the teacher, as the leader of the dispute, is skillful leadership, special participation, which consists not in instruction, but in the direction of thoughts with the help of arguments, facts and logic. For the successful conduct of disputes, pupils are taught in advance to build their speech correctly, be able to prove their case and convince the interlocutor and the audience.

Example - a method of education that has the strongest influence on the process of personality formation. It is based on the psychological tendency of people to imitate. This method is especially effective for children. The effectiveness of this method is explained by its direct impact on human consciousness. Visual examples are vividly and permanently imprinted in the mind, this is due to the physiological characteristics of the human body. The desire to imitate one's idol is valuable in that it is not imposed from the outside, but is caused by the feelings and emotions of the person himself, thereby increasing responsibility for one's actions. The nature of imitative activity changes with age. If younger students directly follow the examples of behavior, based only on the impression received, then adolescents, using the accumulated social experience and already developed moral positions, conduct a conscious analysis and choice of those qualities and characteristics that he can adopt. An example is the people surrounding a person in real life or the heroes of books, films, famous figures of various kinds. The latter have the greatest impact, as they are often bright, extraordinary and outstanding personalities. When raising children, it is important to create conditions under which he will be surrounded by as many positive examples as possible, although negative examples also play an important role in education, forming a negative attitude towards negative actions and deeds. The teacher is always himself an example for his pupils, so he must take care of the correctness of his actions, following the word, a positive attitude towards all pupils.

27. Methods of organizing activities

One of the main tasks of education is the formation of a certain type of behavior. It is the actions and deeds of a person that are the criteria for assessing the degree of his upbringing. The teacher, including pupils in practical work, must manage their activities, correcting and directing their actions in the right direction. The whole process of pupils' activity is very complex and varied, therefore it is advisable to break it into smaller parts in order to make it easier to take into account all the possible nuances of the educational process at this stage. Thanks to specially organized and controlled practical activities in the process of upbringing, a person learns to interact with other people, adequate behavior in a given situation, develops his own line of behavior appropriate to the situation.

The most effective and frequently used method of organizing activities is an exercise.

An exercise - a practical method of education aimed at developing the pupil's skills, habits and a given type of behavior. If the method is applied systematically, in conjunction with the method of persuasion, then it will almost certainly be successful. When exercising, a person in practice feels the need to form certain qualities. This acts as an incentive to vigorous activity in the form of constant exercises. The teacher, in turn, must support this desire and, if possible, strengthen it, consolidate the results obtained. Habits can be formed consciously, when a person understands the ultimate goal of the exercises, the importance and usefulness of their content, and not consciously, when the stimulus to perform the exercises does not turn into internal motivation, but only causes the pupil's reaction. In the case of mechanical exercise, the necessary results are still achieved, although not so quickly and are not so stable and unshakable. For a conscious method of performing exercises, the teacher resorts to the method of persuasion, thus filling the human mind with information that can induce him to voluntary, desired practical activity of the required type.

Exercises should form a system containing different levels of complexity, a set of successive stages, the corresponding content of specific exercises.

Given the purpose of education - the formation of the moral qualities of a person, educational exercises should be applied for a long time in order to achieve the desired result. The basis for the development of exercises should be specific life situations so that the skills developed are useful in real life, help to choose the appropriate course of action, cope with desires and temptations in case of conflict with their duties or the requirements of the culture of behavior of society, show strong-willed efforts, assess the situation and adequately get out of it. The purpose of the exercise method is considered achieved when a person in many conflicting life situations maintains his position and steadily demonstrates moral qualities.

Demand - a method of education that directly or indirectly affects a person's behavior, encourages or inhibits his actions. A direct demand must be categorical, persistent, pronounced in a confident tone, not subject to discussion, and requires strict compliance. An indirect requirement is of a milder nature and is based on the motivation of a person’s desire to fulfill it, based on feelings, emotions and experiences. Indirect requirements include:

1) advice that is effective subject to the high authority of the adviser in conjunction with his ability to convince;

2) the game requirement is used mainly in the education of children who are able, carried away by the game, to fulfill many, even seemingly difficult requirements for them;

3) trust, used as a means of achieving the fulfillment of the requirement. Trusting his mentor, the pupil will willingly and without doubt fulfill his demand;

4) request - a mild form of demand, used if there is mutual respect, collaborative relations, positive emotional contact between the teacher and the pupil;

5) hint - an implicit form of requirement, which, when used skillfully, is successful, since it contains elements of the manifestation of the pupil's own motivating motives, and not unambiguous submission to the will of the teacher;

6) the requirement-approval, applied in a timely manner, is the strongest incentive to perform the required actions.

The use of indirect requirements usually has more success without causing a negative attitude towards the teacher and the content of the requirement. Direct demands often lead to a negative effect, generating opposition, a desire to do the opposite, hiding the true intentions and attitudes towards the essence of the requirement. The requirement can be direct - from the teacher to the pupil, and indirect - from the pupil to the pupil. Taking care of the emergence of mediated requirements is the task of the teacher.

Teaching is the most straightforward and rigid method of education. The use of this method is often combined with the use of punishments, which is contrary to humanistic pedagogy. Humanist educators justify the inevitability of using this method by saying that it is aimed at improving the qualities of the individual and acts for her good, while reducing its use to the necessary minimum. To mitigate the course of learning in groups of young children, it is presented in the form of a game.

In modern pedagogical science, there are a number of requirements that ensure the correct application of the teaching method:

1) a clear understanding by the educator and pupil of the goals of educating certain qualities through accustoming;

2) the validity of accustoming, understandable to the pupil;

3) compliance of the content of the method with the time interval allotted for its implementation, the age and capabilities of the pupil;

4) demonstration and comparison of the results obtained as a result of the development of qualities that are the goal of accustoming, clear evidence of their necessity and usefulness;

5) the compatibility of the developed qualities with those already developed or planned for formation;

6) the presence of control and self-control.

The methods of organizing activities also include the method of assignment. It gives a good effect, due to the fact that it increases a person’s self-confidence, gives rise to internal motives for performing actions that are useful, from the point of view of the educator, creates the ground for the manifestation of creativity, forces them to look for ways to solve feasible problems.

28. Incentive methods

The most famous and widely used methods of stimulation since ancient times are encouragement and punishment, having the opposite nature of the impact, they are designed to serve the same goals and objectives. A relatively new method that causes internal motivation to achieve the goal is the method of competition, implicitly accompanying everyday life, as well as used in an organized manner, for educational purposes. The conditions of modern life have left their mark on the attitude to the upbringing of the new rising generation, which has become pragmatic and makes specific, dictated by life and society, requirements for the content of education. Based on this, a new method of education arose - subjective-pragmatic.

The most humane and easy to use is the method of encouragement. It acts encouragingly and increases the pupils' confidence in their actions, the desire to receive encouragement, as a share of positive emotions and sensations again, gradually turning one-time good actions into a habit. One type of encouragement is approval. It can be carried out through words, gestures, facial expressions, assessments, public demonstration of achievements, presenting them as an example for other pupils to follow. Encouragement can be the attention of the teacher or comrades to the actions of the encouraged, as a result of which the pupil feels his success, increases faith in himself, his abilities and abilities. Reward and gratitude are the methods of encouragement used when achieving great, significant success. The use of these types of encouragement means for the pupil his transition to the next, higher level of development, causes a desire to set and achieve new, more complex goals.

Encouragement should be used sparingly so that it is beneficial, and does not develop into the only goal towards which the actions and actions of the pupils are directed. Encouragement should be fair and expressed to each pupil under possibly equal conditions, while taking into account the individual characteristics of a particular person. That is, it is necessary to correlate the level of achievements of each with his own capabilities and abilities. It is considered good form to take into account the opinion of the team when deciding on the worthiness of encouraging the actions, deeds or achievements of any pupil. This ensures the greatest objectivity and fairness of the application of this method, and also teaches children to analyze and evaluate the activities of their comrades.

Punishment, as well as condemnation, are the opposite of encouragement and approval. Condemnation is aimed at emphasizing a person on his shortcomings and mistakes, causing a desire to avoid a negative assessment in the future, and, therefore, not to commit acts that are subject to condemnation. Condemnation can be expressed in words, assessment, measures to prevent further misconduct, isolation from an undesirable environment, the imposition of additional obligations, etc. Punishment is a harsher method, since it does not contribute to the analysis and awareness of mistakes, but causes resentment and disappointment, generates negative attitude towards the teacher and the process of education. If punishment is necessary, it should be short-term, reasonable and contain as little negativity as possible. Punishment is most effective if it comes not only from the teacher, but also from the team as a whole, if the punishment imposed is brought to an end, is carried out without insulting the punished, is fair. Before applying such a powerful method, the teacher must understand in detail all the circumstances of the offense committed, the internal motives that prompted the offender to erroneous actions. The content of the punishment should correspond to the age and individual characteristics of the person. Patience, discussion of the misconduct help to avoid punishment, small children can simply be distracted from committing undesirable actions.

Teaching methods, in order to achieve the greatest effectiveness, should be based on the natural inclinations and needs of a person. It is known that children and adolescents always strive to compare themselves with their peers, finding out which of them is better and in what, they compete with each other in different directions and activities. The results of such competitions determine the status of a person in the team, fix the appropriate attitude towards him for a long time. In the XNUMXth century, teachers drew attention to this feature inherent in the children's team, and on its basis developed a teaching method called competition. In modern pedagogy, competitions are specially organized, managed and controlled by the educator. When organizing a competition, you need to clearly understand the goals and objectives of its implementation. The content of the competition must be divided into points and stages that are understandable to the competitors and appropriate to their abilities. Groups of competing children must be selected in such a way that each participant has the opportunity to become the winner of the competition. The means of achieving victory in competitions must be known in advance and controlled by the teacher. The competition must be regulated so that it does not develop into internal hostility of the competitors and does not lead to conflict situations.

A relatively new method of pedagogical stimulation, dictated by the conditions of modern life, a subjective-pragmatic method. Today's children and adolescents direct their efforts towards developing those qualities that can help them succeed in the future, find a good job, and take their rightful place in modern society. Therefore, the educator, relying on the existing social and social situation, must convince and clearly demonstrate the need for the existence of personal qualities determined by the goal of educating in the conditions of modern life and activity, to prove their social and economic conformity, thereby causing the motives and aspirations of the pupils to develop them.

29. The role of relations in the system of comprehensive personality formation. Phenomena of integrativity and generalization

A person exists in a certain social and social environment, due to which he enters into various relationships with people around him. When educating a person, it is very important to take into account the development of his abilities to build relationships correctly, to be able to establish business and personal contacts, win over people, and take part in collective activities. Relations that arise and exist in society can be divided into groups:

The first group consists of social relations that determine the behavioral norms of the individual and his attitude towards others.

The second group includes moral relations containing patriotism, a culture of interethnic relations, discipline, thrift, accuracy, respect for work, cultural achievements, and people around.

The third group includes ethical attitudes that cause aspirations for various activities in the field of art.

The relations of the fourth group are the relations connected with the physical culture of the individual.

Relationships are determined by the personal qualities of a person, it is they, their development, orientation and content that determine the nature of a person’s attitude towards himself, other people, the world around him as a whole and its components. A person's upbringing can be judged by his attitudes. For example, when communicating with colleagues at work, one will show patience, restraint, adhere to a polite tone, respect the point of view of the interlocutor, the other may turn out to be rude, irritable, inattentive, etc. The attitude to one’s own duties may also be different. An educated person is distinguished by conscientiousness, responsibility, punctuality, and brings the work begun to the end. In contrast, an insufficiently educated person, although he also fulfills his duties, does it only out of necessity, doing the work somehow, not meeting deadlines, violating discipline, making various kinds of mistakes, etc. Thus, we can conclude that in many respects it is not the very performance of any actions, but the attitude towards them that determines the degree of upbringing of a person. An attitude turns into a personal quality when it is fixed in the mind of a person to such an extent that it becomes a habit, when a person invariably shows this attitude in any conflicting situations. The tasks of the educator include the formation of stable, strong relationships with their pupils. To succeed in this matter, it is important to know the psychological side of the personality and the phenomenon of the relationship as such. The formation of each relationship and its transition into a personal quality has several components, such as knowledge of public and social norms in this area, the desire to comply with them, the need to strengthen the ability to comply with them.

While educating and developing the personal qualities of a person, the teacher must remember that a person is not brought up in parts. Due to the complex psychological nature of the human personality, all the qualities inherent in a person are intertwined, influence each other and act together. In accordance with this, two phenomena are distinguished in the education of human qualities: integrativity and generalization. Integrativity consists in the formation of personality quality in parts, while observing the sequence of stages depending on their complexity and the age of the pupils. So, a child, entering into social life and relationships with people, at first learns only the basic, elementary rules of behavior. With age, they acquire a more complex and ambiguous character, acquire flexibility and selectivity, and are applied in accordance with the situation that arises. The organization of educational work should be built on the relationship of two directions: the cumulative formation of all the necessary personal qualities and the formation of individual elements of given qualities in a certain period of time at a certain stage.

An important role in education is played by the phenomenon of generalization, which consists in the distribution of the formed qualities to the development and formation of all the others. The educator, focusing on the solution of each specific educational task, must remember that the human personality has a complex psychological structure, where all elements are closely interconnected and influence each other. Only a holistic approach to personality education can lead to the intended goal.

30. Educational team and its influence on personality development

Word collective comes from two Latin words clligo - "I unite" and collectivus - "collective". Thus, a team is an association, in this case, of people. An educational team is a specially organized set of people who direct their efforts to achieve educational goals. In the conditions of the existence of a collective, relationships between people invariably arise. They can be personal and business in nature, but, in any case, they are based on joint activities. The success of the upbringing process depends on the relationship in the team, and the teacher should strive to form mutual respect in the team, a joint desire for a common goal, the ability to cooperate productively, organization and coherence of actions, and the ability to self-govern. A part of the educational team is the student team, which, in contrast to the educational team, includes only pupils. The student team differs from others in a number of ways:

1) a common socially significant and socially justified goal;

2) joint organized vigorous activity, responsibility for its results;

3) moral unity, implying common assessments and experiences;

4) organized self-management of the collective.

A well-organized and stable team is also distinguished by the mutual support of its members, understanding, responsibility for other team members, established emotional contact, goodwill. Members of such a team feel confident, they always have someone to rely on, who to ask for help, helping others, they increase their sense of self-worth, which is an incentive to maintain and develop both collective relationships and personal qualities. Getting into such a team, a person strives to form in himself the same qualities that are inherent in most members of the team, to become its full member, to compete with other people for the right to obtain a certain status in the team. All this encourages a person to self-improvement, development, manifestations of strong-willed efforts, struggle with difficulties. To regulate relations and activities in the team, management bodies are selected - leaders who are able to organize and direct the activities of the entire team in the right direction, who are respected and authoritative members of the team. To create a cohesive, holistic team, it is necessary to carry out constant work to include its members in joint activities of a different nature, stimulate the development of business and personal relationships within the team, develop common interests and interest in joint events, and create the traditions of society.

Education of the student team has its own characteristics. The process of such education should include constant conversations on the topics of collectivism, the organization of labor, extracurricular and cultural activities aimed at rallying pupils. The creation and education of a student team begins with the skillful presentation of requirements to pupils. It implies a clear and understandable explanation of the norms and rules of behavior, a tactical attitude towards students, the organization of exercises, as a result of which students acquire the skills of correct behavior, compliance with the measure of the requirements, but at the same time it is impossible to underestimate them, the ratio of requirements to the situation in the team at the present time. time, the formation of a positive attitude to the requirements. Collective education should be aimed at constant progress, only then it will benefit the development of the personality of its members. The inhibition of the development of the team leads to its weakening and disintegration. To avoid this, the teacher must constantly set new interesting and increasingly complex tasks for the team, thus maintaining interest in joint activities and the existence of the team. Achieving greater collective success, members of the team realize the personal benefits of its existence, feel strong and capable, thanks to the fact that they are its members. The promotion of permanent prospects to the team is based on the psychological characteristics of a person to make plans for the future, to predict the result of their efforts, which gives rise to motivation to carry out vigorous activity aimed at achieving the goal. The prospects of the team can be holding various competitions, olympiads, creative and subject events. An essential factor in the development and maturity of the team is the formation of a healthy public opinion. Public opinion is the ability of the collective to a unified assessment of the processes and phenomena that arise in it and the corresponding reaction to them. If the members of the team strive to eliminate its shortcomings, strengthen its weaknesses, and jointly solve these issues, then we can talk about the existence of a healthy public opinion in the team. A. S. Makarenko noted the presence of the phenomenon of "parallel action" in a team with a healthy public opinion: any external influence on the team has an educational effect on its individual members and, conversely, the impact on an individual pupil affects the entire team. When the collective reaches such a state, it acts as a full-fledged subject of education and functions as a well-organized social system.

31. Moral (ethical) education

Moral education - this is a systematic educational impact on the human personality, aimed at shaping a person's socially consistent moral qualities. These include responsibility, humanity, a high culture of behavior, understanding and striving to preserve universal human values, the development of moral beliefs and habits, a high culture of interethnic relations, patriotism, the stability of the scientific worldview, etc.

Often, the concept of morality is used as a synonym for morality of a person.

Morality - a system of norms, rules and requirements imposed by society on the individual. The formation of morality is the translation of moral norms, rules and requirements into skills and habits. The morality of society covers a wide variety of human relations to various spheres of life and activity: patriotic relations, attitudes towards other peoples and their culture, attitudes towards labor and products of labor, attitudes towards people, attitudes towards oneself.

The peculiarity of moral education lies in the fact that the observance of moral social norms and rules is a voluntary matter, depending on the internal motives and needs of the person himself. The only punishment for their non-compliance can be condemnation, disapproval from the society or its individual members, and here the importance for a person of these disapprovals, the role of public opinion in his mind is important. A morally educated person treats society and public opinion as a determining factor in his behavior, since he associates himself with this society and considers himself a part of it, which obliges him to comply with socially accepted norms and rules of behavior. A person becomes morally educated only when the norms and rules of behavior dictated by society become his own views and beliefs, and the requirements for the individual become the internal needs of a person.

At present, the task of reviving universal human values is acute. The most important of these is life. In this regard, starting from primary school age, children should be educated, taking into account their future parental responsibilities, that is, instilling an understanding of human life as the greatest value, a humane attitude towards it, the concept of responsibility for their own children, the importance of their healthy and full growth and development, respect for one's own life. When raising children, it is necessary to form in them a strong conviction that any attempt on the health and life of one's own and other people is unacceptable. The fundamental human right is the right to life.

Another value of humanity is freedom. A correct understanding of this definition is of great importance. Often children perceive the right to freedom as permissiveness, impunity and lack of discipline. In fact, freedom and discipline are inseparable concepts inherent in a democratic society.

At a younger age, in this regard, it is necessary to focus on obedience, but at the same time, strive to turn it into a conscious desire for discipline and responsibility as soon as possible. It is important to explain to a person the meaning and significance of moral education. Moral relations arise in the process of various human activities, therefore, organizing the educational process, it is necessary to give preference to a variety of creative, educational, labor and other activities and the development, through this management and regulation of this activity, of the corresponding personal and ethical qualities. In the process of upbringing, the artificial creation of situations in which the child can in practice experience the negative aspects of bad behavior, callous attitude towards people, manifestations of selfishness and irresponsibility has a good effect. Then the child begins to understand and realize the value of moral qualities in real life, to see in their formation the benefits for a full life and activity in society. When choosing methods of moral education, it is necessary, first of all, to be based on the individual characteristics of a person, a specific situation, and the emotional mood in the team of pupils. It is important to ensure that the educational process does not turn into a fight against the negative or weak sides of the pupils. The upbringing of morality itself must be moral, following humanity as the defining line of relations within the educational team. In developing moral habits, it is often necessary to get rid of negative habits from a moral point of view. In this regard, it is worth focusing not on the bad that is in a person, but on the good that can replace this bad, reveal the prospects for education, and not drive into the consciousness of one's own insolvency.

32. Socially oriented education

social education - this is the formation of a system of social relations in a person, which includes relations to society, the state, authorities, various social and public institutions, etc. peace. Discipline occupies a special place among socially significant qualities. Discipline largely determines the success of human activity. A disciplined person responsibly approaches the observance of his duties, knows how to organize his activities, resist laziness and temptations, he is inherent in: accuracy, punctuality, exactingness to himself. Discipline, being the result of education, contributes to the effective continuation of this process, as it contributes to a strictly purposeful human activity. Discipline is a manifestation of the habit of observing the norms and rules of society, putting forward and observing the internal requirements of one's own consciousness. All this helps to choose the right line of behavior in various life situations. In the education of discipline, the ability to volitional efforts is of great importance, which helps a person to constantly overcome difficulties, maintain self-control, internal organization, composure. As a result, such behavior becomes a habit that no longer requires conscious restrictions and efforts. When organizing an educational process aimed at developing discipline, one should remember some important requirements:

1) every new undertaking in this direction should be directed to the development of conscious discipline at a higher level;

2) the upbringing of discipline should be carried out in conjunction with the upbringing of other aspects of a person’s personality and not conflict with them;

3) the teacher should act as a permanent observer of the manifestations of discipline in order to find out the most favorable conditions for its formation;

4) the feeling of a person's need to be disciplined increases with an increase in the level of mental and physical development of a person;

5) educational work should be carried out in a certain rhythm, while observing the sequence of actions;

6) the actual interest of the teacher in conducting and achieving the final result, the emphasis on real achievements, and not on ostentatious success;

7) the discipline of the educator himself, who is always a role model for his pupils;

8) subordination of all means, actions and types of work to the main goal. Each stage of the educational process should be part of the overall process of education, which has its own significance for the success of achieving the goal.

The concept of discipline largely determines the culture of human behavior, which implies a high degree of morality, manifested in various activities in various spheres of life. To bring up the proper level of culture of behavior, a person needs a clear understanding of the existing rules and norms of behavior in various places and situations, a high degree of exactingness in their observance, and social and social compliance with these requirements. A disciplined person will easily learn to follow the requirements put forward by society, and the result of their constant observance will be the development of a culture of behavior. When educating a culture of behavior in children, teachers should create situations where the child feels an internal contradiction, feels dissatisfied with his own level of discipline, which will cause a desire to improve it. Requirements and rules of conduct must be known to a person in advance before he gets the opportunity to violate them. Requirements should be presented tactfully, calmly, without threats, presented as conditions of activity in a particular institution or environment. In order to avoid systematic violations of discipline, the organization of children's leisure turns out to be effective. A person who is constantly engaged in an exciting interesting business has less free time, his mind is focused on active creative and cognitive activity, such a person’s extracurricular time is beneficial for him and makes him useful to society. Such actions of teachers and an adequate reaction of pupils to them forms a stable life position in the latter, which is evidence of the social maturity of a person. A life position is a projection of the worldview and psychological qualities of a person on the choice of a line of behavior, the development of internal attitudes towards oneself and the world around. Life position can be active and passive. An active position implies a constant interest in what is happening around, active participation in the improvement of society and oneself, the desire for various types of activities, and the manifestation of initiative. A passive position is characterized by the thoughtless acceptance of alien, imposed attitudes and beliefs, a direct consequence of them without analyzing and correlating them with one's own needs, interests, and characteristics. A person with a passive life line is an indifferent observer of the surrounding reality and the processes taking place in it. A passive person agrees in advance with all the changes or their absence, never rereads to other people. All this is explained by fear of the new, unwillingness to take responsibility, fear of making mistakes. Pedagogical activity. Aimed at the formation of the life position of the pupils, it should strive to observe the "golden mean" in determining the ultimate goal. An excessively passive, as well as an excessively active person, cannot be considered morally and socially educated. Excessive activity borders on arrogance, overestimation of one's own merits, unwillingness to reckon with the opinions of others, selfishness, etc.

33. Aesthetic education

The term "aesthetics" comes from the Greek word asthetikos - sensual. The purpose of aesthetic education is the formation of a variety of aesthetic relationships. Aesthetic education develops feelings, the ability to experience, evaluate, judge, understand the beautiful and separate it from the mediocre. The tasks of aesthetic education also include the formation of ideals, tastes, needs for beauty, the ability to surround oneself with beautiful, aesthetic things, to build one's life in accordance with aesthetic concepts. Aesthetic education awakens a sense of beauty and ennobles the personality; it is inextricably linked with moral education. B. M. Nemensky wrote that "the essence of aesthetic education is to affirm goodness as beautiful." This concept was first introduced by the German art theorist A. Baumgarten in the XNUMXth century. The essence of aesthetics existed long before that. Since ancient times, man has been striving for beauty, finding it in the surrounding objects and modifying the environment in accordance with his concepts of beauty.

Aesthetic relations are formed in the process of educational activities. The ability to aesthetic perception of the world is available from early childhood. Its development and improvement is achieved through emotions, feelings, experiences. Perceiving various objects of art and reacting appropriately to their content, a person develops in himself the desire to live according to the laws of beauty. A variety of aspects of life can act as a means of aesthetic education: work, nature, art, etc. The content of specific educational stages also depends on the means.

Nature is one of the most natural and accessible means of aesthetic education. At any opportunity, it is worth paying children's attention to the harmonious combination of natural lines and colors, discussing the features of beauty depending on the time of year, weather, finding your charm in the state of an autumn forest or a frozen river, seeing beauty in all natural phenomena and never cease to be surprised and admired. them along with their students. The organization of creative activity using natural material has a good effect: crafts from cones and acorns, herbariums, applications from autumn leaves, etc. Excursions to the forest, organization of circles of young naturalists, environmental protection societies help to develop love and respect for nature.

Aesthetic education includes the education of an appropriate attitude to work. To see the beauty in work helps to analyze and discuss the results of work, understanding the purpose of a particular work activity, seeing the beauty in the intended result and, as a result, the emergence of a desire to create this beauty.

Art is an inexhaustible source of means of aesthetic development. Art objects create an image of beauty in the mind of a person, are light and accessible for perception, and thus attract the attention of a person. Through such sources, the formation of artistic taste, the manifestation of artistic exactingness, the ability to feel the beauty and harmony of a genuine work of art, to associate elements of artistic beauty with real life take place. The teacher should help to see and comprehend the work of art, to understand its essence, what the author wanted to express with the help of his work. Great success among schoolchildren are various demonstrations of works of fine art by great artists, which should be accompanied by a detailed analysis of the meaning of the work and the feelings that it evokes in children.

Music surrounds a person in everyday life quite often, but it is important that this music be really such. Classical works can cause deep feelings in a person of any age, listening to them, a person learns to sensitively react, distinguish, associate elements of a musical work with feelings, understand the mood of music.

In the conditions of the school system, aesthetic education is carried out through music and fine arts lessons, giving children the opportunity to express themselves, to try to create something beautiful with their own hands, to develop a sense, vision and ability to embody beauty in their activities.

Fiction has a huge influence on the aesthetic side of personality education. The teacher helps to choose the right book, to comprehend and analyze what is read, to highlight the most important and beautiful moments, the actions of the characters, to get aesthetic pleasure from the various descriptions found in the work. For this, it is important not only to read, but also to retell or memorize passages of what has been read, which allows you to better remember and more accurately understand their meaning, purity, beauty and features of the language and native speech.

Maintaining order and cleanliness of the environment is also part of aesthetic education. When organizing the activities of pupils in cleaning the territory or premises, it is important to draw their attention to the end result of their work, to note the beauty and attractiveness of clean and tidy and to express negativity and disgust for slovenliness and pollution. When talking on the topics of cleanliness and order, one should touch on the topics of ecology, focusing the attention of children on the fact that the earth is our common home, and we must take care of its condition, maintaining cleanliness and harmony in it.

34. Physical education

Physical education is the basis for the full development of the individual. A physically healthy person thinks most intensively, is more enduring in intellectual work, is able to endure heavy loads, and gets less tired. The weakness and soreness of a person will certainly affect his mental work, it is difficult for such a person to concentrate, for a long time to maintain concentration of attention, he is most likely to quit the job without completing it. A physically weak person is more passive and indifferent to the world around him, many forms of life are given to him with difficulty, which results in evasion from certain duties, underdevelopment of will, lack of diligence. Properly organized physical education contributes to the development of collectivism, comradely relations, the desire for success, a sense of the joy of achievement.

The essence of physical development is a qualitative change, strengthening and improvement of the physical forces of the body and human health under the influence of purposeful education. Physical development arouses interest in sports and the need for physical exercises, it enables a person to feel strong, dexterous, capable of self-defense, instills confidence in his strength. The content of physical education includes information about the value of this side of development. Pupils should know and understand the meaning and benefits of physical education, how it affects their health and personal qualities. Such conversations broaden the horizons of students and inspire confidence in the need for physical education and sports. In the process of physical education, it is important not only to arouse interest in physical exercises, but also to develop the habit of such activities, a sense of the need for them, the ability to alternate mental and physical activities. An important part of the content of physical education is the development of a person's basic motor skills, correct posture, dexterity, speed of reaction. Part of physical education is the maintenance of sanitary and hygienic standards of a person and his environment. This means the desire to maintain the cleanliness of one's body, clothes, rooms in which a person lives, works or rests, etc.

The means of physical education are natural conditions, maintaining the correct regimen, gymnastics, sports games, and tourism. The complex use of these methods in conjunction with the use of various methods of physical education gives the necessary results. Physical exercises are the main method of physical education. Physical exercise covers a wide range of applications. Among them: staying in the fresh air, water procedures and hygiene, daily routine, sports events. Only by exercising can one achieve dexterity, strength, develop quick reactions, learn how to move correctly and beautifully. Exercises are successful only if there is an active desire to perform them, a conscious desire to succeed, mobilization and direction of efforts to achieve results, a healthy spirit of competition. This attitude towards physical education helps to develop methods of persuasion and positive example. These methods are successfully used in the process of organizing various types of sporting events. Methods of approval and condemnation are also important, encouraging a person to meet the standards of society, keep up with his comrades, earn their respect and authority. Monitoring compliance with cleanliness and hygiene develops the habit of observing these aspects of life that are important for the healthy development of a person.

Within the framework of school educational activities, physical education is carried out mainly through physical education lessons. When conducting physical education classes, it is important to correctly distribute the load on the body, taking into account age and basic physical development. Girls should be given a slightly smaller load than boys. The teacher must take into account the state of health of students and their mental state, the degree of fatigue and readiness for physical exercises. Part of the lesson should be dedicated to awakening a certain mood, which is successfully achieved by organizing sports games. By the end of the lesson, slow down the pace and allow the students to calm down and tune in to a calm way.

Airing and wet cleaning of school premises should be carried out systematically by the students themselves. The educator should explain to them that the learning environment has a huge impact on the effectiveness of this process. Much attention should be paid to lighting in the classroom, the correct location of the board and student seats.

The organization of extracurricular activities in this direction is of great importance in physical education. Such work is carried out by creating various sports sections on the basis of the school, organizing sports games with the participation of schoolchildren of different ages, inviting coaches in various sports to the school in order to encourage students to go in for sports, organizing hiking trips, nature excursions, organizing work activities for students, for example. Cleaning up the school grounds.

35. Labor education

Labor - the main source of material and spiritual wealth of society. Labor is the basis of personality education, the duty of every person. Having the skills and abilities to work long and productively, a person can apply them in any direction of his activity. That is why labor education is an essential element of the school pedagogical process. Education can only be considered complete when educational work is combined with practical labor activity. In the conditions of the current economic situation and the rapid growth of scientific and technological progress, a person must have the ability to quickly learn new things, which requires considerable work. A modern person must be a highly qualified specialist in his professional field, constantly improve in knowledge, skills and intellectual development in order to succeed. To achieve this, you need to work hard and hard.

Labor education has been studied by pedagogical science for many years. Based on these studies, the main functions of labor education were identified. One of the functions is the beneficial effect of labor activity on the physical development of a person, especially if labor is associated with movements in the fresh air. Labor develops the mental abilities of a person. Work is of great importance in the education of morality. Labor activity increases a person's self-esteem, he feels himself a necessary and useful member of society, learns to realize and understand his social duty, strives to contribute to the common cause, feels pride in the result of his work. In the future, all this will become the basis for the material well-being of a person, and it is the task of teachers to convince pupils of this, causing them to be motivated to work. An essential function of labor activity is the development of collective and comradely relations, the ability to work together, distribute responsibilities, coordinate one's actions with the actions of other people. In addition, labor helps to determine the priority areas for choosing a profession, inclinations and abilities, preferences for certain types of activity. Educators should organize work activities in a variety of directions in order to enable students to try their hand and make the most accurate and correct choice of their future profession.

The essence of labor education is the organization of the labor activity of pupils in order to develop their industriousness, striving for continuous improvement in the quality of work, creativity and enthusiasm, active participation. A positive attitude towards work is brought up along with the methods of explanation and persuasion by the methods of exercise. Constant exercises lead to good results of labor, which brings joy to a person and a desire to work again, forming industriousness. Diligence is a personal quality of a person and is determined by the presence of the following elements:

1) motivation for labor activity;

2) conscious implementation of labor activity as a benefit for oneself and society;

3) availability of labor skills and abilities;

4) strong will necessary to overcome the difficulties that arise in the process of labor activity.

The main share of labor education falls on the school period. Within the framework of school education, there are many possible types of labor activity. One of them is constant self-care: cleanliness of clothes, school supplies, bringing books and textbooks inherited from previous generations of students into proper condition, preparing materials for lessons, cleaning rooms, minor repairs of school equipment, caring for plants and animals (subject to the presence of a living corner), etc. Specially organized labor within the framework of the school curriculum is carried out mainly through labor lessons. At primary school age, children make herbariums, applications, crafts, and simple models. Older schoolchildren are engaged in the manufacture of posters, teaching aids, bird feeders, things useful at school and in everyday life. In biology lessons, if possible, the children take care of plants and animals, take care of feeding urban and forest birds, conduct observations and research on animals and plants. In the upper grades, the role of ore education becomes more focused and consists in conducting educational and industrial practice. High school students are often involved in labor activities to improve their hometown: landscaping the streets, cleaning street areas, helping to prepare for the holidays, organizing various public events.

The development of abilities and needs for work begins from an early age and the family plays a decisive role here. From an early age, a child should have some feasible duties, learn to fulfill them through labor activity: clean up toys, keep hands, face and clothes clean, water flowers, wipe dust in accessible and safe places. Already at this age, a person learns to take care of the results of his own and other people's work, feeling on himself that they are the results of certain efforts. With the entry into school life, the sphere of labor activity of the child expands significantly, which causes the emergence of internal contradictions. One such contradiction is the difference in the nature of domestic and school work. Increasing the diversity of possible areas of work is of interest and, as a result, creative and active participation in it. Another contradiction lies in the volume, quality and nature of the existing and necessary knowledge, skills and abilities. This encourages children to active learning, arouses the need for it and gives rise to a consciousness of the usefulness of learning. In the modern school system, there are a number of developed and successfully functioning ways to organize work activities that stimulate the development of diligence and frugality:

1) organization of permanent and temporary associations aimed at performing certain work;

2) creation and maintenance of labor traditions at school;

3) creation of production cooperatives with the possibility of real earnings;

4) individual assignments requiring labor activity.

36. Education of patriotism and culture of interethnic relations

Patriotism and culture of interethnic relations are part of the moral education of the individual. They are of great importance for successful moral and social education. On the basis of such upbringing arises love and respect for the motherland, its spiritual and material values, responsibility for the power and independence of one's state, respect for the traditions of one's people, respect for the peculiarities of the culture of other peoples and nations.

The education of patriotism and the culture of interethnic relations cannot be divided into two different directions, since they have the closest connection. A true patriot is not the one who cares only about the well-being of his country, his people, not noticing the impact of his actions on other states and their inhabitants. True patriotism has a humanistic nature and is inextricably linked with a benevolent and respectful attitude towards all mankind, understanding and awareness of the great importance of universal values and ideals, their role in the progressive development of society. Such a humanistic orientation of education will ensure in the future the peaceful and cooperative coexistence of different peoples within the same state and the friendly relations of different countries of the world.

The essence of the concept of patriotism lies mainly in the relationship to one's homeland, fatherland, people. Defining patriotism as a moral personal quality, it is necessary to form the need-motivational sphere of the individual in this direction, i.e. a person must personally experience the successes and failures of his state, root for its independence and development, strive to contribute to the common cause for the good of the motherland.

When educating patriotism and a culture of interethnic relations, one should understand not only the essence and content of these concepts, but also the psychological characteristics inherent in this element of education and, taking into account all these aspects, choose the appropriate methodological approaches to such education. Starting work on patriotic education, first of all, you need to instill love and devotion to the places where they were born and raised.

The development of the need-motivational sphere of the human personality is the main part of the educational process, since education will only be successful when the pupil feels an inner need for him, and the teacher helps him realize it. As you know, needs arise when a person experiences contradictions between his current level and the one he would like to correspond to.

By organizing educational activities, the teacher must create conditions that encourage students to acquire new knowledge and skills inherent in their people and other peoples of the world. For example, having organized an exhibition of students' handicrafts, on the theme of the styles and trends of household items of different peoples, the teacher encourages the children to study these features from different peoples and choose the one they like best. Thus, a person penetrates the atmosphere of the national characteristics of different peoples, admires the works of ancient artisans, learns to respect and appreciate the achievements of other nations, etc.

An important role in the education of patriotism and culture of interethnic relations is played by the formation of the intellectual and emotional sphere of the individual. In this regard, work should be carried out to familiarize pupils with the peculiarities of the culture, language, traditions and customs of their people, give examples from the history of the formation of the state about the various exploits of the people and its individual representatives in the struggle for independence and the political structure of the homeland. An effective methodological technique in this case is the appeal to the literature of Russian classics and modern poets and writers, who often, vividly expressing the feelings and emotions of their characters, cause deep feelings in the minds of readers, due to which they leave a deep imprint in the memory of a person.

Education is only considered successful when the beliefs and views determined by the goal are formed, this determines the confident choice of a line of behavior in various conflicting situations. The formation of stable views and beliefs is a particularly difficult task and requires long and patient pedagogical work. Working in this direction, the educator must select such means and methods that cause strong feelings in the soul of the pupils, capable of turning their meaning into a personal necessity, stable qualities. Such means and methods can be various examples of historical figures or literary heroes, the organization of discussions, as well as various types of extracurricular activities. The constant discussion of issues of patriotism and interethnic relations helps to develop their own point of view among the pupils under the influence of the teacher. This process is especially important, since the developed position, in this case, is not imposed from outside, but is the result of one's own mental activity and therefore is less questioned. However, the stability of views and beliefs is fully achieved only under the condition of the unity of intellectual-sensual experiences and behavior. For this, appropriate practical activities should be organized to form patriotic behavior and a culture of interethnic relations. Socially useful work for the benefit of the school, hometown, home or yard helps to show a patriotic attitude. A sense of self-worth, usefulness causes a positive attitude of students to the objects of labor. A special role in the patriotic education of students is played by the work of protecting the nature of their native land, it includes the acquisition of knowledge about the climate, geography, flora and fauna of their country, and gives rise to responsibility for the preservation of natural resources. Schoolchildren are interested in search work aimed at restoring the gaps in the history of the Great Patriotic War, searching for information about graduates of their native school of past years and their future fate. Extracurricular activities associated with amateur performances also have a certain connection with patriotic education. Within its framework, concerts are being prepared dedicated to various significant dates and events in their native country, and, therefore, have the appropriate theme.

Practical activities that form the culture of interethnic relations come down to getting acquainted with the characteristics of kindred peoples, studying issues about the emergence of different directions in the development of one people, the formation of states, their collapses and mergers, etc. Good results are obtained from trips to neighboring states, in the presence of such opportunities, stories of students about personal trips to other countries.

37. Self-education of students and factors influencing it

The successful solution of any pedagogical tasks is associated with the desire of the person himself to achieve the intended goals in this area. The student is not only an object, but also a subject of education, who takes an active part in educational, cognitive, labor, moral and aesthetic activities. The task of teachers is to stimulate this activity in all possible ways. From this point of view, education is a skillful internal stimulation of the activity of a growing personality in self-development, self-improvement and constant work on oneself. Teachers and students themselves participate in the organization of work on self-education. Teachers, based on a scientific approach to this issue, try to form appropriate needs in students, include them in a variety of activities that contribute to the development of students' aspirations. Thanks to the level of upbringing already achieved and the influence of various external factors, many people themselves set themselves the tasks of self-improvement and development and work hard on themselves, making strong-willed efforts, overcoming laziness and eventually achieving significant results, developing positive personal qualities and eradicating bad inclinations. From the point of view of the pupil, self-education can be defined as a conscious, systematic, controlled by the person himself, constant and purposeful work on oneself to form certain personal qualities. In self-education, an important element is what goals a person sets for himself, what qualities he considers necessary and corresponding to a high level of morality. It depends on many factors: the environment, social ideology, the level of upbringing, the influence of family and school, etc. Setting the goals of self-education, a person realizes the final result of his efforts, mentally sees himself as he strives to become. The way to achieve the goal consists of stages that need to be outlined, and then gradually, moving from the implementation of one local task to another, approach the intended goal. It can be useful to determine the deadlines for the completion of individual tasks and the entire process as a whole. Thus, a person draws up a program of self-education and tries to follow it.

The ability of self-education and the need for it arises only when a person reaches a certain level of psychological maturity. As a rule, in adolescence, a person begins to clearly understand the motives of his actions, shows the ability to self-esteem, understands his imperfection and strives to fill in the missing characteristics of his personality. However, most adolescents do not have sufficient ability to regulate their actions for self-education, therefore they often commit risky, desperate acts that lead to negative results not only for education, but also for their mental and physical condition. Therefore, teachers and parents should take part in organizing the process of self-education. There are several factors that encourage children to self-education, the skillful use of which by teachers can lead to good results.

One of these factors is the formation of students' own ideals. Ideals are formed under the influence of moral education, a correct understanding of real values. It is important to acquaint the children with the life of outstanding historical figures, pay great attention to the analysis of works of art and the behavior of their heroes. All this will help the student to choose the right example to follow, the ideal to which he will strive, which in itself is a powerful incentive for self-education.

The desire of the individual to take a worthy place in the team is an important and effective factor that encourages self-education. Any student strives to gain respect and authority among his classmates. And in this matter, he needs the help of a teacher, who should point out the negative qualities that hinder the achievement of the goal, or the missing ones, the development of which needs to be addressed.

The competitive factor is based on the natural human need to be better than others. By creating conditions for comparing their abilities, achievements with the successes of their comrades, students are given the opportunity to discover their own shortcomings, determine the level to which they should strive, evaluate their work. Against the backdrop of all this, there is a need for self-education.

The teacher's example is also considered a factor in self-education. If the teacher himself does not strive to live up to the ideals he speaks of, if his word is at odds with his deed, he will not inspire confidence among the students, and his words will have no effect. The teacher himself must constantly engage in self-education, since it is impossible to achieve the ideal, the example of the teacher's self-education will strengthen his need in the minds of students. Of great importance is the example of comrades who are the best students, models of good behavior, active participation in school and social life.

Periodic discussion of the progress and behavior of students in the class affects not only the individuals who are criticized, but also the rest of the students in the class. With a general discussion of any qualities or their shortcomings, each student involuntarily analyzes his personality in this direction, discovering various shortcomings in himself, and tunes in to correct them. The psychological basis for this lies in the emergence of internal contradictions between what a person is and what he wants to be. Educators must take care of the constant occurrence of such contradictions, providing nourishment for the continuous process of self-education.

38. Methods of self-education and pedagogical guidance of self-education

Among the methods of self-education, the following can be noted: self-persuasion, self-hypnosis, self-commitment, self-criticism, empathy, self-coercion, self-order, self-punishment.

self-persuasion - method based on self-assessment. Having revealed the bad in himself, a person usually mentally convinces himself of the need to eradicate this shortcoming. The most effective is to say out loud what needs to be done to eliminate this shortcoming. S. Ya. Doletsky wrote about the importance of saying one's faults aloud, that it is much more difficult to forgive oneself and disregard what is said aloud. This statement is based on the fact that it is very important to clearly define the ideal of striving and one's present state.

The self-hypnosis method also uses speaking out loud, but not of its shortcomings, but only of the goal. At the same time, it is more effective to discover the right paths for yourself, rather than close the wrong ones. Eradicating the bad, it is necessary to find a replacement for it with the good, and this is the good one should talk about, inspiring oneself with a program of action, showing the mind the way to the goal, without focusing on the wrong paths. By acting in this way, a person more clearly sees himself as good and increases inner faith in his strengths and capabilities. For example, when eradicating the habit of foul language, you need to say to yourself: "I speak beautifully, cleanly, competently. My speech is pleasant to others. Every word of mine is pleasant to hear." Saying this, a person fixes in his mind these rules, which are a guide to action and determine his behavior in the future.

Self-commitment. This method consists in pronouncing by a person the obligation that he gives to himself. With a constant reminder to itself of it, the consciousness strives to fulfill it, which leads to the gradual formation of the corresponding habit.

Self-criticism - a method that gives rise to an internal contradiction in the mind of a person, which encourages work on oneself, improvement of personal qualities, eradication of evil.

Empathy - mentally transferring oneself to the place of another person. This method is especially effective in cultivating moral qualities, the ability to sympathize, empathize, seek to help, etc. Using this method, a person tries to see himself from the outside, trying to understand how others perceive him, and, based on this, strive to develop qualities in oneself that cause a positive assessment in people.

Self-compulsion and self-order. This method should be used when educating the will. In cases where a person is aware of the need to perform some action, but does not have enough will to perform it, you need to give yourself a mental, and if possible a verbal order, to do the necessary. The order must be confident, firm, sharp, not tolerating objections. Constantly forcing oneself to something, each time it becomes easier for a person to obey his will, and the lack of volitional efforts is gradually eradicated.

self-punishment - a method based on self-control over compliance with the intended rules. Without the use of this method, a person, once deviating from what was planned, will not feel proper regret, and the next time he can do the same again. Imposing punishment on himself, a person, in addition to striving to avoid it in the future, makes volitional efforts to fulfill it, which is of great importance in the formation of personality.

The organization of self-education at school is carried out in three main areas:

1) the formation of a strong conviction of students about the need and exceptional importance of self-education;

2) an explanation of the methods and methods of self-education, in order to equip students for the implementation of this process;

3) helping students and regulating the process of self-education.

The essence of the first direction is to instill in students an understanding of how important self-education is. Many are ashamed to do this and do it in secret from their comrades, parents, teachers. The tasks of teachers include explaining the positivity of this lesson and the mood for a continuous process of self-education.

The second direction is related to the implementation of this process. Starting work in this direction, you need to help the guys find their ideals, choose goals, identify weaknesses in their character, insufficiently developed qualities. Then, various conversations are held on the topics of self-education, during which questions about the methods and means of self-education are highlighted, examples of their use are given. Various performances of teachers, students and guests, who are outstanding people, heroes of labor, leaders of production, who have achieved significant success in various activities, have a good effect. Such speeches talk about the importance of self-education and give examples from their own lives. All this strengthens in the minds of students the understanding of the need and effectiveness of self-education, gives knowledge about the practical application of self-education methods and encourages them to implement self-education.

The third direction of organizing work on self-education is of a practical nature. At this stage, students are taught to correctly set goals for themselves, develop a program to achieve it, and execute it, using the well-known and most effective methods of self-education for this. An effective means is to keep a diary, in which the results of the work to eradicate the bad and develop the good are recorded. Such a diary allows you to control the process of self-education, analyze the effectiveness of certain methods for your own personality, and choose the most optimal ways to solve the problems of self-education.

39. Joint educational activities of the school, family and community

A harmonious combination of the influences of the educational orientation of different parties is the key to the effectiveness of human education. The upbringing of a person begins in the family, it is there that the foundations of personal qualities are laid, parents and other family members serve as the first and most important examples for the child. In this regard, parents should be very responsible for their constitutional duty to raise children. They should set only a positive example for children, surround them with well-mannered, benevolent, morally stable people, educate them in a spirit of respect for school and teachers, teach them discipline, help form motivation for learning, take constant care of physical development and health, carefully control all sources of influence on the development and formation of the child's personality. The school, in turn, should rely on the foundations of education that the child received in the family, and in accordance with this, adapt the methods of education to the individual characteristics of each child or use more universal means if it is impossible to implement an individual approach. School educators must take full advantage of the respect for school and desire for learning instilled in children and develop these relationships.

The importance of family upbringing has the opposite effect: a well-bred child will more often please parents with their success in learning, actions, direction of thoughts and priorities in the choice of daily activities, thanks to this, the unity of the family is strengthened, parents are united by caring for the child and they together rejoice at the results of their work, which stimulates them to actively continue their educational activities.

The public cannot but influence the upbringing of children, since a person always lives and develops among people. Various organizations are striving to create more favorable conditions for the growth and development of children, various activities are being carried out in this direction: organization of children's holidays, patronage of schools, kindergartens, boarding schools, etc., one-time charitable assistance, organization of excursions and themed evenings.

Naturally, all these influences must be coordinated, otherwise they can lead to the opposite effect of education. For example, contradictions in the views of parents and teachers will become a source of internal contradictions in the mind of the child, which leads to distrust, irritability, alienation and other negative consequences. The role of such a coordinator belongs mainly to the school, due to the availability of qualified teachers who are able to take on such tasks.

The influence of the school is largely determined by the development of society. The development of science and technology in recent years has increasingly influenced the need for secondary education and the improvement of its level and quality. In modern life, it is almost impossible to realize oneself and achieve success without having the proper level of education, the foundation of which is laid in school. School influence extends not only to children, but also to their parents and consists in providing them with professional pedagogical assistance in the form of advice and recommendations on raising children. Family education is associated with the early development of the child, and this is its strength, while the strength of school education lies in the scientific pedagogical approach to this issue. In addition, education is one of the main tasks of the school, at a time when parents are often busy with personal issues (work, personal development, self-realization, etc.) and they have too little time to communicate with their children. In this regard, the school should carry out educational work with parents, stimulating and activating their educational function.

Approaching the issues of joint education of the school and parents, it is necessary, first of all, to determine the main tasks that stand in the way of the implementation of this activity. It is important for parents to understand the main goals of education, to pay their attention not only to academic performance, but also to other aspects of personality formation. The duties of parents include the physical, aesthetic, moral development of the child. Parents should accustom their children to work and educate a positive attitude towards public duty, promote and in every possible way contribute to the realization of the inclinations and abilities of the child. In the family, as nowhere else, it is possible to fully implement an individual approach to human development. School teachers, maintaining close contact with parents, have the opportunity to more deeply learn and study the characteristics of each student and take them into account in the process of educational work.

The task of parents is the motivational sphere of the child, his ability to self-education and the need for continuous improvement. One of the incentives for self-education can be a positive example of parents. Taking care of the upbringing of children, parents must constantly monitor and regulate their own behavior, justify actions, clarify their positions, views and beliefs, engage in continuous self-education. Only under the condition of the presence of the authority of the parents, they are able to qualitatively influence the upbringing of the child. To do this, you need to be responsible for your actions, keep your word, not make impossible promises, bring what you started to the end, show a sincere interest in the life of the child and take an active part in it, maintain emotional contact at any age.

The tasks of parents include the development of spiritual needs and interests in children. Many people in the conditions of modern life tend to care only about the material well-being of the family, while the issues of art and culture do not interest them at all, and, consequently, the child also finds himself isolated from these most important areas of life. The school is designed to compensate for such gaps in family education and remind parents of the need for human development in this direction.

Family, like any other upbringing, must combine the exactingness and humanity of relations with children. The implementation of this principle consists in patient, consistent accustoming the child to the performance of his household duties, involving him in feasible work. The greatest effect in this direction is the creation of a working atmosphere in the family, the encouragement of manifestations of industriousness, the cultivation of respect for the results of one's own and others' labor. A rather difficult, but necessary task of parents is to arouse the child's interest in work, not to force, but to introduce him to feasible household activities.

Control of the upbringing of the child at different stages is carried out jointly by the school and parents, but society also makes its contribution, implicitly assessing the behavior and actions of a person, condemning or approving them. Acting one way or another, the child achieves certain results, and, analyzing them, draws conclusions about the conformity of his action. Thus, society allows a person to acquire his own experience of choosing a line of behavior in various real life situations, which gives rise to an internal control by a person of his actions.

40. Functions and main activities of the class teacher

Classroom teacher - a teacher, designed to coordinate the educational and educational activities of one class, form a student team and organize various types of activities of this team. The class teacher is selected from among the school teachers, and usually the most experienced teachers are appointed to this position. The activity of the class teacher is determined by a special provision in which his main functions: cognitive-diagnostic, organizational-stimulating, unifying and rallying, coordinating and personality-developing. Let's consider each of them in more detail.

Cognitive-diagnostic the function is to constantly monitor, analyze and take into account the moral and physical condition of the students in the class. The class teacher must monitor the level of upbringing of students and correct the shortcomings of education, be aware of the state of health of children in a given period of time. Unlike subject teachers, the class teacher has the opportunity to deeply understand the psychological characteristics of the personality of each student of the class entrusted to him. Analyzing and processing this information, the class teacher should bring it to the attention of other teachers working in the class in order to achieve the best learning effect and the possibility of implementing an individual approach.

Organizational and stimulating function is to involve students in extracurricular activities. Participation in such activities is not mandatory, but it plays a significant role in shaping the personality, broadens one's horizons, helps to acquire new skills and abilities, discover new interests and abilities, etc. In this regard, it is necessary to organize extracurricular activities in such a way in such a way that the students strive to take part in it, show activity in its organization and preparation. To do this, everyone needs to be given a certain place in the implementation of this type of activity, each student must feel involved in the common cause, clearly understand his role and responsibilities, then he will have a sense of usefulness and necessity. It is important to select duties in such a way that they are feasible and interesting for the student, and coincide with the direction of his inclinations and abilities. In addition, it is necessary to strive for the aesthetic design of various holidays, together with the children to develop interesting scenarios, taking into account the needs and interests of students that are appropriate for their age. Every time you need to come up with something new, while developing and preserving the already formed and beloved traditions of the class.

Unifying and rallying function. This function is to form a healthy, regularly functioning student team. The class teacher should strive to develop friendly, collaborative relations between the children, encourage them to the unity of the main goals and aspirations, take care of each other, take responsibility for the state of the class team, respond to individual manifestations of its members. At the same time, the class teacher is obliged to monitor all internal relations that arise in the team in order to prevent the formation of negative groups, the suppression of others by some students. In order to avoid negative manifestations in the team, it is necessary to conduct various joint activities more often, thereby developing the interests of students in a positive direction.

coordinating function. The class teacher must coordinate the efforts of teachers and parents of the class to achieve a unified approach to the upbringing and education of students, eliminating possible contradictions and creating as many opportunities as possible for an individual approach. To do this, parent meetings, pedagogical councils are arranged and individual conversations are held with parents and teachers. If possible, parents should be involved in various types of extracurricular activities. The shortcomings of home and self-study are compensated by organizing home reading, various assignments and assignments for students.

Personal development function. Pedagogical impact on students should contribute to the development of their personal qualities. This task is the responsibility of the class teacher. This requires a thorough study of the personality of each student and the creation of conditions for its full development, the provision of assistance and support from teachers, parents and the student team. The duties of the class teacher in this matter include the following:

1) studying the personalities of students;

2) monitoring the progress of students, regulating the amount of homework;

3) clarification and control of compliance with the rules of conduct;

4) holding class meetings;

5) involvement of students in all types of extracurricular activities (hobby circles, work activities, charitable assistance);

6) active participation in the management of educational activities at the school, making proposals on the methods of education adopted at the school;

7) work aimed at establishing a unified approach to the education and training of students;

8) establishing and maintaining contacts with parents and families of students;

9) keeping personal files of students.

The work of the class teacher is complex and diverse, therefore, it requires a highly qualified teacher, a creative approach and personal interest in the successful development of each student in the class and the student team as a whole.

41. Teacher at school, his professional suitability and professionalism

The teacher and his activities - the basis that determines the success of school education, training and education. It is the qualifications of the teacher, his professionalism, activity, enthusiasm that determine what kind of people the students will leave the school, how holistically and correctly the personality of each of them will be formed, what knowledge, skills and abilities they will possess, the correctness of their professional orientation and the choice of a further direction. learning. The quality of teaching activity, in turn, is largely determined by the level of his professional training. In this regard, there is a constant deepening in the educational program of future teachers. In particular, their theoretical and practical training in the field of their subject area and psychological and pedagogical disciplines is being strengthened, the selection of applicants entering pedagogical specialties is being tightened, all kinds of work is being organized to prepare applicants and improve the skills of existing teachers, etc. An important factor of high qualification and The teacher's professionalism is his work on self-improvement of his professional and personal qualities, on how responsibly he treats his work, what goals he sets for himself in this direction. Not always an exemplary student of a pedagogical specialty becomes a good teacher in the future. This is explained by the fact that theory does not always correspond to practice, and cannot give an exhaustive answer to all questions that arise in the process of teaching. In this case, much depends on the development of the teacher's thinking, the flexibility of his mind, quick wits, the ability to find a way out of different situations, the level of education and intuition. Much determines practical experience, as a result of which the teacher is better oriented in certain non-standard situations. The main difficulty of the teacher's work lies in the fact that it is associated with people, each of whom is unique and inimitable, for each of which it is necessary to find an approach, establish psychological contact, gain authority. Without all this, the achievement of the goals of upbringing, training and education at school cannot be fully achieved. Schools are currently undergoing reforms aimed at teaching more effectively and narrowing the responsibilities of teachers. As part of such reforms, psychologists, social workers, class tutors, etc. are opening up in modern schools. This has a positive effect on the successful learning of schoolchildren and removes some of the responsibilities from teachers, giving them the opportunity to pay more attention to the subject area.

Speaking about the teaching profession, it is important to mention professional suitability. Each person can learn to become a teacher, but not everyone can become one in reality, since a teacher is not just a profession, it is a vocation due to a combination of necessary personal and psychophysical qualities. The teacher must have physical and mental health, high moral personal qualities, have good speech abilities. In addition, the teacher must have a penchant for working with people and with children in particular, he must be attentive, observant, active, demanding of himself, capable of a creative approach to solving problems, have organizational skills, be extremely tactful and patient.

The level of professionalism of the teacher can be different. In this direction, several levels are distinguished: pedagogical skill, pedagogical skill, pedagogical creativity and pedagogical innovation.

Pedagogical skill - a necessary base for any teacher. Without reaching this level, it is simply impossible to carry out pedagogical practice. Pedagogical skill implies sufficient theoretical and practical knowledge that is acquired in the learning process and developed and improved in the process of the teacher's practical activities, together with the presence of professional suitability.

Pedagogical excellence - Pedagogical skill brought to a high level. Perfect mastery of the methods of teaching and educational activities, giving the maximum effect of their application. To achieve pedagogical excellence, a person, of course, must not only have natural abilities, but also a desire to succeed in his professional activities, conduct constant, active work in this direction, have significant experience in teaching practice and be able to correctly use its results.

Pedagogical creativity associated with the introduction of novelty in the practical activities of the teacher. However, in this case, this novelty is not associated with fundamentally new methods or approaches to educational work, but with some modifications of already known ones, in relation to a specific situation. The creative orientation of the teacher allows him to maximally adapt the method he has chosen to the learning environment, the mood in the classroom, the individual characteristics of the students, etc.

Pedagogical innovation - the highest level of professional pedagogical activity. An innovator teacher introduces fundamentally new methods, methods, ideas, principles and techniques into educational activities, based on his own practice and the practice of his colleagues, analyzing, researching and summarizing the results and relevant conclusions. Innovation is a discovery, an invention that undoubtedly requires testing and more detailed research in order to become part of pedagogical science, but without innovation, progress and development of pedagogy, like any other science, is impossible. Pedagogical innovation requires a high level of pedagogical skill, the expenditure of considerable effort and a lot of time, the ability not only for pedagogical, but also for research and scientific activities, and an active desire for this kind of classes. That is why there are very few teachers - innovators. Therefore, the activities of teachers - innovators should be promoted in every possible way and conditions should be created for its successful implementation.

42. The structure of the teacher's activity

Structure of professional activity teacher at school consists of the following elements (N. V. Kuzmin, V. A. Slastenin, A. I. Shcherbakov):

› diagnostic;

› orientation and prognostic;

› constructive and design;

› organizational;

› informational and explanatory;

› communicative and stimulating;

› analytical and evaluation;

› research and creative.

Diagnostic activity. Based on the origin of the word diagnosis - recognition, definition, we can conclude that the essence of diagnostic activity is to find out the personality of the student from all sides. Everything is important here: the level of knowledge and skills, the level of upbringing, the mental characteristics of the individual, the state of health, inclinations, interests and capabilities of a person, his environment, family environment, extracurricular activities, etc. To carry out this type of activity, the teacher will need to apply observation, show interest, participation, communication skills in communicating with the student and his parents, and, possibly, with friends and comrades of the diagnosed person. At the same time, it is important to observe tact and the right of each person to personal spiritual space.

Orientation and prognostic activity is the next step after the diagnostic. Having determined the state of the student on various issues and directions, the teacher must choose the direction of training and education, determine the methods and means that are most effective in this case. The prognostic component consists in predicting the results of the planned work as a whole and each of its stages separately. For example, having identified any shortcoming in the student's behavior, the teacher develops a program of action to eliminate it. At each stage of the implementation of the program, the teacher expects to receive an intermediate result, more and more close to the final goal, in general and each stage separately. and the results of the planned work, to determine the direction of training and education, to determine the methods, and at the end of the process, the result should be the absence of an eradicated deficiency. Choosing ways to influence the student, the teacher should be guided by the data he received during the diagnosis.

Structural and design activities. This type of activity permeates all the work of a teacher at every stage of the educational process. Its essence lies in the creation and saturation of the content of all types of teacher activities. The types of this activity include planning and preparing lessons, excursions, themed evenings, cultural events. The scope of this activity also includes the selection and synthesis of methods and means of training and education, their partial modification in order to adapt to environmental conditions and the characteristics of students. Such an activity will be most successful when using a creative approach, but its basis is knowledge and practical experience in applying the basic pedagogical methods, as well as the most studied conditions for educational activities and the psychophysical characteristics of students, their age and intellectual characteristics, the level of formation of the student team and the prevailing relationships within it.

Organizational activity includes the involvement of students in various types of work carried out at school. The teacher will need organizational skills, activity, enthusiasm and interest. As part of the organizational activities, joint work is carried out on the planning and preparation of various school events, the distribution of responsibilities and assignments between students. The teacher should stimulate the desire of children to take part in all the events that take place, to introduce elements of novelty, joyful expectation, unusualness. It is important to interest the children in the upcoming work, to help everyone find something valuable for themselves in it, and to feel the importance of their participation. On the part of the teacher, constant monitoring and management of the organized activities of students should also be carried out, while it is necessary to observe tactful methods and maintain collaborative relationships.

Outreach activities. It is associated with both educational and educational work of the teacher. The success of its implementation largely depends on the level of education and upbringing of the teacher himself, the depth of his subject knowledge and the level of morality. Everything new, acquired by a person in a particular area of life, has an informational basis. But here it is important not only the content, but also the way of presenting this information, which largely depends on the personal attitude of the teacher to it. The teacher must know his subject well, follow the development of science in this area, have strong views and convictions in matters of his subject area, be able to clearly and intelligibly explain the material, accompanying it with illustrations and practical work. Of great importance is the teacher's ability to develop children's interest in the discipline he teaches, for this, first of all, the teacher must love his subject and understand the need for knowledge and skills in this area. An effective means is to saturate the content of the lesson with interesting facts, draw a parallel between scientific theory and everyday practice, conduct experiments, organize competitions within the subject and intensify creative activity in this direction.

Communication-stimulating activity. It is directly related to the personality of the teacher, her qualities and characteristics. The importance of such activities is determined by the fact that students are living people, and only a living person can establish contact with them for the successful conduct of educational work. The teacher in his activities should not only be guided by all sorts of instructions for teaching and educating and mechanically execute them, the teacher should strive to establish psychological contact with students, establish collaborative relationships, earn authority and maintain an atmosphere of trust and goodwill in the team. Only in the presence of these conditions can results be achieved and the ultimate goal of the stay of students in school can be achieved.

Analytical and evaluation activities has the character of feedback in the work of the teacher. In the course of his professional activity, the teacher must constantly compare what has been achieved with the expected, and on the basis of this, adjust his future activities. In addition, it is necessary to seek help from the experience of your colleagues, to borrow the best and most effective from their teaching practice. The teacher should not be afraid to look for mistakes and mistakes in himself and strive to correct them in time. One of the distinguishing features of a good teacher is healthy self-criticism, the ability to take responsibility for the shortcomings of education and the level of knowledge and skills of students, to carry out constant work on self-education and improving the level of qualifications and professionalism.

Research and creative activity is to adapt the practical application of the theoretical provisions of pedagogical science. Having studied the pedagogical theory, the teacher proceeds to the practical testing of the acquired knowledge and inevitably faces the impossibility of applying them in their pure form. Finding themselves in such a situation, the teacher must show flexibility, ingenuity, and creative thinking in order to choose the most appropriate modifications of the basic principles and methods of pedagogy in this case. The ability to find the right solution in such situations develops with the accumulation of pedagogical experience, but the level of creative abilities in this area is largely determined by the activity and personal interest of the teacher in achieving the effectiveness of the educational process.

43. Family as a social institution

Family - the oldest social institution. In ancient times, when living conditions were very harsh and dangerous, it was simply impossible to survive outside the family. With the change in living conditions, the development of mankind, the family, its size and structure also changed. There was a time when a family was considered a huge number of people (by today's standards), connected by family ties. Such a family included several generations, many brothers, sisters, their children and parents, etc. At present, the family consists mainly of parents and children. However, at all times, the presence of a dominant person in the family has been preserved, whose word is decisive, other family members turn to him for help and advice, he solves global family issues, it is not customary to argue with him. Traditionally, the head of the family is the husband and father, although in reality this does not always coincide with the true state of affairs. Due to the current socio-economic situation, both a woman and one of the children can act as the head of the family, it depends on how strong and authoritative a person is, how successful his activity is in economic terms. In addition, modern families can be incomplete, then a woman or children involuntarily have to take on the role of head of the family. Despite all this, centuries-old traditions still left their mark on the consciousness of modern people, therefore, even a bad father who does not pay enough attention to children enjoys respect and recognition from them. A man who is not able to feed his family still enjoys women's trust and often acts as her adviser. A weak man in the family is constantly trying to re-educate and entrust him with important family assignments.

At present, the need to create a family for the purpose of survival has disappeared altogether. A person can live alone without damage to health, and without being exposed to various types of danger. The goal that unites people in a family has become fundamentally different. If earlier the family was bound by family ties, now the basis of the family is marital relations aimed at material well-being, a comfortable psychological state, joint upbringing of children, etc.

Marital relations in different families can be of a different nature, it depends on the psychological characteristics of the personalities of the spouses, the goals of creating a family, the motives for living together, etc. Features of marital relations are expressed in the performance of certain roles by the spouses. The American researcher K. Kirkpatrick singled out and characterized the main ones.

1. Traditional roles define a man as the head of the family, his absolute authority. The husband and father is engaged in the financial support of the family, solves global issues, controls and regulates all family processes, ensures its security and stability. A woman is responsible for the household and raising children, is an obedient wife, limited in rights, her duties are clearly defined.

2. Companion roles are based on high-level spiritual contact of spouses. Husband and wife try in every way to bring joy and satisfaction to each other, spend their leisure time together. In such families there is an atmosphere of friendship, trust, celebration.

3. Partnership roles imply business, collaborative relations of spouses. In such families, both husband and wife are usually socially and economically independent. Both of them contribute to the material support of the family, jointly solve important issues, have equal responsibility for the upbringing of children, the welfare and stability of the family.

Parental relationships, as such, are not dominant and are largely determined by the atmosphere in the family, personal successes and failures of parents, and other external circumstances. The modern family is a rear for each of its members, an environment for self-realization, leisure activities, and satisfaction of needs.

Today's families are often small. Having created a married couple, people strive to create their own living space, their own home life arrangement. In connection with the development and spread of consumer views in modern society, many families have few children. The desire to enrich with material values alienates parents from children, creates conflict situations in families, destroys a healthy atmosphere of mutual understanding and mutual assistance. Elevating the material over the spiritual, people themselves become victims of their priorities and endanger family well-being, the development of their own children, and relationships with relatives and friends. One of the factors destabilizing the family is the economic and social independence of a woman, which contradicts the traditional understanding of her functions, rights and obligations in the family.

Social studies of modern families make it possible to single out several main types among them: patriarchal-modernized, child-centric, matrimonial, maternal, incomplete type.

The patriarchal-modernized type of family in general terms retains the traditional family form: the husband is the head of the family, who has power and is responsible for vital issues. The main functions of the wife are related to the service of all family members and the upbringing of children.

Detocentric type of family. The very name of this type assigns a central place in the family to children, who, as a rule, are few in such families. Children are subjected to excessive material and moral guardianship by the older generation, due to which the natural course of their development and maturation is disturbed. A person who grew up in such a family cannot take care of himself, is lost in the absence of his parents, cannot make his own decisions.

The matrimonial type of family is the most optimal, since relationships are built on the principles of mutual respect, creating maximum comfort for all family members. This has a positive effect on the upbringing of children, on their relationship with their parents. The personal relationships of parents in such families are a positive example for children who in the future seek to project them on relationships in their own family.

The maternal type of family is noted either in an incomplete family, then its main focus is the well-being of children, or in a family where the dominant role belongs to a woman. The second option negatively affects the formation of the worldview of the child. Children who grew up in such families tend to perceive a man as a weak, insolvent link in the family, playing a secondary role. Boys tend to belittle their abilities, and girls will strive to subordinate men to their interests and will.

An incomplete type of family is oriented, as a rule, to the central role of children or the self-realization of an adult, often to the detriment of the full development of the child.

44. Relationships between children and parents in the family

Child-parent relationships are initially determined by adults and throughout their entire length depend mainly on the relationship of mother and father to their child. Already in early childhood, the child develops an attitude towards parents, which they themselves laid down and determined as the most suitable for them. Becoming a parent, a person finds himself in a new status, the range of his rights and obligations, life principles, behavior change radically, new goals and objectives appear, new functions are defined. In this regard, the whole structure of a person’s life, his priorities, views on some issues, attitude towards himself and others, interests and social circle are radically changing. A person who has become a parent is now increasingly concerned with issues of children's health, development, methods and rules of upbringing, etc. The appearance of a newborn in the family affects all family members, regardless of their attitude to this event.

The roles of father and mother are different from each other, but ideally they should be harmoniously combined and complement each other. The mother is called upon to take care of the spiritual, moral and aesthetic development of the child, to have close emotional contact with him throughout his life, to be a support and support in moments of despair, to empathize with his failures and set him in a positive mood, to rejoice at successes, to form optimistic views and mental stability.

The father, as a rule, if he takes an active part in the life of the child, helps to shape his worldview, streamline the understanding of the world and things in it, influences the education of discipline and will, independence and independence. The role of the father is very important in the upbringing of children, and his absence or insufficient participation can lead to negative consequences in the formation of the child's personality. These consequences include: a lack of intellectual development, a violation of the correct gender identity, difficulties in communicating with the opposite sex, excessive softness, pliability, a tendency to submit to someone else's will.

The relationship between parents is of great importance in the development of the child. Observing these relationships, the child unconsciously forms his own program of his future marital relations. Communication between mother and father, their attitude towards each other, the dominant ways of upholding rights, opinions, forms of solving problems and ways out of situations, the most valuable personal qualities in the understanding of mother and father become an undeniable norm for a child. These norms are formed starting from early childhood for several years, therefore they are firmly held in the mind of a person and influence his entire subsequent life. It is almost impossible to instill in a person a different understanding of family relations, and is associated with long, thorough work and gaining significant personal experience.

In families where stable relations are observed, an atmosphere of benevolence, compliance and understanding is maintained, the natural formation of the correct worldview of the child, positive personal qualities, and the ability to self-realization is noted.

An important issue in the relationship between the child and parents is the number of children in the family. Practice shows that the characteristics of a child's development and the attitude of parents towards him is largely determined by whether he is the only, first, second, etc., as well as older, middle or younger.

An only child occupies all the attention of parents, so he is often prone to selfishness, aimed at constantly attracting attention to himself from adults, prone to cynicism and arrogance, less independence, increased dependence on adults, which can be eliminated or reduced by the right approach to education.

The first child is in many ways similar to the only one, since it was such for a certain time. In addition, the first child always causes a manifestation of increased concern and anxiety, because for the first time parents are faced with new tasks and problems for them, therefore they are especially careful about their actions, carefully think them over. Each stage of a child's growing up is new, unknown for them, it attracts maximum of their attention, activity and interest.

The second child was never the only one, he was already born in a family where there is another child and from birth he has to reckon with his presence, share parental attention, and later material values. With the second child, parents usually spend less time, care for him is carried out according to an already worked out scenario, often according to a simplified scheme. On the other hand, the second child has an older brother or sister who can teach him a lot, make up for the lack of communication, and show all possible care and guardianship.

The relationship between children and parents in a large family is determined by the parents and with the right approach to their organization, which implies taking into account age characteristics in the distribution of rights and duties, respect for all family members, regardless of their age, an even distribution of parental attention, etc., can be achieved positive relationships between all family members. In large families, relationships are built on the mutual assistance of children and parents, a clear distribution of responsibilities, and the care of the elders for the younger ones.

45. Parenting Styles

Child development begins in the family. And here we can distinguish two types of influencing factors: the environment and the influence of parents. Perceiving the world around, the child learns what is good and what is bad, what line of behavior to choose in a given situation, how to respond to certain events. Parents should help the child learn all this, contribute to the development of the will, the ability to make the right choice, even if it is difficult, to adhere to moral positions in any circumstances.

The main way parents influence is their example, young children always perceive their parents as a model, copy their actions, accept the views of their parents, trusting them unlimitedly. An equally important role in shaping the personality of the child is played by the attitude of parents towards him.

In modern pedagogical science, there are two most common classifications of such relationships. The first one is based on the distance feature. According to this type of classification, there are three styles of communication in the family: "optimal distance", "reduced distance", "increased distance".

"Optimal distance". This style is based on the respect of the parents of the children, as a result of which the children also respect the parents. In families of this type, parents perceive the child as a person, take into account his opinion and strive to develop one in the child. When choosing the direction of the child's activity, his interests are considered the basis. Demands and insistence are expressed not in a rough form of orders, but on the basis of the child's understanding of the need to fulfill them. Relations are built on the principles of cooperation and mutual understanding. Parents show interest and take an active part in all aspects of the child's life, while not imposing their opinion, but offering help.

"Short distance". This style of communication is characterized by overprotectiveness, absolute control and restriction of the child's freedom. Parents decide everything themselves, believing that the child is too small, stupid, inexperienced, etc., regardless of his age, they impose their views and beliefs on the child, choose the circle of friends, types and areas of activity. Children in such families grow up infantile, lack of initiative, spineless, incapable of independence. As adults, these people often look for a replacement for their parents in their spouse, who is able to take care and patronize him.

"Increased distance" - the alienation of parents from children, intentional or forced. Parents spend little time with the child, caring only that he was "arranged". Communication, reduced to a minimum, leads to a loss of interest in the life of the child, his desires and inclinations are not taken into account, his opinion is not taken into account. Such a child becomes callous, rude, indifferent.

Another type of classification is more traditional and contains authoritarian, democratic and liberal styles of communication in the family.

The authoritarian style of communication is based on the desire for absolute subordination of children to their parents. Communication with the child often takes place in an orderly tone, his desires are not taken into account, the initiative is suppressed, individual characteristics are not noticed and ignored. The requirements of adults are not explained, the child often does not understand why something is required of him, but is forced to blindly obey. Children in such families grow up closed, often lose interest in life, do not have developed thinking and are incapable of creativity.

The democratic style of communication is considered the most optimal. It is characterized by mutual love, respect and the desire to create optimal mental comfort for all family members. Adults communicate with children "on an equal footing", from an early age perceiving them as full-fledged members of the family, consult with them on issues that are accessible to them. Children are happy to take the initiative, boldly express their own opinions, parents are often their best friends, respected and trusted. The democratic style of communication contributes to the development of optimistic moods, all-round development, the realization of the inclinations and abilities of the child, such children are more sociable and easier to find their place in life. The place of punishment in such families is occupied by the grief of parents, the condemnation of actions and deeds. Children, as a rule, adequately respond to the attitude of parents to their behavior and understand well the assessment of their act, developing internal motivation for morality and discipline.

The liberal style of communication is characterized by forgiveness and permissiveness. Parents are afraid not to please the child, they strive to satisfy all his needs and desires, thus winning the love of the child. The source of such an attitude is excessive parental love, which leads to selfishness and promiscuity. The child grows up as a hypocritical, prudent person, aimed at getting what he has planned in the easiest ways, not caring about the morality of these ways, incapable of discipline and self-education, etc.

46. Methods of raising children in the family

The choice of methods of education by parents depends on what education is aimed at. Some want to see their child as a model of obedience, others as an intellectual, others are aimed at developing creative abilities, there are so many families, so many directions and features of education. The methods themselves do not have a fundamental difference from the well-known pedagogical methods used in general education and preschool institutions, but they have their own specifics. The main distinguishing feature of family education is individuality. Parents have the opportunity to take into account the mental characteristics of their child, his health and physical development, readiness for perception, mood and emotional state.

Another difference lies in the characteristics of the personalities of the parents themselves, their upbringing, concepts of morality and morality, awareness of the issues of raising children, goals and style of relationships in the family.

The same methods in different families can have a different character. For example, in one family, the child’s understanding that he has committed a bad deed and his feelings about this is considered punishment, and in another, punishment is the deprivation of any pleasure. In some families, the assignment is a sign of trust and recognition of certain achievements of the child, while in others, the assignment takes the form of punishment.

Methods and means of education in the family are numerous and varied, among the most common methods regularly used in almost every family are persuasion, encouragement, punishment, clarification, and personal example.

There are some general conditions on which the choice of certain methods of raising children depends: knowledge of the characteristics of the child, personal characteristics of the parents, the presence of joint activities, the pedagogical level of the parents. Let's consider them in more detail.

Parents' knowledge of their own children is not at all an indispensable attribute of a modern family; in this regard, there are serious shortcomings in education, which often have bad consequences not only for the child, but also for people. Those around him. Some parents do not know and do not seek to learn about the interests and hobbies of their children, about their circle of friends, places to visit. Many mothers and fathers consider it their educational duty to control the educational process and punish poor academic performance and bad behavior. In reality, such actions do not have an educational effect at all, children feel the true attitude of their parents towards them, and they learn to use the lack of interest in their life in their own way, parents gradually lose their authority and children are forced to look for it elsewhere, which often leads to wrong choice, immoral value system that develops in a child. Often such children become criminals and social offenders. The sincere interest of parents in the life and activities of children, joint activities emotionally brings them together, creates an atmosphere of trust, cooperation, mutual assistance, understanding and support. Children, with such an attitude, feel their value to their parents, and parents have the opportunity to gently and at the same time effectively influence their child in a positive direction.

The personal characteristics of parents, their experience, the nature of relationships in the family largely determines the choice of methods of education. Parents with a rich and varied life experience often use a personal example for educational purposes, tell stories from their own lives, and clearly demonstrate the consequences of certain actions and deeds. Such parents tend to use the teaching method.

The presence of joint activities creates a diverse ground for communication and the ability to use the most diverse and effective methods. Many parents take joint walks with their children, during which they talk a lot, discuss what they see, they have traditional places for walking. Some families visit theaters, museums, exhibitions, etc. together, this develops the aesthetic side of the human personality, and parents have the opportunity to instill in their children the concept of beauty, to know their tastes and inclinations in the field of art. There are families who practice joint creativity, sports, music. At the same time, parents and children have common interests, hobbies, which can also serve as a support for education, and, in addition, is a useful and interesting way to spend leisure time. All this brings children and parents together and has a beneficial effect on education.

The education and degree of awareness of parents in the field of pedagogy is of great importance in the upbringing of children, the choice of methods and means of education. Practice shows that in the families of educated people, children grow up better educated, have more prerequisites for a full-fledged adult life and self-realization. The study of the basics of pedagogy by parents often changes their views on this process and attitude towards the child, parents begin to pay more attention to this issue, knowledge of upbringing helps them to cover all areas of human development and choose the best methods for each specific case, taking into account the individual characteristics of their family and child .

47. Management and principles of management of pedagogical systems. The state nature of the management of the education system

Management - this is an activity aimed at developing a solution, organizing, controlling, regulating a control object in accordance with a given goal based on reliable information. The objects of control can be any systems, including educational ones. Management of educational systems in our country is carried out by state bodies that act as subjects of management.

There are a number of principles on which the management of pedagogical systems is based:

1. democratization and humanization;

2. consistency and integrity in management;

3. scientific character;

4. rational combination of centralization and decentralization;

5. unity of unity of command and collegiality in management;

6. optimality and efficiency in the choice of methods for solving control problems;

7. objectivity and completeness of information.

In the Russian Federation, there is and operates the Law "On Education", adopted in 1992, on the basis of which the management of the education system in Russia is implemented. In this law, education is proclaimed a priority area of state activity. This means the priority of the tasks of education in comparison with the tasks of other areas. In addition, the law "On Education" spelled out the basic principles by which the management of the educational system is carried out.

The principle of humanism in education implies the paramount importance of the interests of a person, his safety, health, freedom of choice. The upbringing of a person is aimed at developing humanistic views, philanthropy, respect for the values of humanity and for oneself.

The unity of the federal, cultural and educational space means that the educational program takes into account the cultural characteristics of the nations and peoples living on the territory of the Russian Federation, the protection of their cultural values and respect for traditions.

The general accessibility of education implies the opportunity for every citizen of the Russian Federation to receive an education of the desired level, building the education system in such a way that each next stage of it is accessible to graduates of the previous one, provided that they have a conscientious attitude to learning and actually achieve a level corresponding to the standards of the stage.

The secular nature of education in state, municipal educational systems.

Freedom and pluralism in education means the possibility of choosing the direction of education, an educational institution, taking into account its specifics, priority methods and the level of qualification of teachers.

The democratic, state-public principle consists in taking into account the needs of society in the field of education, the required level of upbringing, social adequacy, the level of qualification of specialists, subject orientation, the construction of management structures at all levels of the educational system according to democratic principles.

The autonomy of educational institutions allows them to adhere to their own policy in the organization that does not contradict the laws of the Russian Federation in this area.

The organization of the education system is implemented in accordance with the Federal Program for the Development of Education, which is adopted by the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation for a certain period. The program contains three main sections:

1) analytical. It is compiled on the basis of an analysis of the state of the education system at a given point in time, achievements in this area, development trends, and the needs of modern society.

2) the conceptual section contains the main goals and objectives of the program, developed taking into account the information of the first section, as well as issues of state necessity.

3) the organizational section contains information on specific activities in a generalized form, necessary to achieve the goals and objectives set in the second section.

All sections are closely related to each other and are characterized by a phased compilation of sections: each subsequent one is based on the information of the previous one.

The state is obliged to take care of the observance of the rules for the organization of educational institutions, regardless of their legal basis. Every citizen of the country has the right to education. Local government authorities monitor compliance with the lower and upper limits of the content of the educational system, including the list of disciplines, their information completeness, the qualifications of teachers, workload, time indicators, the level of education at each stage, etc. The tasks of the bodies for organizing and regulating the education system include as well as monitoring the observance of the human right to the possibility of self-realization and self-determination. In the modern education system, there is an increasing decentralization, that is, the transfer of a number of powers to local governments. The positive side of this step is that the local authorities are studying the specifics of the region more deeply, the problems of the educational system of the given area that need to be addressed, can more accurately determine the priority areas of education determined by the public of the region, etc. At the same time, the highest authorities can focus on solving nationwide global issues of education, adapted by lower bodies for the conditions of a particular region.

48. Functions and culture of the leader

head - a person authorized to carry out managerial activities. The heads of educational institutions are the director and his deputies, their main functions are as follows:

1) information and analytical;

2) motivational-target;

3) planning and prognostic;

4) organizational and executive;

5) control and diagnostic;

6) regulatory and corrective.

In addition to functions, the director of a general educational institution has a number of functional responsibilities.

The director must exercise strict control over the observance of human rights. He is responsible for drawing up and organizing a plan for the educational work of the institution, and also controls the process of its flow and results.

The director represents the interests of the educational institution in various state and public bodies. His duties include the selection and organization of the activities of the management staff of the institution, however, given the democratic nature of the education system in Russia, he must carry out such activities, taking into account the opinions and statements of other teachers, parents and students themselves. The director decides on other personnel matters, controls financial receipts and distributes them in accordance with the needs of the educational institution. Its powers include the implementation of material incentives for teachers and the establishment of salary increments for them in accordance with the characteristics of their work activity. The director must create conditions for the progressive development of pedagogical activity in the institution, taking into account modern achievements in science and technology, culture and art, promote the professional growth of teachers and stimulate the desire to improve their skills. In addition to the above, the director is responsible to the highest authorities for his activities.

Leadership culture - this is the creative self-realization of his personality through all areas of his activity, aimed at creating, strengthening, transferring values and technologies in the management of an educational institution. Management culture has several components.

Axiological component consists in a system of values that are of great importance in the organization of management activities. There are four main types of values that take place in the management of a general educational institution: goals, knowledge, attitudes, qualities.

Goal Values - these are global and local goals of the management activities of an educational institution of a different nature, they can be associated with the teaching staff, student teams, parents, all people directly related to the school, or these can be goals related to financial issues and the status of the educational institution, etc. d.

Knowledge-Values imply the level of knowledge of the subject of management in this area, his qualifications, work experience, activities aimed at constantly replenishing his own knowledge in this area, as well as contributing to an increase in the level of knowledge in the field of management of his deputies and all people related to this type of activity .

Values-relationships. This refers to all kinds of relationships that are important in the work of running an educational institution. It is important not only the attitude of the leader to his duties, but also his relationship with colleagues, students and their parents, attitude towards himself. All this plays a role in the formation of the authority of the leader, which is necessary for the implementation of full-fledged management activities, especially in the conditions of such a diverse composition of the management object. The head of an educational institution, that is, the director of the school, is a role model for teachers and children, therefore, his attitude towards himself, his personality, the issues of improving personal qualities and self-education play a big role in his professional activities.

Value-Quality stem from the results of the values of relations, first of all, to oneself, as a person called upon to bear great responsibility. Much depends on the qualities of the school principal, including his successful cooperation with intra-school teams and authorities, his ability to take into account the interests of teachers and society in the process of organizing school activities, the ability to set realistic and meaningful goals and develop a program to achieve them, as well as be able to predict the performance of their own and their colleagues.

Technology Component includes methods, means and techniques of management activities. The culture of a leader is largely determined by the level of knowledge and mastery of management technology in general and in relation to educational institutions. The leader must be able to organize, regulate, control, plan and analyze all the processes taking place in the school.

Personal and creative component is necessary in the management of teams of people, since general methods cannot be applied in a pure theoretical form. The tasks of the leader include adapting them to specific conditions, characteristics of the team, and areas of school activity. The director of the school, being himself a person with his own characteristics, makes his own corrections and makes modifications that, in his opinion, are the most suitable for a particular situation and the most natural for him to use.

49. The main functions of pedagogical management: pedagogical analysis, planning and control

Management of the pedagogical process consists of a sequence of interrelated actions of pedagogical analysis, planning and control. In this regard, it makes sense to dwell on their consideration in more detail.

Pedagogical analysis contains three main areas: parametric, thematic and final.

Parametric analysis is the actions of the director of an educational institution and his deputies, aimed at comparing, generalizing, researching and searching for the causes of various phenomena in the pedagogical process. The subjects of parametric analysis include academic performance, attendance, general discipline of both students and teachers. Within the framework of pedagogical analysis, the forecasting of the results of managerial activity, the identification of its influence on the subjects of parametric analysis, the development of actions to improve these subjects and their implementation are also carried out.

Thematic analysis contains activities for the study, analysis, forecasting and planning of actions aimed at managing the most stable elements of the pedagogical process. Such elements are the methods and means of educational work, their effectiveness and relevance, methods and frequency of organizing extracurricular activities, organizing the activities of teachers aimed at improving the level of qualifications and developing in the direction of their professional activities, etc. In the course of the thematic analysis, data are taken into account obtained as a result of parametric analysis.

The final analysis is reduced to the study of the results of parametric and thematic analyzes for a certain period of time. The sources of information for the final analysis are tests, exams, tests, statistical data on the discipline and compliance with the rules of the educational institution, reports of teachers and leaders of all levels. The result of the final analysis is an assessment of the general state of affairs in various areas of activity of the educational institution, the reasons for obtaining such results, fixing positively and negatively influencing factors in order to take them into account in the future.

Pedagogical activity is purposeful. From this it follows that any pedagogical work begins with the setting of goals and, on their basis, the definition of tasks required to be solved in the process of future work. This function of pedagogical management is called goal setting. The goals of the activity of an educational institution are determined on the basis of the requirements of society for their members, as well as taking into account the age and psychological characteristics of students. Thus, the global goal of the educational institution is the formation of full-fledged members of modern society, socially adapted and comprehensively prepared, through the methods of educational work applicable in specific conditions for specific people.

Planning in pedagogical activity is the next stage after goal setting and is based on the results of pedagogical analysis in the direction of certain goals. Planning can be local (local), that is, aimed at solving intermediate problems of education, training, organization, etc. Or it can be global, which includes the preparation of curricula, general plans for organization and management.

In the management of pedagogical systems, a long-term plan is distinguished, which is drawn up based on the results of an analysis of the activities of an educational institution over the past period for a period of five years. Its structure is:

1) the tasks of the school for the planned period;

2) prospects for the development of the contingent of students by years;

3) prospects for updating the educational process, the introduction of pedagogical innovations;

4) personnel changes and the number of expected students;

5) increasing the level of professionalism and qualifications of teachers of an educational institution;

6) updating the equipment and equipment of the educational institution;

7) social protection of teachers and students, tasks to improve their life, work and recreation.

In general educational institutions, an annual plan is also developed, covering the entire time period from the beginning of the school year to the beginning of the next, including summer holidays. The development of an annual plan is a complex multi-level process, the preparation of which is carried out by a specially appointed group of people from among the teaching staff of an educational institution. The annual plan for the next year is drawn up throughout the current year and consists of the following levels:

1) study of standards and innovations in the field of education;

2) collection of necessary information;

3) analysis of the information received, identification and elimination of difficulties in the way of solving pedagogical problems;

4) drawing up a draft plan and its approval by the council of the educational institution.

As a rule, the time frame for the development of the annual plan coincides with the academic quarters, and by the end of the last academic quarter, the plan for the next year is formed.

The control of the activities of an educational institution has several types. One of them is thematic control. Its essence lies in an in-depth, detailed study of any narrowly focused issue that is part of the pedagogical process.

Frontal control is aimed at studying the activities of the teaching staff as a whole, its subgroups in different areas or one teacher. At the same time, all aspects of his life, both professional and outside of work, are studied.

Depending on the object of control, it is customary to distinguish the following types of control: personal, class-generalizing, subject-generalizing, thematically-generalizing and complex-generalizing.

Personal control, as the name suggests. It is aimed at controlling the activities of one teacher, it can be either thematic or frontal, or complex, that is, including a combination of these two forms. Personal control is carried out in order to stimulate the activities of the teacher and the correct orientation in the direction of his professional development.

Class-generalizing control covers the activities of teachers working with one class and their activities in the formation, development and stimulation of the student team in the class, its classroom and extracurricular activities, intra-collective relations.

Subject-generalizing control has as its object a separate discipline and can be considered from the point of view of teaching it in a separate class, in parallel classes or in an educational institution as a whole. Such control is carried out with the involvement of competent persons from outside.

Thematic-generalizing type of control consists in the study of a separate area of pedagogical activity of one or more teachers, one or more classes grouped according to some attribute.

Complex-generalizing control is aimed at studying the issues of teaching a number of disciplines in one or more classes.

50. The role of the organization in management

The modern education system is largely based on the needs of society in this area, while remaining state-controlled. In this regard, the tasks of managing educational systems include the organization of various societies and events so that social needs, opinions and choices are taken into account in the process of solving educational problems. Thus, along with state authorities, public bodies are created that have the authority to influence the organization of educational activities, which opens up the possibility of choosing ways, forms and methods of teaching, adapting them to the real conditions of the educational process and students. Teachers and parents, who have a deeper knowledge of the characteristics of the class team, have the opportunity to influence the choice of the training program, methods of teaching and educational work, and scheduling classroom and extracurricular activities. Such an approach to managing the education system makes its objects active participants in this process, which increases their interest in their activities, as well as increases the effectiveness of training and education.

The most striking and widespread example of a public governing body is the school board. In the legislation of the Russian Federation there is a special document: "Temporary Regulations on State General Educational Institutions in the Russian Federation", the provisions of which regulate the actions of this body. Students, their parents, teachers and other employees of the educational institution can be members of the school council. The School Council can create temporary or permanent lower-level governing bodies for various situations, issues and directions and determine their legal basis and boundaries. The composition of the school council, its chairman and its duration are determined at the school-wide conference, which is the highest governing body of the school and is held at least once a year. In addition, the conference adopted the charter of the educational institution, the basis of which was developed by government bodies and spelled out in the "Temporary Regulations on State General Educational Institutions in the Russian Federation." Despite the general basis of the statutes of different schools, the conference can make amendments, modifications to it, change some nuances, adapting it as much as possible to the conditions of a particular educational institution. The charter is formed in accordance with the results of the analysis of all aspects of the activities taking place in the educational institution, taking into account the plans and goals of state and intra-school authorities, previously defined. In the absence of a conference, the school council acts as the highest governing body of the school. The main activities of the school council are as follows: protecting the interests of students, determining the specifics of the rules of conduct in the school and the form of admission of students to the school, monitoring and managing the implementation of the provisions established by the supreme governing bodies of the school, regulating financial and educational organizational issues, active pedagogical assistance to parents in raising children. The work of the school council is organized according to democratic principles, and each member of the council has rights and obligations strictly defined by his place on the council.

Along with the school council, in accordance with the "Temporary Regulations on State General Educational Institutions in the Russian Federation", a pedagogical council is being created. Its composition and powers are defined in the charter of the school. The teachers of the school make up the pedagogical council, which follows from the name itself. Council members elect a chairman. The pedagogical council and the school council work in close cooperation. However, the activity of the pedagogical council is aimed at managing the educational process at the highest professional level and is designed to solve the following tasks:

1) determination of the means and methods of educational work, the choice of plans and training programs;

2) regulation of issues related to the work of school teams;

3) organizing work to improve the level of professionalism and qualifications of school staff, introducing innovations in pedagogical science, stimulating a creative approach to pedagogical practice, organizing activities to exchange experience with teachers from other schools, cities, regions, etc.;

4) carrying out certification of teachers and facilitating the assignment of a certain status to them;

5) organizing active interaction between the school and educational institutions of the next stages of the educational structure, establishing contacts with research and production organizations, public bodies of various kinds.

An important role in strengthening the role of society in the management of education is played by the bodies of school self-government and public organizations in the school. Such activity should be stimulated and encouraged by the highest governing bodies, both public and state. The headmaster, his deputies, as well as school teachers should take an active part in the organization of such bodies of the school management system, give advice and recommendations on the organization of the bodies themselves and the events planned by them, and teach the basics of management. At the same time, a tactful attitude towards members of such organizations is important, that is, there is no need to interfere in the activities of the organization without special reasons, to take over the performance of their functions, on the contrary, you need to teach children to make the right choice on their own, make decisions, analyze, predict, plan and control and be responsible for the results of their activities.

51. School work and the birth of pedagogical thought in primitive society

The basis of the pedagogical thought of the ancient world is education. Its origin was considered by different scientists at different times from different positions, putting forward their theories of the foundations of the origin of this type of human activity. The main traditional concepts are considered to be the evolutionary-biological theory developed by research educators S. Letourneau, J. Simpson and A. Espinas, and the psychological theory of P. Monroe. Both of these theories, despite their fundamental difference, have a common conclusion - education originated as a means of adapting a person to the environment. According to evolutionary biological theory, education was the result of an instinctive process of caring for offspring. Monroe's theory explains parenting in terms of children's instinctive imitation of adults. The origin and development of education, as a special type of activity, is explained by the peculiarities of human thinking and consciousness, their social orientation.

The initial upbringing was dictated by the necessity of life. In the face of constant danger from the animal world and natural phenomena, as well as the need to get their own food, adults taught children how to survive, which included learning to hunt, gather, make clothes and weapons, physical strength and endurance, knowledge about the world around them, necessary actions under certain situations. Education occurred spontaneously, as the need for its elements arose. As humanity accumulated experience on various vital issues, social traditions and folklore arose. Their emergence made education more efficient and organized. The most important means of transferring experience and accumulated knowledge was the speech that arose among people. Thus, for a long time, education was a process of transferring the accumulated experience of ancestors, the content of which was constantly replenished and corrected, thanks to the development of human consciousness and the deepening of the study of the surrounding world.

Of great importance in education was the emergence and gradual complication of tools. Without the help of adults, children could not master the ability to produce and rationally use them. The differentiation of primitive education related only to the sex and age of children, otherwise it was the same for everyone, social differences were not yet made. Children were brought up in the image and likeness of adults.

The social stratification of society, which entailed significant changes in education, dates back to the 9th - 8th millennium BC. e. The family becomes the main social unit of society and, accordingly, the role of family education rises. Families of higher social strata raised their children more humanely from a modern point of view. They were later accustomed to work, and the labor activity itself had fundamental differences from the work of the lower strata of society. Less wealthy families from early childhood included their offspring in feasible types of work, as this was a necessary condition for their survival. Family education was based on imitation of adults, the transfer of experience, and the form of education often had a magical meaning, accompanied by secret rituals and spells. The reason for this was the attitude to experience and knowledge as a great value, inherited from the older generation to the younger.

The methods of primitive education were very poor, since education was only a consequence of the need to acquire survival skills. The main technique was repetition. The elders showed the children certain actions necessary for mastering, and the children repeated them many times until the skill turned into a habit.

Over time, the essence of education changed, the turning point of education was a gradual change in worldview. Now man not only adapted to the environment, but also influenced it. With the growth of social experience, the beginnings of organized education appear. Young children are under the care of women, learn basic skills of daily life, play and learn from the experience of housekeeping. At an older age, boys spend most of their time with men, learning to hunt, fish, develop physical strength and endurance, adopting skills and abilities in the production of tools and household items.

Girls study life and housekeeping, care for children in depth.

Further social stratification leads to a tightening of the system of education of the ancient communities. During this period, physical punishments and threats appear.

The first prototypes of schools are youth houses, in which children and adolescents were brought up and educated. The range of activities of such schools covered everything necessary for life that exists in the existing society. With the development of society, the structure of youth houses also changed. They began to be divided according to gender and social characteristics.

Upon reaching adolescents 10 - 15 years of age. They had to undergo initiation, that is, initiation into adults. The initiation was in the nature of an exam, but was accompanied by the infliction of pain in order to better assimilate the material.

52. Education and school in the ancient world

Literacy, arithmetic and music were the main areas of education for children in this historical region. Great importance was given to diligence and physical education, which is associated with a large number of wars in that period of time. In early childhood, the upbringing of children was carried out by elder mentors, who were supposed to educate real warriors (Athens), or nannies-nurses (Sparta). Although Greek and Spartan upbringing have fundamental differences in methods and directions, both of them are characterized by individual upbringing of a child up to a certain age, similar to modern upbringing in a family.

Schools in Ancient Greece originated with the emergence of city-states, the culture of which provided for education in order to obtain the status of a worthy citizen. Education did not stop even during the wars. There were no holidays, the students studied all day with a break for lunch. The teacher was one for the whole school, the number of students usually did not exceed fifty people who made up one class, regardless of age. Children sat on low folding stools around the teacher, wrote on their knees, perceived information on all subjects by ear. Writing was taught using waxed tablets and sticks (stylus), arithmetic included the study of four basic actions and numbers in bit representation, singing was only in unison and was accompanied by playing the cithara.

The social status of the teacher was low and was equated with the status of a middle-level artisan.

Athens and Sparta were distinguished by the peculiarities of education, the principles of education in which were pronounced and in many ways opposite.

Education in Sparta was aimed at growing warriors, as evidenced by the selection of newborns on the basis of strength and health. Infants who did not meet the established canons grew up outside of society and were not considered full-fledged citizens. Education organized by the policy began at the age of seven and was divided into three stages.

7-15 years: Minimal literacy training, eloquence was punished, taciturnity was encouraged The main emphasis on the development of endurance, will, physical strength. Education takes place in harsh conditions with an emphasis on the ability to survive with maximum hardship and inconvenience. At the age of 14, the boys were ordained as Eirens - members of the community. The initiation was accompanied by painful trials, after which the teenager was allowed to practice in the military units of Sparta.

15-20 years: The methods of education become tougher, music is added to the studied disciplines.

20-30 years: During the last ten years of education, physical training became even more tough, a person was already considered a warrior, but only at the end of this stage did he become a full member of the military community. The peculiarities of the upbringing of this period include the free sex life of the Spartans, but much attention was paid to the suppression of drunkenness.

The upbringing of Spartan girls and girls was also aimed at developing physical strength and endurance.

Thus, the inhabitants of Sparta were poorly educated and only capable of waging wars, however, many traditions of physical education and hardening were reflected in the educational systems of the next generations.

Fundamentally different was the upbringing in Athens. Here they sought to form both the intellectual and physical sides of a person. Until the age of seven, all children were brought up in a family or by people specially designed for this. From the age of seven, the boys of ordinary citizens could study in paid schools, where they were taught reading, writing, arithmetic and music, and they also did gymnastics. In accordance with the direction of development, schools were divided into two types: musical (7-16 years old), in which intellectual education was carried out, and palestra, where they were engaged in physical development. The best option was to attend both schools at the same time.

Of great importance in the education of the Athenians IMLI were the works of Homer's "Iliad" and "Odyssey", which served as material for reading, singing and writing. Having reached the age of sixteen and having completed their studies at the music and gymnastic schools, the young men could continue their studies at the gymnasium. In Athens, V-IV centuries. BC e. there were only three gymnasiums that bore the names: Academy, Likey and Kinosarg. Elite education was received by young men 18-20 in ephebia, where they learned the intricacies of military affairs.

The entire education system of Athens at that time was permeated by the atmosphere of competition. The female part of the population was brought up exclusively in the family, the content of education differed only in the absence of gymnastic and military components. The main activity of women was the household.

During the Hellenistic era, the Greek education system underwent significant changes. The music school becomes more important, while the gymnastic school fades into the background. Primary education is reduced to five years, and after that study continues at the grammar school, the subjects of which are spelling, reading, oratory and music. In gymnasiums, the role of physical education was also reduced, giving way to intellectual development. Ephebia has become a logical continuation of the previous stages, focusing on the teaching of rhetoric, physics, philosophy, mathematics, logic and other scientific foundations. Philosophical schools now became the highest level of education, there were four of them: the Academy, the Lyceum, the Stoic school and the Epicurean school. With a general focus, each of the philosophical schools had its own subject specifics.

Throughout the Roman Empire, the family was perceived as the most important unit of society, responsible for the moral education of children. Family traditions were stable. During the period of the VIII-VI centuries. BC e. the family was responsible for raising children up to the age of 16, and the girls remained under the vigilant control of their mothers until marriage, while, however, the behavior of the parents, even in the presence of children, did not differ in high morality. Religion played a big role in education. Many gods constantly accompany and influence the daily life of the Romans.

During the heyday of the Roman Empire, home education fades into the background. Yielding their positions to state education. The teachers of ancient Rome were slaves, which implies the extremely low social status of the teacher. Poor citizens who could not afford to support slave nannies and slave teachers sent their children to study at the forums, which were held at the place of public gatherings of the Romans. The appearance of the first such schools dates back to the XNUMXth century. BC e. Children in both cases, starting from the age of five, were taught to write, read, and count. The Greek school was considered a model and standard for the Roman education system. In the II century. BC e. there is a huge influence of the Hellenistic culture on the organization of the school of the Ancient

Rome. The system of education of Athens at that time was permeated by the atmosphere of competition. ennoy components. Imu, arithmetic and music, as well as But, despite this, in the Roman education system, the main emphasis was on physical and military education, the aesthetic component was deliberately excluded, since it was believed that art distracts thoughts from reality. Roman training included only that which could be of real use in military affairs or politics.

The system of Roman education reached its greatest harmony in the XNUMXst century BC. BC e. It was during this period that the main disciplines studied in schools of various levels and properties were determined: grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, music, medicine and architecture. Physical development in schools was carried out for a fee for children of especially wealthy citizens. Young men could receive military training in special military formations - legions. In the VI century. BC e. a new direction of Roman education arose - legal, dictated by the need of society for a large number of lawyers due to the development of the bureaucratic system in the state. Schools that trained lawyers had as their basis some of the Greek directions of education, including sophistry.

At the decline of Roman civilization, home education regains strength, as Bishop Sidonius (XNUMXth century BC) writes in his writings: "All science comes from the home."

Greco-Roman education influenced the settlement of the barbarian tribes of the Ancient Mediterranean, the Eastern Slavs of the 58th-51th centuries. the Greek and Latin alphabets were widely used, the Scythians actively studied the Greek language and writing, and also traveled to Greece for education. Barbarian Gaul, conquered by the Romans in XNUMX-XNUMX. BC e., was greatly influenced by Roman education, which was accompanied by the emergence of grammar and rhetorical schools on the Roman model.

53. Education and school of the ancient East

The history of the emergence of the school and education as special areas of activity dates back to the 5th millennium BC. e. The origin of education began in the ancient civilizations of the East. For the first time, the ideas of education were born in the family, where, according to Eastern ideas, one should obey the father and learn everything from him, as well as honor the mother. The early pedagogical ideas of the East are reflected in the works that have survived to this day: "The laws of the Babylonian king Hammurabi", the book "Proverbs of the Jewish King Solomon" and "Bhagavad Gita". Studying these works, we can conclude that much attention was paid to the upbringing of children. The upbringing of the ancient East was based not on the personal interests of the child, but on preparing him for adulthood. The methods of upbringing were rather rigid and became more and more authoritarian. The ever-increasing need of society for educated people, that is, those who are literate, arithmetic, knowledge of laws, etc., gave rise to the emergence of schools - specially organized educational institutions where children were trained centrally by special people. Along with family and state education in the civilizations of the Ancient East, religious education took place. Religion was the bearer of the ideals of education and training.

With the growing stratification of society along social and property lines, the organization of education also changed. Now children of different walks of life were brought up differently and taught different things. Children of poor citizens were brought up and educated mainly in the family by their own parents. Fee-paying schools were opened for the children of wealthy citizens.

In the 1st millennium BC. e. handicrafts and trade were actively developing, new ways of generating income appeared, which made schooling more accessible.

A significant step in the development of schools was the emergence and development of writing, which not only facilitated learning and made it more effective, but also became a means of accumulating and preserving the experience of ancestors without loss.

The development of writing and other sciences, such as astronomy, mathematics, agricultural technology, was actively going on in the states of the interfluve of the Tigris and Euphrates, which had a fairly developed culture. A feature of these states are the "houses of tablets" (in Sumerian - edubbs) - schools that trained scribes. They arose in the 3rd millennium BC. e. in connection with the need of the economy and culture for literate people. They wrote on clay tablets with a wooden chisel. First they wrote on raw tablets, then they were burned. In the 1st millennium, a new cuneiform technology arose: clay tablets began to be covered with a thin layer of wax, on which symbols and signs were scratched. Later, the edubbs began to train not only scribes, but also practiced teaching other sciences. Initially created in families, and later at temples and palaces, they eventually became autonomous institutions. Under many edubbas, book depositories were created, numbering tens of thousands of tablets. Education in the "tablet houses" was paid. In large edubbs there were several teachers who specialized in different disciplines, and in some there was even a special steward who kept order and discipline. The organization of education in edubbs reflects the family nature of education inherent in the Ancient East. The head of edubba was called "father teacher", other teachers - "brothers of the father", the students were divided into "younger children of edubba" and "senior children of edubba". The edubbs originated some of the teaching methods that are still used today: conversation, clarification, and the use of role models. Edubba graduates mastered writing, music, singing, arithmetic, religious knowledge, and languages. In addition, they knew how to understand metals, fabrics, plants, be able to measure land, divide property.

Further development of edubbs was expressed in their division into elite and simple ones. In the elite edubbs intended for children of the nobility, in addition to the usual disciplines, philosophy, literature, history, geography, and medicine were taught.

Features of the education of Ancient Egypt consisted in the equal perception of boys and girls, which reflected the equality of women and men in the family. Children were taught on the principle of transferring from childhood to adulthood, while trying to form such qualities as laconicism, will and stamina. The basis of education was obedience, which was often achieved by the use of physical punishment. The role of the family in education was leading, in many respects it was determined by the fact. That professions were inherited.

School education began from the age of 5, children studied from morning to evening, worldly joys and games were inaccessible to them. Literacy and writing were the foundations of education, first the student had to learn to read and write, then - to draw up business papers. They wrote on papyri with a reed stick, which was dipped in soot (black) and ocher (red) paint. The papyri were reused many times, washing away the previous inscriptions.

Schools were created at temples and palaces. In addition to reading and writing, they studied mathematics, geography, astronomy, medicine and languages. In the era of the New Kingdom (XNUMXth century BC), schools of healers appeared. There were also royal schools in which, among others, the children of the pharaohs studied.

The upbringing of Ancient India is largely connected with the division of its history into two epochs: Dravidian-Aryan and Buddhist. The Dravidian-Aryan era is characterized by a clear social division of the population. There were four castes: brahmins (priests) - the highest caste, kshatriyas (professional warriors), vaishyas - free working people, shudras - the lowest layer, who did not have any rights and many duties. The education and training of each caste was based on the principles of their social status. So, the Brahmins considered the development of the intellect to be the main one; kshatriyas - strength, will, stamina; vaishya - diligence, skill, patience, perseverance; sudras - obedience and humility.

The development of education in ancient India achieved significant results and its content was quite complex and diverse. It was here that zero and counting with ten digits were first introduced.

They wrote on palm leaves, oral speech prevailed over written. There were family schools where students not only studied, but also worked on the farm, but education in such schools was free. Forest schools arose near the cities, where the teacher was a hermit guru, to whom students came.

In the middle of the 1st millennium A.D. e. In India, a new era begins, accompanied by the emergence of a new religion - Buddhism. The basis of this religion, which globally influenced the entire system of education and upbringing, is the proclamation of the equality of people of all castes and the allocation of an individual as an undeniable value. The basis of education in the Buddhist understanding is the improvement of the human soul and has three stages: preliminary, the stage of concentration, the stage of final assimilation.

Children received the basics of education in schools of two types: schools of the Vedas, intended for the three leading castes, and secular schools, where children were accepted, regardless of their class. The schools of the Vedas emphasized intellectual learning, while the teaching of secular schools was more practical.

During the period of the Hindu renaissance (II-VI centuries), which was called "neo-Brahman" education, it undergoes significant changes. The number of schools is increasing. Education is aimed at teaching a person to distinguish between the essential and the transitory, to achieve spiritual harmony. Two levels of educational institutions were formed: roofing felt - primary school and agrahar - higher school. During this period, large educational centers arose in Takshashila and Nalanda.

The upbringing of Ancient China was of a family-social nature, that is, family orders arose under the influence of social ones. The ideal of education was a polite, well-read person with inner harmony and dignity. The first schools in China appeared in the 3rd millennium BC. e. and were of two types: xiang and xu. In xiang schools, the elders taught the youth, passing on their experience and knowledge to them. Xu was originally a military school, then it was transformed into xue, the curriculum of which included six subjects: morality, writing, counting, music, archery, horse management. Much attention in the education system of ancient China was paid to the development of students' independence.

China is one of the first states where the first attempts were made to define the theory of education and training, as evidenced by the emergence of philosophical schools: Taoism, Buddhism and Confucianism. Taoism was based on the rapprochement of man with nature, passivity and inactivity. Buddhism has its roots in the civilization of ancient India.

Confucianism significantly influenced the development of the education system in ancient China. Confucius considered moral self-improvement to be the basis of education. The innate abilities of a person were considered as the basis for educational activities. As a result of the development of the civilization of Ancient China, the ideology of Confucianism became the leading one.

54. Education and school among the Eastern Slavs

The tribes of the Eastern Slavs arose in the Middle Dnieper in the VI-IX centuries. during this period, there is a fragmentation of tribes into families, which is accompanied by significant social stratification. Of course, such changes could not but affect the upbringing of children. The basis of education of all classes was the family. It was there that children got their first idea of the world, people, the structure of society; later they began to realize their place in it and prepare to enter adulthood in accordance with their purpose. The lower class - communal farmers - brought up patience, hard work, endurance, physical strength in children, taught them to cultivate the land and get a harvest. Craftsmen, cultivating the same qualities, taught children their craft, passing on their knowledge and skills by inheritance. Physical strength and endurance were the necessary qualities of the ancient Slavs of the lower classes. This is due to frequent raids by nomadic tribes. From early childhood, children were taught the correct behavior in such situations, and teenagers were taught the basics of self-defense. Such skills were passed on to children by their fathers. The role of the mother in the upbringing of children is reflected in folk proverbs and sayings, for example: "What is the uterus, such are the children." The word "mature" denoted especially skillful, experienced, dexterous and strong people. The word itself comes from the expression "raised by the mother."

In the families of peasants and artisans, children already from the age of 3-4 did what they could, helped with the housework. That is, children from an early age became members of the community, the tribe. The upbringing was imbued with the spirit of unity of the members of the tribe. Everyone had to obey his father, the head of the family, everyone had to be ready to sacrifice himself for the sake of saving a relative or the entire tribe. A person who grew up in such conditions knew how to work together, to aim his actions for the benefit of the community, to take care of his relatives. The values of the family were carefully guarded and guarded, and the results of the work of the community members were among such values. Such features of education are explained by the fact that a person of that time could not survive alone, he was part of a community whose efforts created the most favorable conditions for life. This is what determined the purpose of education and training, adults sought to educate the next generation in such a way as to preserve the established way of life, which seems to them the only possible way to survive in the environment. Thus, artisans taught children all the details of their profession, so that they could later earn a living from this. For the farmers, the means of survival was the cultivation of the land, which they taught their children. The heroes of fairy tales, epics and legends served as the ideals of education: Ivan the Peasant Son, Nikita Kozhemyaka and others. They were endowed with a strong character, will, diligence and perseverance. The hero-craftsman Nikita Kozhemyaka masterfully mastered his craft.

The upbringing of the upper classes - warriors and pagan priests differed significantly in content. The children of combatants were taught military affairs and the use of weapons, and the main thing for the nobility was the ability to manage the community. Priests in teaching their children focused on intellectual development. When raising children of the noble stratum of society, "feeding" or "nepotism" was practiced, that is, children up to 7-8 years of age were given to be raised in a strange family. This was dictated by the tradition of raising children in the family, preserved from the time of primitive communal education, and the families of the nobility led a different way of life, not adapted for raising children in the established view. From the age of 7, the child became an adolescent. From this age, the nature of upbringing also changed: girls, under the guidance of their mother, studied household chores, and boys became closer to their father, who, depending on the class, taught them family business.

Gridnitsa, where the sons of vigilantes studied from the age of 12, can be considered the prototype of modern schools. There they were trained in everything that might be needed in military affairs: possession of weapons, military affairs, physical development, hardening, etc.

Pagan culture played a significant role in the education of the Eastern Slavs. It was permeated with a magical perception of nature, rituals and was characterized by a large number of gods, each of which patronized a certain area of human activity or natural phenomena. The way of the world of the gods was presented to the Slavs in the form of a family, the main god was considered Svarog - the father of all the other gods, the rest were called Svarozhichs. Paganism contains many traditions and rituals, the meaning of which was largely associated with the influence of natural phenomena on the daily life of the Slavs. This helped the younger generation to better assimilate the time of sowing, harvesting, determine the approach of cold weather or rain, etc.

Numerous proverbs and sayings, rituals played a great role in the transfer of experience. So, for example, many rituals allowed children to learn the habits of animals and the correct reaction of the hunter to the actions of the animal. Ritual dances were composed on the principle of acting out scenes from the most frequent and vivid situations in the life of the people. Proverbs and sayings, being short and easy to remember expressions, made it easy to learn the basic instructions of the ancestors: "Hold on to the plow: she is the breadwinner", "Work and hands are reliable guarantees in people", etc. Folklore contained many poems and songs, which poetically spoke about the methods of agriculture, described the methods of handicraft work, etc. All this was a reliable and simple means of accumulating and transmitting the experience of ancestors to new generations.

55. Upbringing and education in the Middle Ages in Byzantium

Education in Byzantium developed under the influence of many cultures and movements. Greek culture had a significant impact, in particular, the main language of Byzantium was Greek, it was recognized by the state and the church. The Christian component of the education of Byzantium was in the Orthodox worldview. Education in Byzantium was considered the greatest value and was characterized by a fairly high level. Everyone could get an education, regardless of social status. Only educated people could hold public office. A distinctive feature of the Byzantine education system is its secularism, the church had no influence on the management and organization of the educational system. However, religion was an essential and integral part of the content of education, lessons at school began with prayer. The system of Byzantine education reached its greatest development during the reign of

Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (913-953). At this time, many new educational institutions are opening, various scientific literature of an encyclopedic nature is being created.

The role of the family in early education played a leading role. Parents brought up children according to Christian rules, taught counting and writing, and the most wealthy families hired special tutors who gave children a book education. Children entered school at the age of 5-7. The first stage school provided an elementary education: reading and writing, counting, as well as church singing. They wrote on paper with bird quills. Physical punishment was actively practiced. There was another type of elementary school, they taught exclusively religious subjects, studied the Bible. Especially religious parents were adherents of such education.

The next level schools are grammar schools. They could have a different legal basis and focus. They taught children from 10-12 to 16-17 years old. Education in schools of this level was optional and not always available. Since their main focus was in Constantinople. The bulk of the students were children of civil and church nobility.

At the beginning of the X century. the school usually had one teacher who was assisted by the students who achieved the best results. Then groups of teachers began to appear, led by a protemenos. Education was paid, although the income of teachers was negligible. The management of education and the organization of schools came from the emperor.

Education was aimed at mastering the "Hellenic science", which was considered a preparation for the study of higher philosophy. School subjects were divided into two quarters. The bulk of the students limited themselves to studying the subjects of the first quaternary: grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, and poetics. The second quaternary consisted of arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy. Literature was the main source of knowledge. Examinations were taken by older students, physical punishments were relied upon for poor progress.

The last, highest level of education were higher educational institutions. Each of which had its own focus and specifics of training and organization. In Constantinople in 425, under Emperor Theodosius II, a higher school was created - the Auditorium, later renamed Magnavra. This educational institution was under the absolute control of the emperor, the best teachers of the country were concentrated in it, who were organized by the most prominent scientist of his time, Leo the Mathematician. (IX century). In different periods, teaching was carried out either in Greek or in Latin. The school had a predominantly legal orientation, in addition, philosophy, including ancient philosophy, was studied in depth. Metaphysics, theology, medicine, music, history, ethics, and politics were studied in Magnavra.

In addition to Magnavra, there were four more higher schools in Constantinople, which were also under the jurisdiction of the emperor: legal, medical, philosophical, and patriarchal.

In Byzantium, there were special home academies called parlor circles. They, as a rule, arose in the houses of leading scientists, intellectuals, philosophers. The largest of them were the schools of Photius, Michael Psellos, Andronicus II Palaiologos.

Monastic higher schools are another type of educational institutions in Byzantium. They studied religion, grammar, philosophy in such schools. The source of study was the Bible, on the basis of its texts the content of all disciplines was built. The term of study at the monastery school was 3 years. A distinctive feature of them is the presence of a charter, which established the rules of training and behavior. The creation of the charter belongs to Fedor Studit.

During the XIII-XV centuries. enlightenment and pedagogical thought, having reached a high level, declined and eventually found themselves in a deep crisis. Their final death came as a result of the fall of Byzantium under the onslaught of the Turkish conquerors. However, Byzantine pedagogy had a huge impact on the development of education in the states of the East, Western and Eastern Europe.

56. Education and school in Western Europe in the early Middle Ages

Education and training in the early Middle Ages is characterized by a combination of pagan (barbarian), Christian and ancient traditions. Children received the basics of upbringing in the family, at an older age there is a differentiation of trainees by gender. The upbringing and education of girls is not diverse; under the guidance of their mother, they are trained in housekeeping and household arrangements. Family education was permeated with barbarian traditions. Most people were limited to just this kind of education.

The most organized forms of training were apprenticeships and knightly education. Apprenticeship predominated among the artisans. The boys were given to be brought up in the family of an artisan, who took 2-3 wards at the same time and taught them his craft. The tuition fee was the work of the student in the household, and later in the handicraft business. Such training lasted 7-8 years, after which the student moved to an apprentice, received a fee for this. Having mastered the craft to a sufficient extent, the former apprentice opened his own business. Literacy with this type of training was taught by the artisan himself, or allowed to attend the appropriate educational institution.

The children of secular feudal lords, after graduating from an ordinary school, where they taught literacy and arithmetic, were given to knightly education. Knightly education was costed according to the program of "seven knightly virtues", which included possession of a spear, fencing, horseback riding, swimming, hunting, playing chess, singing poems of one's own composition, playing a musical instrument. The priority direction of knightly education was training in military affairs. Moral education was based primarily on the superiority of knights over the lower classes, personal freedom, and ideas of sacrifice of heroism. The completion of knightly education was accompanied by knighthood, which took place when the young men reached the age of 21. The initiation rite consisted of blessing with a consecrated sword, and was accompanied by physical trials and knightly tournaments. The teachers were people from the yard servants.

After the collapse of the Roman Empire, the ancient schools of grammar and rhetoric still existed for some time. They were supported by the emperors and kings of many Western European states. By the XNUMXth century schools of the ancient type completely disappeared, the main reason for this was the disappearance of the ancient society itself due to constant wars and an ever-increasing number of church educational institutions. However, ancient culture was reflected in almost all aspects of the life of the population of Western Europe. Thus, the new church schools were in many ways the successors of ancient education, as evidenced by the compulsory study of Latin. The entire educated population of Western Europe actively used this language for communication and correspondence.

XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries characterized by a strong decline in education and schooling. The existing church schools experienced a serious shortage of students. The result was the illiteracy of the vast majority of people, including the nobility.

A significant role in the revival of education was played by the creator of a vast empire, Charlemagne (742-814), who organized an educational institution at the court, called the academy. The teachers of the school were monks invited from different countries of Europe. The main residence of the academy was the capital of the empire, Aachen, but the school constantly changed its location, traveling with the royal court. The students of the academy were mostly children of the upper classes. Students studied grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, logic, ethics, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and music. Charlemagne made the first attempts to introduce compulsory and free education. Understanding the importance of education for the state and its development, he encouraged the creation and development of church schools in every possible way, and sought to make education accessible to all strata of society. However, after the death of Charles

Great, everything he achieved in the field of education and schooling fell into decay, the academy ceased to exist, church schools weakened their positions, but still existed.

In early medieval Europe, there were two types of church schools: episcopal (cathedral) and monastic. The founder of the first monastic schools is considered Cassiodorus - the abbot of one of the monasteries. In addition, church schools were divided into internal, in which clergymen were trained, and external, where ordinary children of the upper classes were taught. Only boys and youths could study. Small church schools, where children aged 7-10 studied, provided an elementary education. Here one teacher taught all disciplines except singing. Church singing was taught by a cantor - a special teacher. Large schools that taught people from a small one gave a higher level of education. In addition to teachers, there was also a circulator in a large school - a special person who kept order and discipline.

Episcopal schools until the XNUMXth century were considered the main ones, later, under the influence of competition from the monastic schools and the raids of the Normans, they fell into decay. In the XNUMXth century, a whole network of episcopal schools arose again in France, the largest of which were in Soissons, Verdun, Reims, Chartres, and Paris.

Among the monastic schools, the monastic schools of the Benedictines, founded by the order of anchorites, enjoyed a special influence on the spiritual life and educational system. In the XNUMXth century, the Benedictines were accused of immorality, as a result of which the schools under their control fell into decay. Their place was taken by the Order of the Capuchins - the Franciscans and the Order of the Dominicans. During the period of their leadership in church schools, they studied mainly the Bible and theological literature. Physical education was non-existent. There were no vacations, but fun days were arranged for children, and church holidays were also days off. The methods of education were harsh and cruel. Physical punishments were supplemented by punishment cells and deprivation of food. The majority of church schools provided an elementary education. Schools with a higher level of education were few in number, they taught according to the program of the seven liberal arts.

In the XII-XV centuries. urban schools and universities appear. They provided predominantly secular education. Some of them were female. After graduating from school, a person received the title of cleric, which gave him the right to become a teacher or a clergyman. In such schools, children of the upper classes were taught literacy, numeracy, and Latin.

In the XNUMXth century, city schools appeared, transformed from student schools: guild and guild schools, as well as from counting schools for the lower social strata of society. The head of the school was the rector, who hired teachers from the clergy and university graduates for a fixed period. In urban schools, they begin to study, in addition to the basic subjects, arithmetic, elements of office work, geography, technology, and the natural sciences.

In the XVI-XV centuries. In France, colleges arose - a link between primary and higher education.

In the XI-XII centuries. the first universities emerged from church schools: the University of Paris (Sorbonne) (1200), in Naples (1224), Oxford (1206), Cambridge (1231), Lisbon (1290). The number of universities grew rapidly. Universities were established by ecclesiastical or secular authorities. Having received special documents - privileges signed by the Roman popes or royal persons, they acquired autonomy. Students were exempted from military service.

The main subject at the universities was theology, which was determined by great ecclesiastical influence. An important feature of the universities was the democratic, supranational nature of relations. People of all classes were admitted to the university. Many universities moved from place to place many times due to the outbreak of war and the rapidly spreading disease. In some universities, fraternities were formed on a national basis, later they were reborn into faculties or colleges. The heads of faculties and colleges were the ruling elite of the universities, they jointly chose the rector, who was often chosen from among the students for a while. Later, the rector began to be appointed by state or church authorities. Relationships between students and teachers were built according to the type of artisan - journeyman. Education started from 13-14 lei and lasted from 3 to 7 years. The curriculum was based on the principle of the seven liberal arts.

The emergence of universities gradually replaced scholasticism, which was degenerating into a "science of empty words." Universities gave rise to intellectual activity, served as an engine for the progress of science and technology, culture and art.

57. Education and pedagogical thought in the Renaissance in Western Europe

Renaissance period of the XV-XVII centuries. characterized by three levels of education: primary education, advanced and higher education.

Primary schools were completely under the authority of the church. Among them, there was competition between Protestant and Catholic schools. On the part of the Protestants, Luther and Calvin proclaimed the idea of universal elementary education of the children of the townspeople in the Catechism in their native language. There were separate schools for boys and girls, their activities were regulated by special documents. The Catholics, in turn, created the Catechism of the Council, adopted by the Council of Trent. This document spoke of the widespread opening of Catholic educational institutions for the lower strata of the population and the nobility. In Catholic and Protestant primary schools, in addition to religious foundations, they studied reading, writing, counting, church singing.

Teachers were appointed by the church and paid in cash or in kind from the community. The social status of the teacher was very low, and his professionalism often did not correspond to his duties. Physical education in elementary schools was absent altogether. Physical punishment was frequent and cruel. The methods and means of teaching have changed. The language is taught, starting with sounds and letters, written with pens, a school board appears, the score is kept using Arabic numerals. The first textbooks for students appear, less complex and voluminous in content than teachers' books.

The development of primary education was slow, largely due to constant wars.

Educational institutions of a higher type arose on the basis of city and church schools. These include city schools of a new type (Latin), gymnasiums, grammar and public schools, colleges, schools of Hieronymites, noble (palace) schools, and Jesuit schools. A significant difference between Renaissance schools and medieval educational institutions was a more secular organization and management. The influence of the church was limited to the religious foundations of education. The teachers of the Reformation played a significant role in the modification of schools of higher education. M. Luther created in Eisleben in 1527 the lower and higher Latin schools. The program of such Protestant schools consisted of the "school catechism", church singing, Latin grammar and literature, as well as the study of the writings of ancient Greek authors. Often there were conversations on various topics related to everyday practical activities, both personal and professional. Mysteries were practiced in urban schools - theatrical performances based on classical texts by Greek and national authors. This testifies to the growing role of aesthetic education and the cultural level of students.

Gymnasiums - educational institutions for the most capable students who graduated from the lower and upper city schools. Gymnasiums first appeared in Germany and were founded by F. Melanchthon. Many city schools were converted into gymnasiums. They were taught in Latin. The curriculum included dialectics and rhetoric, students learned to compose Latin verses. A significant step in the development of humanistic education was the opening of a gymnasium in Strasbourg by I. Shturman (1537). The main subjects were literature and classical languages.

Grammar and public schools arose in England in the late XNUMXth and early XNUMXth centuries. education in such schools was quite expensive, so they were available only to the social elite of society.

Colleges are higher education institutions that first appeared in France in the XNUMXth century. Initially, colleges arose at the faculties of universities, later they acquired autonomy. The program of study in colleges corresponded to the program of the faculties under which they arose. The most common subjects include Latin literature and the Latin language, native language, and mathematics.

Hieronymite schools were founded by Hieronymite religious communities. They had a humanistic orientation, were characterized by a combination of religious and secular education, were accessible to all strata of society. Much attention in such schools was paid to diligence and cooperation. The training lasted 6-8 years. Hieronymite schools became widespread in a number of Western European states: Germany, France, the Netherlands, and others.

Palace schools - educational institutions for the children of the nobility - were few in number. The training program was expanded, the main direction was intellectual development. At the same time, physical education was of no small importance. Children practiced horseback riding, archery, fencing, etc. Palace schools combined the ideas of humanism and chivalry. The school monitored the observance of discipline, personal hygiene, encouraged the aspirations of students for self-improvement. Boys and girls are learning together for the first time in history. The largest palace school was the "House of Happiness" in Mantua, which was headed by V. de Feltre. The main idea of the upbringing and education of this school was the desire for the harmonious development of "body, mind and heart."

In the XVI-XVII centuries. Jesuit schools became widespread. They were founded by the Jesuit order in order to gain influence on the social and political life of Europe. Education was mostly free. Training and education was well thought out and organized. All educational institutions of the Jesuits were subordinate to a single control center, where control over the activities of schools was periodically carried out, which was regulated by special documents. Many Jesuit schools were organized as boarding schools, which is explained by the very purpose of creating schools of this order: to separate children from their parents and completely subordinate them to the order. The attitude towards the students was filled with concern for health, good nutrition and rest. The curriculum included Latin and Greek, ancient literature, catachesis in Latin, history (mostly ancient), mathematics, geography, natural science, and physical development. Repetition and competition stood out among the teaching methods.

Higher education during the Renaissance was further developed and even more widespread. The number of students is growing rapidly. In the 80th century there were 180 universities in Europe, and in the XNUMXth century there were already XNUMX. The majority of universities are under the control of the Catholic Church. Jesuits and Protestants open their own higher educational institutions with their own program and organizational features. For example, the program of the Jesuit University consisted of two cycles: a three-year philosophical and a four-year theological. Protestant universities were the first bastions of the Reformation. The English University of Cambridge became the center of influence of the Reformation on the education system. As a result, higher education became available to the third estate. The curriculum is also changing, now a number of universities pay great attention to culture and art. The study of history and geography is becoming more scientific, using globes and maps.

A striking example of a higher educational institution that embodied the ideas of the Renaissance is the University of Strasbourg (1621).

58. Education and training in Kievan Rus and the Russian state (until the XNUMXth century)

Education and training of Kievan Rus X-XIII centuries. characterized by a mixture of pagan and Christian traditions. The first steps in book learning were taken by the Bulgarians who found themselves in Kyiv as a result of the conquest of Bulgaria by Byzantium. Byzantium had a significant impact on the culture and content of education in Russia. This is explained by the origin of Christianity in Kievan Rus from Byzantium. Byzantine books were used as educational books, for example, the teachings of John Chrysostom (344-407). The origin of education in Kievan Rus was predetermined by the emergence of cities and state institutions. Education contained mainly religious directions. The main way of upbringing is to imitate the father, which reflects the patriarchal-tribal nature of relations in society. Confirmation of this can be found in the work "Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh to children" (1096).

In the X-XI centuries. writing penetrated into all segments of the population. The level of education in Kievan Rus was about the same as in Western Europe of the same period. The high level of education in Kievan Rus is evidenced by a large number of manuscripts, amounting to approximately 140 books. The content of book works makes it possible to judge the high morality of the Russian people.

Children received elementary education in the family, which was also assigned the educational function. Children from the wealthiest families were taught by specially invited teachers-priests. The church exercised control over family education. Later, primary education was carried out by the so-called literacy masters, who taught children of all classes. It contained the basics of literacy and arithmetic.

Schools in Kievan Rus appeared at churches where there was a shortage of literate clergy. The first such "school of book learning" opened in Kyiv in 988 under Prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich. From that moment on, the development of book learning proceeded at a rapid pace, despite the negative attitude towards it of the broad masses of the population, who were accustomed to traditional family education. The first school opened by Prince Vladimir was already an educational institution of an advanced type, since it assumed that students had elementary literacy. Princes and princesses - descendants of Vladimir - continued his work, opening new churches and schools with them. In 1089, even a women's school was opened, where girls learned to read, sing and various crafts. Schools taught book making, copying, illustration, and binding.

Initially, schools arose in large cities - Kyiv and Novgorod, later in Suzdal, Pereyaslavl, Chernigov, Polotsk, Murom, Vladimir, and others. Education was paid. Only children of the upper classes could study.

Education in the Russian state of the XIV-XVI centuries. was in severe decline. This is due to the constant defensive wars against the raids of the Mongol-Tatars. For the same reason, Russia found itself in cultural isolation, which also had a negative effect on the development of Slavic culture. The Mongol-Tatar yoke had a significant impact on the ideology of the Russian people. In particular, elements of cruelty, violence arose, people began to be perceived as a lower being. Subsequently, an active policy was pursued in Moscow to eradicate such views.

The only places where books and education still existed were the monasteries. They were exempted from paying duties and tribute to the Horde, therefore they had relative independence and had the opportunity to carry out various kinds of cultural activities. Including in the field of education. In the XIV-XV centuries. Heretics - Strigolniki made attempts to revive the schools of book teaching in Novgorod and Pskov, but the official church imposed a ban on such actions.

The pedagogical activity of the Russian state was expressed, first of all, in a special attitude to the upbringing of the new generation. Children were taught to be honest, fair, hardworking, take care of their own and others' work, brought up in children kindness and care for others. However, the methods of education were harsh: physical punishments, all kinds of hardships were often and everywhere used, special attention was paid to maintaining strict discipline. One of the areas of education was patriotism, which is explained by the long-term struggle of the Russian people for independence from the Mongol-Tatars.

Until the end of the XVI century. family education prevailed, sometimes with the involvement of mentors, who were parish priests and monk scribes. Such upbringing was not limited to the national. Pedagogical figures of that time, Ivan Fedorov, Fedor Rtishchev, Epiphanius Slavinetsky and others were actively interested in and mastered the experience of education in Byzantium and Western Europe. The general level of education in Moscow Rus was low, many mentors were semi-literate, although they were the most educated part of the population. The education of the Western European model was denied by the official authorities because of the fear of the penetration of Catholicism through the educational system into the Russian state. However, with the inclusion of the Muscovite state in the political and economic life of Europe in the 1530th century, an urgent need arose for European-literate people. The diplomatic language of that time was Latin, which was sharply rejected by the Orthodox Church. Nevertheless, attempts to introduce a Western-style education system were periodically made, including by Russian tsars Ivan the Terrible (1584-1552) and Boris Godunov (circa 1605-XNUMX).

At the end of the XNUMXth century, the first Western European school was opened in Moscow at the Lutheran Church of the German Quarter. It taught children of the upper classes. Around the same time, literacy schools were opened at monasteries and in the houses of the clergy. Only boys could study there. The sources of learning were handwritten books, later printed books appeared - alphabets. By the end of the XVI century. education becomes available not only to the nobility and clergy, but also to the wealthiest urban families.

In the XNUMXth century, society begins to realize its illiteracy and the negligible level of education of the upper social strata. There comes an understanding that it is necessary to resort to the help of Western teachers to raise the level of education in the state. Thus, in the second half of the XVII century. four pedagogical directions were determined: "Latinophile", Byzantine-Russian, Slavic-Greek-Latin, Old Believer-trained.

Simeon of Polotsk - a supporter and engine of the "Latinophile" approach to education and upbringing - he considered the training provided in Latin, Greek and native languages to be full-fledged.

Habakkuk - the founder of the Old Believer-pedigree direction, on the contrary, condemned the study of the Latin and Greek languages, and also rejected the priority of secular sciences in education.

Epiphanius Slavinetsky (Byzantine-Russian pedagogy) sought to combine these two completely opposite views, emphasizing the importance of both.

In the second half of the XVII century. educational institutions of an increased type appear, the program of which is much closer to that of Western Europe. Latin and Greek are beginning to be studied in many families. Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1629-1676) was the first to start teaching children the Latin language as part of family education. The Latin language was characteristic mainly of the secular population, the Greek was studied by the clergy.

Private schools with Greek-Latin education begin to open. One of the first such schools was the school at the Miracle Monastery in Moscow, opened by Arseny the Greek in 1649. The German school practiced free education and independence from the class of students. F. M. Rtishchev opened a school at the Andreevsky Monastery, headed by Epiphanius Slavinetsky, and the Sami Rtishchev became a student of this school. Simeon of Polotsk founded a school at the Spassky Monastery.

The first state school of advanced education was founded in Moscow in 1681 on the initiative of Fyodor Alekseevich. It was called the Printing School. The school was the scene of controversy between supporters of the Latin and Greek languages. The first considered it necessary to study Latin as a way of introducing Western European education and culture. Supporters of the study of the Greek language considered Latin to be a translator of heretical knowledge that contradicted Orthodoxy. An alternative to the Printing School was the school of the Epiphany Monastery, opened by the brothers Ioannikius and Sofroniy Likhud. Greek, Latin and Italian were studied here. In 1687, the school of the Likhud brothers was transformed into the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy and housed in a specially built building. At that time there were about 80 students in it. Grammar, rhetoric, logic, physics, dialectics, philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, Greek and other secular sciences were studied at the academy. The academy contained a preparatory class and eight classrooms. The training lasted 15-20 years. During the flourishing period of the academy, textbooks were created on various subjects in Greek and Latin. After the removal of the Likhud brothers from the affairs of the academy as a result of the intrigues of opponents of the Latin-Greek education, the teaching of Latin was temporarily stopped. The Academy was the only educational institution of advanced education, it had a significant impact on the spread of Western European culture in the Russian state. However, the study of secular sciences was gradually reduced to a minimum, preference was often given to scholasticism, long rejected in Europe.

In general, at the turn of the XVII-XVIII centuries. there was a trend towards the development of education on the Western model and the emergence of new educational institutions.

59. Education and pedagogical thought in Western Europe and the USA in the XNUMXth century

In the XNUMXth century education is beginning to be seen as a factor in national development. New issues related to the educational system were identified: the social role and functions of education, the introduction of the principles of universal, compulsory and secular education, the relationship between educational institutions of different levels of education. the role of the state in the organization and management of schools is increasing. Church influence was gradually losing ground. In many European countries and the United States, state school legislation has arisen that, to one degree or another, increases state control over educational institutions. Special structural elements of power arose to regulate the education system in the state, for example, the Ministry of Education in France, the Department of Education in England, the Bureau of Education in the United States. Funding and subsidizing schools, material assistance and support for students were introduced, tuition fees were regulated by special state bodies. In general, the reform of the school education system was slow and difficult. In fact, many laws did not work, but were only a formal side of the matter. One of the main impediments to the reforms was the lack of funding for schools.

There are two main trends in the management of school education in Western Europe: centralization and decentralization. In France and Prussia, centralized organization and management of schools prevailed. All school staff were appointed by the Ministry of Education and were considered civil servants reporting directly to the Minister of Education. School management was strictly regulated by the authorities. The Prussian leadership assigned a special role to maintaining discipline. In France, fearing the emergence of organized protests by students and school teachers, they constantly mixed the composition of schools. French educational institutions were divided into 16 pedagogical districts - academies, which were managed by rectors who were subordinate to the Minister of Education. Both in that and in other state the constant policy directed on increase of authority of the Ministry of Education was carried out.

In England and the USA, on the contrary, the management of the education system was observed according to the system of decentralization. The Department of Education in England was empowered to regulate and coordinate the activities of local governments. Each educational institution had its own charter and distinctive features.

The decentralization of school government in the United States was manifested in its own school governments in each state. Within the states, there were also school districts headed by a quartermaster - the head of the district. His authority included educational, financial, organizational and personnel issues related to educational institutions, the districts, in turn, were subordinate to the state authorities.

During the period under review, private schools existed in all Western countries and the United States. In France and Prussia, they were subject to centralized authority and were subjected to strict bureaucratic control.

In England and the USA, on the contrary, a large scope was opened for private school activities. For example, in England, an educational institution could be opened by anyone with sufficient funds. At the same time, even pedagogical education or training of the founders was not required. Many private schools in England and the USA were opened with the support of communities and charitable organizations. The church played a significant role in the organization and content of school education and training. This is especially true for private schools, many of which were opened at churches.

The role of the church and religion in the school education of various European states was different and not always unambiguous. In England, religion was not a mandatory element of the content of education, but almost all schools practiced religious education, and in some of them it was allowed to choose a religion.

In Prussia from 1810 to 1817. the authorities tried to adhere to the secularism of education, and constant control was exercised over the non-interference of the church. However, in the 1840s. the situation is changing, the role of the church is increasing up to the appointment of teachers for it. The year 1848 is characterized by a new round of strengthening secular power in the education system, children are admitted to school regardless of their religious orientation. The constitution of 1850, issued after the revolution, again proclaims the rights of the church to participate in the organization and management of schools. Now the clergy could be teachers, the teaching of religion is resumed in schools.

Approximately the same situation is observed in France throughout the XIX century. However, there was a gradual approach to the secular nature of education.

The imperfection of the education system of the XNUMXth century is manifested in dualism, that is, primary and secondary schools were not connected. Primary education could be obtained by almost any segment of the population, while secondary education was available to a few due to high fees. Primary and secondary school programs were not harmonized, so secondary education was not a logical continuation of primary education. In many countries of Western Europe and in the United States, attempts were made to rectify the situation, but they were unsuccessful.

Laws on compulsory free education begin to be issued: in Prussia - 1794, in the USA - 1850s, in England - 1870, in France - 1880s.

The curricula of schools in Western Europe and the United States largely coincided. For example, reading, writing, and arithmetic were studied everywhere; religion was present to one degree or another in the content of education. In addition, in England, boys were taught drawing, and girls were taught sewing, knitting and other needlework. Singing, geography, natural science and history were taught in Prussia. In France, since 1850, there was an opportunity to study history. Geography, natural science and agricultural labor. And the programs of 1867 and 1868. provided for the study of the basics of physics, chemistry, drawing, drawing and singing. US schools offered training in manual labor.

In the XNUMXth century, higher primary schools arose in the United States and Western countries, which contributed to an increase in the level of education of the general population. The programs of higher primary schools have been expanded in comparison with the usual ones. And in some countries education in them was free. The program of English higher schools contained, in addition to elementary subjects, mathematics, physics, Latin, and French. In Germany, they taught law, office work and accounting.

The general growth of the educational system was observed throughout the West, in the USA and Prussia it was the fastest, in France and England it was slower. The bulk of the population of these states was literate.

The system of secondary education developed in the upper social strata of society in Western Europe and the United States. In England, schools of secondary education were grammar schools. They were divided into several types. Public schools were created for the top of society and had the character of boarding houses. Initially, they had a system of classical education, later natural sciences were added. Weekly schools formed a significant part of the grammar schools. It combined classical and modern education with an emphasis on the latter.

In Prussia, there were two types of schools of secondary education: the gymnasium and the city school (real school). Gymnasiums gave preference to classical education, city schools were distinguished by an intensive study of modern sciences: mathematics, physics, history, French, drawing, singing, gymnastics. In 1859, three types of educational institutions of an average level of education were established: a neoclassical gymnasium, a real school, and a mixed school.

In Prussia, for the first time, public institutions for women's secondary education were opened. The first such school was opened in Berlin in 1810. Women's secondary education has already passed the well-known path of development from the classical direction through the strengthening of the positions of modern education to the establishment of mixed-type schools.

Secondary education in France was received in lyceums and colleges. The program of both was based on classical education. In 1852, the course of secondary education is divided into three stages: elementary, grammatical and higher. At the end of the educational institution, exams for a bachelor's degree were taken. As in Prussia, in France in the 1880s. public secondary schools are emerging.

In the United States in the XNUMXth century, the main type of educational institution of secondary education was the academy. Academies are characterized by the priority of modern education. The programs of individual academies had differences in content. The duration of training could be different. In the middle of the XNUMXth century, higher additional educational institutions appeared, gradually replacing the academies.

60. School and Pedagogy in Russia in the XNUMXth century

History of Pedagogy in Russia in the XNUMXth century. divided into two periods: the first and second half of the century. The first period is characterized by reforms in the field of education and upbringing, there is a tendency for the development of the education system according to the pan-European type. Class society is being replaced by civil society, which made education more accessible to the general population. The political and economic systems are undergoing significant changes, and therefore there is an urgent need for educated people. Man is increasingly perceived as a separate person.

In the period of the late XVII - early XVIII centuries. there is a turn to the school and pedagogy of the New Age. Public schools provide knowledge in modern sciences, while they differ in their own specialization. One of the schools created by Peter I was called the school of mathematical and navigational sciences. Her curriculum included arithmetic, geometry, trigonometry, navigation, astronomy, and mathematical geography. The discipline was strict, for example. There was a death penalty for running away from school. In 1715, on the basis of the senior classes of the navigation school in St. Petersburg, the Naval Academy was organized, which is a military educational institution. In Moscow in 1712, an engineering and artillery school was opened, and in 1707 a surgical school, and in 1721 mining schools were created at Siberian factories. An advanced school with intensive study of foreign languages (Greek, Latin, Italian, French, German, Swedish) was opened in 1705, led by pastor Ernst Gluck. However, by 1716 the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy was the only school with higher education.

In 1714, a decree was issued obliging the children of the nobility, clerks and clerks to elementary education. To fulfill these obligations, elementary mathematical schools were created - digital schools. Schools of this type met with active resistance from the parents of potential students, who preferred bishops' schools. By 1744, the digital schools had ceased to exist. Bishop's schools were distinguished by a combination of religious and secular education. The activities of such schools were determined by the "Spiritual Regulations". In addition, the Regulations prescribe the opening of various educational institutions for the clergy, such as academies with seminaries. In them, the students had to live permanently and at first without a way out.

In Russia at the beginning of the XNUMXth century training was in Russian. The Russian alphabet was improved, a comparative analysis of the Slavic, Greek and Latin languages was carried out. New textbooks were created on various school subjects in Russian.

A feature of the pedagogical development of this period are the reforms of Peter I in the field of education, associated with an increase in the role of the state not only in education, but also in education. The dissatisfaction of the people with these reforms was brutally suppressed. In the course of Peter's reforms, educational institutions of a new type were created. One of them was the Academy of Sciences, which became an important scientific and educational center of the state. The academy included a university and a gymnasium. An educational institution of a closed type was opened - the cadet corps. In 1759, under Empress Elizabeth, an elite educational institution was created - the Corps of Pages in St. Petersburg. The state sought to increase the level of education of the nobility, which ultimately led to the realization of the need for education by the bulk of the upper class. Active figures in this direction were Fyodor Saltykov, who developed a plan for the creation of academies in each province, Vasily Nikitich Tatishchev, who opened several mining schools, Feofan Prokopovich, an ardent supporter of secular education on the European model, Ivan Tikhonovich Pososhkov, a supporter of classical education and at the same time Peter's reforms. The figures of the Russian Enlightenment can also be attributed to the German scientist and philosopher G. W. Leibniz, who developed his own school reform project, characterized by a practical orientation of education. Of particular importance in the development of Russian education and pedagogy in general is the Russian scientist and encyclopedist Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (1711-1765). He was the first to give lectures to students in Russian, insisted on the scientific nature of teaching. Adhered to the positions of conscious, visual, consistent and systematic learning. M. V. Lomonosov was one of the initiators of the creation of Moscow University and determined its intellectual basis, as well as the direction of development.

The second half of the XNUMXth century is characterized by an increased interest in education. This was largely determined by the reign of Catherine II - a European-educated person. During this period, there are heated debates and discussions on pedagogical topics, there are many essays with arguments on the topics of education and training. In general, there is a predominance of a tendency towards the importance of public education, embarking on the path of European education while preserving Russian traditions.

The prestige of the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy is losing its prestige, offering a classical education, and, therefore, irrelevant in the conditions of the period under review.

Moscow University in its activities largely relied on the needs of the nobility in Western European education and familiarization with the cultural achievements of Europe. The craving of the elite of society for culture and art undermines the mechanism of systematic scientific education of Moscow and St. Petersburg universities. The number of students was sharply reduced, professors lost interest in teaching. For the revival of the university and the establishment of the pedagogical process, foreign and domestic scientists were invited in it. They created and translated into Russian teaching aids, textbooks in many subjects. During this period, the harmonious development of the personality becomes important, which includes physical, intellectual and moral education and improvement.

In 1766, a charter was issued that modernized the curriculum of the cadet corps, now it was divided into three parts: the sciences that guide the knowledge of subjects needed by the civil rank; useful or artistic sciences; sciences "leading to the knowledge of other arts."

Many noble families sent their children to private schools, the higher nobility preferred to raise their children at home with the involvement of tutors.

At the beginning of her reign, Catherine was keenly interested in the pedagogical achievements of various states, pursued an active policy of developing and expanding education in Russia. In 1763, Ivan Ivanovich Betsky (1704-1795) became her chief educational adviser. Betsky created many works on pedagogical topics and contributed to the opening of many educational institutions for boys and girls, including the first female educational institution of secondary education - the Smolny Institute. The program of the institute differed from the program for boys with additional courses in home economics and civility.

There were numerous attempts to develop education for the lower classes in rural and urban areas. However, due to lack of funds, they were unsuccessful.

Created by Catherine in 1782, the "Commission for the Establishment of Public Schools", designed to work to improve the general level of education in Russia, published in 1786 the "Charter of the Public Schools of the Russian Empire." According to this document, small and main public schools began to open in the cities. Small schools were schools of elementary basic education, the main ones offered the study of sciences, including pedagogy.

By the end of her life, Catherine became more concerned about state political issues, the outstanding Russian educators Nikolai Ivanovich Novikov (1744-1818) and Alexander Nikolayevich Radishchev (1749-1802) became victims of such priorities. For the same reason, many educational institutions have lost their positions.

61. School and Pedagogy in Russia until the 90s. XNUMXth century

At the beginning of the XIX century. a national secularized education system is being formed. During this period, the quality of education is noticeably improved. Quantitative development is hampered by the growing social crisis, which is expressed in feudal relations, a strong class stratification, and traditions of education and upbringing. As a result of all this, an intellectual elite is being formed, consisting mainly of university students. Among the intellectual elite of society, getting an education was perceived as an integral part of the formation of a socially adequate human personality.

The reorganization of society, including in the educational sphere, is taken care of by the 1830s. a new social group - raznochintsy. Between 1830 and 1860 There were two directions in the development of education: official, built on authoritarianism, nationalism, clericalism, and democratic.

The beginning of the 1801th century in Russia is associated with the reign of Alexander I (1825-1802). This period began with the stage of reforming the school system in the spirit of the Enlightenment. In 2, the Ministry of Public Education was created. The reform lasted 1803 years. Two documents were created that regulated the implementation of reforms: the Preliminary Rules of Public Education (1804) and the Charter of Educational Institutions Subordinated to Universities (XNUMX). Four levels of education were defined: parish schools, county schools, gymnasiums and universities. An important consequence of the reformation was the emergence of new universities in Kazan, Kharkov and St. Petersburg.

State educational institutions were in strong competition with private ones, the creation and development of which was actively supported by the Decembrists.

There were boarding houses intended for the children of the nobility, but they provided a rather low level of education and had a weak organization. The elite of society still preferred homeschooling. Teachers were hired from French emigrants, who, in addition to languages, taught the basics of all sciences. The quality of such education was negligible.

Alexander Nikolayevich Golitsyn (1773-1844) played a significant role in the development of the school business, since 1812 he became the first head of the Russian Bible Society, and in 1816 he headed the Ministry of Education.

Further, until the end of the first quarter of the XIX century. century, an active policy was carried out against secular education.

1825-1855 reign of Nicholas I. The new king sought to subordinate education to the goal of strengthening the stability of society. He appointed Count Lieven as Minister of Education, under which the Charter on Primary and Secondary Schools was adopted (1828). According to the charter, the four-level system of education acquired a class character. The first level of educational institutions was intended for the lower social strata, the second level - for the urban working population, the third - for the upper class. Only the fourth stage - universities - was available to people of any class. In 1833 S. S. Uvarov became the Minister of Education. His principles in the field of transforming education: Orthodoxy, autocracy and nationality. "Orthodoxy and autocracy - the principles that met the interests of the state policy of that time, nationality involves the use of European experience in the education system, adapted to national characteristics and taking into account the traditions of the Russian people. The second quarter of the XNUMXth century characterized by the desire of the state to establish absolute control over educational institutions of all types, especially universities.Tuition fees at universities increased, this was done in order to prevent access to the university for the poor. institutions of all types and levels Classical education begins to predominate.

Second half of the XNUMXth century associated with the abolition of serfdom, which contributed to the development of education and pedagogy in Russia. During this period, the ideas of national and universal education, the scientific nature of education arise and develop, education moves from classical to modern. Interest in the person as a separate person is growing. Improvement of life and the environment is seen as a necessary condition for improving the quality of education.

In November 1855, new rules for admission and study at universities were adopted, opening up the possibility of education to a wider mass of the population. The university charter of 1863 expanded the rights of universities to autonomy. In 1864, the charter of secondary schools was adopted, eliminating class differences between students. The same charter regulated the opening of gymnasiums for classical and modern education. The training involved a 7-year course of study. In total, three types of gymnasiums were established: a classical gymnasium with two ancient languages, a classical gymnasium with Latin, a real gymnasium without ancient languages. A new level of education arose - incomplete secondary, it was carried out in progymnasiums of the classical or modern type in 4 years. According to the charter, county schools were supposed to be transformed into progymnasiums or parochial elementary schools.

Another statute concerning educational reforms was adopted in July 1864 and dealt with elementary education. Primary schools became available to all segments of the population, religious knowledge was declared the basis of education. Primary schools could now have self-government bodies: the county school council was subordinate to the provincial school council. An important point of the reforms was the abolition of corporal punishment. The possibility of opening private educational institutions is being created. Attempts are being made to create the first public schools of a new type, corresponding to modern pedagogical principles and human ideals.

In 1866, reforms in the social sphere and education were interrupted due to an unsuccessful assassination attempt on Alexander II. D. A. Tolstoy became the new minister. He reduced the autonomy of universities, sought to increase the role of the state in the management and leadership of the education sector, secondary education must necessarily include the study of ancient languages. The number of women's higher educational institutions has increased.

In 1880-1881. the new minister of education, A. Saburov, tried to revive the reforms of the 1860s, but after the assassination of Alexander II, the post of minister was taken by I. D. Delyanov, an associate of Tolstoy, who until 1899 pursued a policy opposite to the reforms. His activities included the repression of students, the abolition of the autonomy of universities (the university charter of 1882). Students actively and in an organized manner protested, created community groups that stood for the democratization of universities.

A significant figure in the new policy regarding educational institutions was the mentor of Nicholas II and Alexander III, the head of the Holy Synod K. P. Pobedonostsev. The main direction of his activity was discrimination of the lower strata of the population. The tuition fees in classical gymnasiums increased greatly, thanks to which the bulk of the children of peasants and working townspeople went to study in real gymnasiums.

The number of parochial schools is growing. The training program in them is characterized by meager content: church singing, reading religious texts, written and oral Russian, and arithmetic. S. A. Rachinsky (1833-1902) made a great contribution to the development and improvement of parochial schools for peasant children.

62. School and pedagogy in Russia in the late XIX and early XX centuries. (until 1917)

The period of the late XIX - early XX centuries. characterized by significant changes in pedagogy and school organization in Russia. The introduction of compulsory universal primary education was planned. Politics played a huge role in the transformation of the educational system. Liberal parties and pedagogical organizations made great efforts to create an extensive program of democratic school reforms, which was adopted at the congresses on public education in 1908-1913. According to this program, appropriations for the school were to be increased, the system of local self-government was to be strengthened, the continuity of the stages of education was to be observed, the equality of male and female education was to be carried out, in addition, primary education was to become compulsory and free. Similar programs were put forward by other parties and public organizations. The program of the RSDLP, headed by its most influential leader V. I. Lenin, proclaimed the independence of the school from the church, education in the native language, universal free compulsory education up to 16 years. The overthrow of the autocracy was declared as a necessary condition for achieving the points of the program. The question of universal primary education was first raised in 1890. In 1895, at the Second Congress on Technical and Vocational Education, this question was again discussed. In the 1900s The Ministry of Education proposes projects for the organization of universal education. reforms in this direction were interrupted due to the outbreak of the Japanese war and subsequent revolutionary events.

The discrepancy between the required modern society and the existing level of education of the population was constantly growing. In 1906, the First State Duma adopted a bill on the introduction of universal primary education within 10 years, which was suppressed by the State Council. The II State Duma again made attempts to carry out a project on the introduction of universal primary education in the Russian Empire, which involved additional appropriations for the implementation of this project. However, the amounts allocated by the state were insufficient. The III State Duma again raises this issue in 1909-1911. The resulting bill of 1911 provided for the development of curricula for cities and zemstvos, taking into account their regional characteristics, increasing the influence of local governments, improving the social status of teachers and their remuneration. This bill met with resistance from religious leaders and supporters of parochial schools. The last time in the period under review, the project of universal primary education was put forward by Pavel Nikolaevich Ignatiev in 1916. It provided for 4 years of education in a public school or 3 years in a gymnasium. The implementation of this project was interrupted by the revolution in February 1917.

During the 1890s - 1900s. the education system was replenished with a large number of primary schools. At first, the growth of parochial schools occurred at the most rapid pace, after 1895, secular education begins to predominate. In many schools, the terms of study are increasing up to 5-6 years. In 1912, higher primary schools appeared, which became the next step after the elementary school. There was an urgent need for qualified teaching staff. In this regard, there are training courses for teachers, teachers' institutes and seminaries, non-governmental higher pedagogical educational institutions. There are private experimental educational institutions, which are representatives of the new organization of primary education. Among them is the House of the Free Child, opened in Moscow in 1906. Here they tried to create a favorable psychological atmosphere, to teach children basic knowledge and the basics of labor and creative activity. Practiced joint work of children, parents and teachers. There was a system of school self-government.

"Suttlement" - a school created by A. U. Zelenko and S. T. Shatsky, later called "Children's Labor and Recreation" had a program. In which an important place was occupied by labor and social education in conjunction with primary education.

Despite a noticeable improvement in the situation in the Russian education system, its development was slow, and part of the population remained illiterate.

Secondary education did not remain aloof from the transformations. The number of students in gymnasiums, progymnasiums and real schools increased, as did the number of educational institutions themselves. Secondary education was also provided by cadet corps, private secondary schools, commercial schools and secondary technical schools for boys.

Classical secondary education caused more and more dissatisfaction on the part of the authorities and society. In this regard, a commission was created to eliminate the shortcomings of secondary education (1899-1900), which put forward the following proposals: to create pedagogical courses at universities to train secondary school teachers; improve the financial situation of secondary school teachers; to keep gymnasiums and real schools as the main types of secondary educational institutions; to strengthen moral, national and physical education; reduce the amount of study in the gymnasium of Latin and Greek; raise the status of real schools; facilitate the transition from a gymnasium to a real school and vice versa. In fact, only some of the items were implemented. The commission for secondary school in 1901 under the leadership of the Minister of Education P. S. Vannovsky provided for the strengthening of modern education, the merger of the gymnasium and the real school, and the strengthening of physical, aesthetic and labor education. Most of what was planned by this commission was carried out.

Further transformation of secondary education took place under the leadership of the Minister of Education P.N. The plan failed due to the removal of Ignatiev from the post of minister.

Between 1908 and 1914 secondary education came under pressure from the reactionaries: school self-government was curtailed, state control was strengthened.

At the beginning of the XNUMXth century, experimental educational institutions arose on the model of "Western schools". They contributed to the revival of the educational system of the middle level. Pilot schools of secondary education appeared, introducing a collaborative system of education, school self-government. In Moscow, non-traditional educational institutions appeared, where new pedagogical technologies borrowed from Western European experience were developed and applied. Rural gymnasiums were opened, taking into account the need for an agricultural orientation in the curriculum.

An important innovation in primary and secondary education was vocational and technical training. In elementary school, this innovation manifested itself in the form of manual labor lessons. In the field of secondary education, trade and lower technical schools were opened. Before the outbreak of the First World War, vocational and technical training was firmly established in the secondary education system.

In the system of higher education, there have been mainly quantitative changes. The number of students and the proportion of women among them has increased significantly. Universities were opened in many provinces, including Saratov. On the other hand, due to political contradictions regarding the organization of higher education, scholarships were cut, and the autonomy of universities was almost abolished. All these and other changes caused unrest among the students, which were fully manifested in the revolution of 1905. As a result, the Provisional Rules were adopted, according to which universities and students received the required rights and freedoms. However, the reaction of 1908 plunged the university environment into even greater hardships and prohibitions. Student protests were harshly suppressed, mass arrests and deportations from Moscow were carried out.

The situation was corrected by the Provisional Government of 1917 by starting the democratization of the universities.

The beginning of the First World War led to a crisis in the educational system of Russia.

63. Foreign school and pedagogy in the first half of the XNUMXth century

In the first half of the XX century. there is a significant shift in the development of pedagogical science and schools around the world. The education system has undergone qualitative and quantitative changes in order to bring the level of education of society closer to the achievements in science, technology and culture of the time in question. In many ways, the approach to training and education has changed, it began to have a more humanistic orientation. Herbartianism and Spencerianism were rejected. The role of the teacher in the educational process increased. At the beginning of the XX century. traditional and new or reformist pedagogy enters the struggle. Traditional pedagogy considered the educational process from the standpoint of religion, philosophy and social difference. The new pedagogy assigned a decisive role to individual personality traits, including congenital ones. The pedagogical directions of reformist pedagogy contain the ideas of free education, experimental pedagogy, pragmatist pedagogy, personality pedagogy, functional pedagogy, education through art, labor training and education, etc.

As a result of the emergence of such areas, primary and secondary schools have undergone significant changes. In many leading foreign countries, the ideas of compulsory free education have been promoted and implemented. At the same time, private schools and the right of the upper strata of society to a higher level of education were preserved. There were two models of school management: centralized and decentralized. The level of the intellectual component of education has increased.

Free general education in different countries of the world found its expression and had its own specifics. For example, in England, children under 14 studied for free, while primary school taught children up to 11 years old, and secondary school - up to 17. Secondary educational institutions in England are represented by grammar, modern and central schools, as well as public schools, which are elite. At the end of the secondary stage of education, only graduates of grammar and public schools could enter a higher educational institution. Experimental new schools were also created, in which they tried to take into account the peculiarities of the child's psyche, paid great attention to labor education, the individual interests of the child, and cooperation. In England, such a school opened in 1889 in the countryside of Abbotsholm. Later, other schools of the same type were opened. In 1893, following the example of Abbotsholm, the Bidel New School was opened, which for the first time combined the education of girls and boys as part of the secondary level of education. The new school in Summerhill had the slogan "absolute freedom", which consisted in the student's choice of subjects and electives for study. There was school self-government. One of the most famous elementary schools was the school in Beacon Hill, opened by Bertrand Russell in 1927. This school was distinguished by a richer program, compared to a regular elementary school, much attention was paid to labor education, and methods were used to stimulate student activity.

In the United States, free education was extended to children and adolescents up to 16 years of age. Different states had one of two systems of primary and secondary education. One of them assumed 8 years of primary education and 4 years of secondary education, the other - 6 years of primary and two-level secondary, for three years each. As in England, there were private schools, among which were elite ones - academies. The country had a decentralized system of government, coordinated by the federal Commission on School Policy. Experimental high schools in the United States emerged in the 1920s and 1930s. the first such school was opened in 1920 by E. Parkhest in Dalton and was called the Dalton Plan. A distinctive feature of the organization of education in this school was the division of the school curriculum into parts (contracts), the order of development of which was determined by the personal characteristics of the student. The primary education system was actively replenished with experimental schools. Among them are the Laboratory School in Chicago (1896), the Organic School (1907), the Play School (1913), and the Children's School (1915). The laboratory school contained several two-year training levels. The children were divided into groups according to age. Extra-curricular activities were organized in this school in order to enhance the communication of children of different age groups. The school curriculum was drawn up with an emphasis on the study of history and geography.

In the organic school, the development of children took place in many ways through natural research. The discipline was minimal. Great importance was given to the creative and cognitive activity of the child. literacy and mathematics were taught in small doses in a playful way, there were practically no coercions and punishments.

The play school gave children the skills of everyday life, helped to form a worldview adequate to the time. Examples from life were used as a teaching technique, followed by modeling situations based on the analysis of these examples.

In the 1920-1930s. new experimental schools appear under the leadership of E. Collings, K. Washburn, A. Flexner, and others.

The development and wide distribution of experimental educational institutions led to the creation in the United States of the Bureau of Pedagogical Experiments.

In Germany, starting from 1930, only compulsory primary education for children from 6 to 10 years old was free. The next level is represented by three types of schools: an elementary school for 10-14 year olds, an advanced folk school for 10-16 year olds, and an average nine-year school. Of these, only the last type of school is a secondary educational institution; after graduating from it, you can enter the university. The secondary school includes gymnasiums, real schools, higher German schools. Before the establishment of the fascist state, decentralization of government was in effect in Germany, which was suppressed during the years of fascism. During the years of the Nazi Reich, access to education for children of many nationalities was closed, which contributed to a decrease in the level of education of the general population of Germany. The experimental type of schools in pre-war Germany was represented by the Hugo Gaudig School of Free Mental Work (Leipzig), the Lichtwark School (Hamburg), the Waldorf School of R. Steiner (Stuttgart), etc. creative thinking, aesthetic and moral aspects of the personality developed in schools of this type . In France, only education in a mass primary school was free, where children studied from 6 to 13 years old. Another kind of primary education was a division of the secondary school and had a commercial basis. The secondary level of education was represented by lyceums, colleges and private schools. Their training lasted 11 years. Education in secondary schools was distinguished by the presence of continuity with higher education. Since 1933, it has become partly free. Secondary education in France had two directions: the humanities and the natural sciences. A striking representative of the experimental pedagogy of France was, opened in 1935, an elementary school under the direction of Celestin Frenet. Frenet developed his own original pedagogical technology. In this school, much attention was paid to the individual characteristics of the child, student self-government functioned, training was carried out in fundamentally different applied areas, and writing essays was practiced by students.

64. The development of schools and pedagogy in Russia after the October Revolution (1917)

The history of Russian pedagogy in the Soviet period can be conditionally divided into three stages with specific features, subject to the main ideology in this direction: 1917 - early 1930s, 1930s, 1945-1991.

The general characteristics of the state of pedagogy of this period was largely determined by isolation within the state, social conditions and the political situation. Freedom of thought was punished. The organization of schools was subject to communist ideology. As a result, the individual ceases to be the subject of the pedagogical process, education is built on the principle of subordinating the individual to the interests of society, the team.

After the October Revolution of 1917, the active destruction of the existing school system began. Private educational institutions were banned, religious elements of education were excluded, co-education of boys and girls was introduced in all schools, the subordination of all educational institutions to state power.

The Bolsheviks, who came to power as a result of the revolution, began to introduce their ideology to the masses through schools. They considered the role of education to be decisive in shaping the political views of the younger generation. The Russian Communist Party (RCP) organized school restructuring activities led by N. K. Krupskaya, A. V. Lunacharsky, and M. N. Pokrovsky. They were primarily engaged in the introduction of communist ideas and the implementation of Bolshevik reforms in the education system. In October 1918, documents were issued defining the main points of reforming schools: a unified system of joint and free general education in two stages: 5 and 4 years of education, the right to education regardless of race, nationality and social affiliation, education for native language, the absolute secularity of education, the presence of productive labor in the curriculum.

The communist orientation of the organization of schools met with considerable resistance from the teachers of the country. Members of the All-Russian Teachers' Union stood on the positions of a democratic organization of schools and the educational process. In December 1917 - March 1918 there was a mass strike of teachers who refused to submit to changes in the school organization. The Bolshevik government stopped this kind of activity, creating the Union of Internationalist Teachers as an alternative, promising to raise the social status of the teacher. However, the promises turned out to be just a way to achieve agreement and calmness on the part of the teachers.

In reality, the condition of the schools of the period under review was in the worst condition. Funding for the education system was virtually non-existent, resulting in a significant shortage of teaching aids and qualified teaching staff. The year 1917 is characterized by mass illiteracy of the country's population, especially in the provinces and rural areas.

After the civil war, an attempt is made to restore the educational system and eliminate illiteracy.

The main issues at the center of pedagogical discussions in the 1990s were largely controversial, although they had many supporters among the country's leading educators. Documents issued by the Soviet government on schooling proclaimed the ideas of democracy, personal development, taking into account individual characteristics, inclinations, and interests. The texts of these documents showed a humane attitude towards the child as the highest value of mankind. At the same time, socialism, which implies the subordination of the interests of the individual to the collective, was proclaimed the only possible system for the development of natural abilities and the holistic all-round development of the child. Communist education was declared the only humane one.

The inconsistency and even falsity of such statements were noticed by many educators, among them S. I. Gessen, I. M. Grevs, V. V. Zenkovsky, and others. in the educational process, by empty efforts that only harden and harden the human soul and hinder its true development and the formation of a correct worldview.

In 1920, the All-Russian Extraordinary Commission for the Elimination of Illiteracy was created, headed by N. K. Krupskaya. However, the restoration of schools moved extremely slowly due to the famine that befell the country. The post-war period was extremely difficult in economic terms. The education system collapsed due to lack of funds. As a result, "contractual schools" began to emerge, which became paid educational institutions. Only in the second half of the 1920s. the school system began to recover little by little. The number of educational institutions and the number of students grew. In 1930, compulsory primary education was introduced with a 4-year term. Leading teachers of the country: S. T. Shatsky, M. M. Pistrak, A. S. Tolstov and others organized experimental institutions that used the traditions of pre-revolutionary Russia and the direction of foreign experimental pedagogy.

The People's Commissariat of Education developed programs and plans for general education schools. They fundamentally differed from the previous ones in that they were based not on subjects and disciplines, but on the principles of the integrated construction of educational material. Such programs contained elements of the connection of learning theory with real life, which implied the presence of experimental, research and creative activities of students. In the 1920s many different types of schools opened and closed. In general, the pedagogy of this period did not have any qualitative successes. The individual was more and more suppressed by the collective. Creative and cultural development faded away. Children were brought up in the spirit of absolute obedience without initiative.

A shift in the development of elementary school took place in 1931, when the adoption of the relevant resolution was supposed to introduce subject programs. Reforms in the 1930s led to a rigid organization and standardization of the educational system at all levels. The negative side of this was the complete absence of an alternative, the right to choose students, which subsequently made it difficult to choose a profession and study in this direction. And yet, despite the introduction of universal 7-year education in the cities, a significant part of the Russian population remained blatantly illiterate. Another distinctive feature of the educational system of the 1930s. there was an active introduction into the minds of students of the personality cult of Stalin. This entailed a tightening of discipline, a strict centralization of school management.

During the Great Patriotic War, the educational system experienced a deep crisis due to famine, the destruction of school buildings, difficult learning conditions, etc. But, despite this, the government was active in the field of school affairs. In particular, from 1943 to 1944. the following government decisions were made, some of which are still valid today: on the education of children from the age of 7, on the establishment of general education schools for working youth, on the opening of evening schools in rural areas, on the introduction of a five-point system for assessing student performance and establishing final exams at the end of primary, seven-year and secondary schools, awarding gold and silver medals to distinguished secondary school students, etc.

In fact, the transition to universal seven-year education took place only by the beginning of the 1950s, at which time the life of the country was gradually improving and normalizing. The rapid growth in the number of students is causing an acute shortage of school buildings and learning facilities.

In 1958, the "Law on strengthening the connection between school and life and on the further development of the system of public education in the USSR" was adopted. This law contained information about the transition to an eight-year universal education. The final introduction of the eight-year education took place in the 1961/62 academic year. By 1970, compulsory eight-year education was universally organized.

The next stage in the transformation of the educational system was the introduction of a universal ten-year education.

Secondary education also did not remain aloof from the reforms. By the end of the 1950s. Three types of secondary educational institutions took shape: three-year general education schools, three-year evening schools, technical schools and other educational institutions.

By 1980, a more or less formalized education system had developed, which, however, had a lot of shortcomings. Pedagogical activity had a weak scientific basis, the emphasis in education was on obedience, rather than initiative and creativity. Teachers and children were forced to adhere to strict curricula infused with the political ideology of communism. In rural areas and in a number of cities, a significant part of the illiterate or semi-literate population remained.

The authorities were still aware of the acute issue of eliminating illiteracy. A new attempt to solve this problem was made in 1984. The main direction of this activity was the convergence and partial merging of vocational and general education. As a result, a new element of education arose - secondary vocational technical schools. The result of these reforms was only to exacerbate the crisis of ignorance of the population.

The collapse of the USSR in the early 1990s further aggravated the situation. The learning outcomes were less and less consistent with the required level, in accordance with the development of world science and technology by this time. Interest in learning has declined sharply, non-attendance is increasing and antisocial behavior among students, especially adolescents, is progressing.

65. School and Pedagogy in Russia at the end of the XNUMXth century

After the collapse of the USSR, the democratic direction in pedagogy and the organization of school education acquired a qualitatively different interpretation. The main tasks of the school consist of two components: education and social diversification. The second implies the distribution of students according to the professional and social strata of the population, and its result depends on the choice, nature and quality of the activity of the student himself. In accordance with this, the rights and freedom of choice of citizens in the direction of education, types of educational institutions, etc., have significantly increased. A global trend of the modern school has emerged - strengthening and complicating differentiated training in accordance with the interests and inclinations of students. One of the most important areas of diversification of the modern school is the education of gifted, talented children and adolescents, who, with a standard approach that is the same for all, are lost in the general mass of students and do not have the opportunity to realize and develop their abilities. Another issue of diversification is the education of children with negative deviations in physical and mental development. Many children cannot study on an equal footing with the general mass of schoolchildren due to congenital and acquired pathologies. A special area of education is compensatory education, aimed at helping and leveling the level of preparation of lagging students. In the modern school, there is a tendency to actively use methods of cooperation and partnership with the teacher and classmates, which positively affects the child's self-esteem, helps him to believe in himself. Stimulates cognitive and creative activity.

The possibility of the influence of students, teachers and parents on the educational process is increasing. Partial decentralization of school management is being carried out. Private schools are emerging.

In reality, getting the desired level of education is a difficult task. This is due to the low level of education in many public schools, the insufficient study of the organization and content of the educational process of private educational institutions, the lack of complete and reliable information about possible sources of secondary education. The reason for the low level of education of the population is also the wrong ideology of society, the cultivation of illusory values, the socio-economic crisis of the country.

The emergence of private schools in the early 1990s is gradually gaining momentum. As a rule, private schools are accessible only to a small elite part of the population, since tuition fees are quite high. With the advent of private schools, the possibility of receiving a religious education is being revived.

State general education schools are constantly in need of funds, since the envisaged education costs are not actually carried out. This leads to a decrease in the financial situation and, as a result, the social status of the teacher. As a result, many teachers work in schools with a low level of qualification and often with an inappropriate educational profile.

The desire of young people to receive education, especially higher education, at the turn of the 1980s - 1990s. significantly weakened, but by the mid-1990s. Gradually, the number of students in secondary and higher educational institutions begins to increase. Competitions in higher educational institutions are growing.

A system of general education was formed, consisting of three levels: elementary school (3-4 years), school of basic general education (5-6 years), secondary full school (1-2 schools). Education of the 1st and 2nd levels is mandatory. Level 3 consists of compulsory and student-selected programs. Possible ways of obtaining general education have taken shape: public free, private paid and home, involving the payment of state subsidies. There are educational institutions of a general type with a profiling bias, enrollment in which takes place on a competitive basis.

The transfer of students to the next class is possible with positive assessments of the results of the previous year of study. The general education system uses a five-point grading system. Examinations are held at the end of the 2nd and 3rd levels.

The next link in the education system is general vocational education. Such education is not compulsory and is aimed at acquiring students of any profession in accordance with their choice. General vocational education can be obtained in the following educational institutions: vocational schools (vocational schools), technical schools, technical lyceums and colleges. Education in these institutions lasts from 1 to 4 years. The curricula of such educational institutions consist of two components: general education and special education. The general education program is aimed at continuing general education, while the special program varies depending on the professional orientation of students. The level of education of lyceums, colleges and technical schools is much higher than that of vocational schools. In addition, graduates of lyceums, colleges and technical schools can enter higher educational institutions.

The higher school includes academies, universities and institutes. The number of higher education institutions is gradually growing, as is the number of students.

The reforms started in 1987 are constantly being implemented in the higher education system. They are associated with the constant progress of science and technology, the emergence of new professions and the needs of society for new qualifications of workers in various fields of activity. In this regard, new public and private educational institutions are opening, new faculties and departments are opening in existing universities, training programs are replenished with new courses and electives. Instead of communist ideology comes the education of patriotism and culture of interethnic relations, permeated with democratic views. Attempts are being made to divide higher education into two stages: bachelor's degree (4 years) and master's degree (6 years), instead of a 5-year term of study. With the transition of the country to a market economy, the possibility of training on a commercial basis appeared.

The entire education system of Russia is subordinate to the Federal Ministry, further - to the governing bodies of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation and local municipal governments. Self-government bodies operate in educational institutions, which include: the school council, the board of trustees, the general meeting, the pedagogical council, etc. The Federal Ministry, as the central control point, ensures the integrity of education in the country and includes in the program the basic ones that are mandatory for all Russian citizens to study school disciplines: Russian language, mathematics, computer science, physics and astronomy, chemistry. This part of the content of the school curriculum provides the necessary minimum level of cultural and intellectual compliance of the child with modern society. Local and regional educational authorities include in the program those subjects that correspond to the culture and specifics of a particular region, taking into account national characteristics, geographical features of the area, the history of the region, etc. At the level of specific educational institutions, decisions are made about possible profiles and specifics of education, especially in-depth profiling education is of great importance in high school

The social status of a teacher in Russia is quite low, this is largely due to the insufficient wages of the teaching staff. Many teachers are not qualified enough. To partially address these issues, various competitions of various levels and scales are held, such as "Teacher of the Year". At the state level, attempts are being made to develop training programs for teachers and lecturers that are adequate to the current and predicted situation in the system of modern education. One of these programs was proposed by V. A. Slastenin. It is built on the principles of problem-based learning, which involves the acquisition and assimilation of information in the search for a way out of existing situations. A teacher who has passed such a system of training is capable of extraordinary solutions and a creative approach to his professional activities, he has a pronounced individuality and flexibility in the face of frequent changes and innovations in the system of education and upbringing. An important condition for a highly qualified teacher is his complete and deep knowledge of the subject and the ability to convey its content to students.

State pedagogical education is received in pedagogical schools and colleges, pedagogical institutes and pedagogical universities. There is also a system of state institutions for advanced training and retraining of teaching staff in the country.

66. Leading trends in the modern development of the world educational process

Modern pedagogical science is constantly developing and progressing. The views on the pedagogical process are changing, the methods and means of training and education are becoming more humane and effective. The organization of school education is increasingly democratized, diversification and differentiation of education is being introduced everywhere. New trends in education are constantly emerging, experimental pedagogy is actively spreading its ideas, many of which become part of widely used pedagogical methods. One of the manifestations of experimental pedagogy was the widespread organization of open schools. The program of such educational institutions is aimed at a close relationship in the learning process with the outside world and the formation of children's independence in the field of education, upbringing and everyday life. Contrary to the classical organization of the class-lesson system, alternative schools have emerged that are aimed at humanizing the relations of participants in the educational process.

There are currently three main directions in didactics: traditional, rationalistic and phenomenological. A non-standard view of learning is seen in the phenomenological concept, which puts individuality, personality in the center of attention of the learning process. The content of the training is built in accordance with the individual psychological characteristics of the student, his inclinations, abilities, interests, etc.

The theory of education contains two fundamentally different areas: social and psychological. The first implies the social environment of a person as the basis of education, the second - the biological characteristics and psychological processes that accompany the growing up and development of the human personality.

Social pedagogy is becoming more and more widespread; it has found especially many supporters in the USA and France. The second direction is somewhat more humane, and has many supporters in different countries of the world.

In modern pedagogy, much attention is paid to the correct definition of the tasks and problems of educating the human personality. The tasks of paramount importance, according to the majority of educators in the world, are the following: fostering tolerance for the diversity of nations, religions, traditions and cultures; moral education; a guideline for the education of peace-loving and the desire for peaceful cooperation and conflict resolution. Projects aimed at effective international education are being implemented. Political education, designed to form certain patriotic feelings and responsibility for the fate of their state.

The most important direction of modern education is the formation of a certain morality in a person, capable of resisting the currently common asocial manifestations of peers. In this regard, there is a confrontation between the two trends of modern and traditional pedagogy. Many educational institutions have not departed from the usual authoritarianism in the implementation of educational activities, which is contrary to the development of independence, the formation of responsibility, the ability to non-standard heuristic thinking, the humane sides of the individual, and high moral standards. One of the consequences of the struggle of these directions was the emergence of a behavioral method of education common in the West. It involves the creation of an atmosphere of cooperation, freedom of thought, promotes the manifestation of individuality and the development of creative abilities.

In the education system of the vast majority of countries, significant democratization is observed, that is, the right of educational institutions to autonomy, partial self-government. Access to education is currently a pressing problem in many countries. Not all people can get the desired education, mainly due to financial and social contradictions. In some countries of the world, especially those experiencing an economic crisis, the problem of compulsory education is acute, caused by a decrease in attendance at educational institutions, the quality of education, the organization of diversification of education at the proper level, etc.

Great importance is given to the creation of special conditions for talented, gifted children, as well as children with various disabilities, the development of which is carried out using the methods of correctional pedagogy. In almost all countries of the world, compensatory education takes place, aimed at helping the learning of lagging students.

Western school systems since the early 1990s underwent numerous reforms. Most foreign countries have realized that a high level of education in the country is an important and necessary condition for the progressive development of society, science and culture. School programs, with a consistently stable basis, are constantly subject to various modifications and innovations. In addition, there are several types of programs in general education schools: compulsory and specialized, providing diversification and differentiation of education.

There are many private schools in the primary education system, most of them with some kind of religious orientation. Public schools in Western Europe and the United States are either completely secular or include religious disciplines. The general global trend on this issue is characterized by loyalty to the religious component in the primary education program, everyone is given freedom of choice in this matter.

The clearest continuity between the levels of education was formed. Higher education is becoming more widespread and developed, especially in the leading countries of the world. This phenomenon has both positive and negative sides. The former include a large social differentiation of students, the latter - a decrease in the quality of education, which is explained by the complication of state control of a larger number of higher educational institutions.

The nature of the training of teaching staff has changed significantly, it has moved to a qualitatively new level, and most of the teachers have higher education.

One of the problems of modern general education is functional illiteracy, that is, a person who formally graduated from an educational institution does not actually have the proper level of knowledge, skills and abilities, the achievement of which is supposed to be achieved by the course of the training.

An important stage in the development of the world school is the introduction into the process of training and education of technical means that have arisen as a result of the scientific and technological progress of society. The first such means were a tape recorder, television, and various mechanical devices. The next step was the emergence of a computer in the school, which served not only as a multifunctional teaching tool, but also as an "assistant" in organizing and controlling various areas of the school's activities.

The rapid development of the mass media (media) even gave rise to a special name - the parallel school. Educators around the world pay attention to the need to control children's access to various media, taking into account their age and psychological characteristics, since a parallel school can have both a positive and a negative impact on the formation of a child's personality.

References

1. Grigorovich L.A., Martsinkovskaya T.D. Pedagogy and psychology: Proc. allowance. M.: Gardariki, 2004.

2. Dzhurinsky A.N. History of Pedagogy: Proc. allowance for students. pedagogical universities. M.: Humanit. ed. center VLADOS, 1999.

3. Podlasy I.P. Pedagogy: 100 questions - 100 answers: Proc. allowance for students. higher textbook establishments. M.: Publishing house VLADOS-PRESS, 2004.

4. Slastenin V.A. etc. Pedagogy: Proc. allowance for students. higher ped. textbook institutions / V. A. Slastenin, I. F. Isaev, E. N. Shiyanov; Ed. V.A. Slastenin. M.: Publishing center "Academy", 2002.

5. Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. M., 1983. Kharlamov I.F. Pedagogy: Textbook. - 5th ed., revised. and additional Mn.: Universitetskaya, 1998.

Author: Nazareva V.A.

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