Pedagogy for teachers. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
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Pedagogy for teachers. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

The concept of pedagogy and the stages of its development
Object, subject, tasks and functions of pedagogy
The structure of pedagogy and its relationship with other sciences
The main categories of pedagogy
The concept of methodology in pedagogical science
Methodological culture of the teacher
Instability of Parenting Style
Methods of pedagogical research
The concept of the goal of education
Patterns of education
Conditions for Personal Development
The relationship of development and education
The influence of the environment on personality development
The pedagogical process as a system
Patterns and stages of the pedagogical process
Pedagogical goals
Pedagogical technologies
Essence and direction of pedagogical innovations
Innovative educational institutions
Educational systems
Optimization of the pedagogical system
Functions of a teacher
Teacher Requirements
Professional potential of a teacher
The structure of pedagogical activity and pedagogical skills
Pedagogical qualimetry and certification of teachers
General concept of didactics
The main categories of didactics
Basic didactic concepts
The essence of the learning process
The unity of the educational, developmental and educational functions of education
Characteristics of the principles of education
Patterns of learning, their classification
The Influence of Learning Factors on the Productivity of the Didactic Process
Motives as the main driving forces of the didactic process
The concept of the content of education and the principles of its formation
Theories of the organization of the content of education
State standard
Educational plans
Characteristics of curricula
Textbooks and study guides
The concept and essence of the method and reception of training
Classification of teaching methods
Classification of methods according to the type (nature) of cognitive activity (I.Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin)
Verbal teaching methods
Visual and practical teaching methods
Choice of teaching methods
The concept of teaching aids, their classification
Study room equipment
Technical training
Developmental learning
Problem learning
Programmed and computer training
Modular learning
Forms of organization of education and their development in didactics
Class-lesson system of education
Requirements for a modern lesson
Typology and structure of lessons
Lesson preparation
Auxiliary forms of education
Organization of educational activities of students in the classroom
The essence of learning control as a didactic concept
Methods and forms of control
Achievement and Development Testing
Assessment of student knowledge
Student underachievement
The concepts of "education", "self-education", "re-education"
Principles of education
Humanistic Pedagogy
Methods of education and methods of pedagogical influence
Means of the educational process
Forms of education
Directions of educational work
The educational system of the class as a pedagogical phenomenon and concept
Interpersonal relationships in a team
Structure and stages of formation of the educational team
Modern foreign pedagogical concepts
The goals of education in foreign pedagogy
Conceptual foundations of family education in different periods of the development of society
Legal basis of family education
Family education: principles and content
Types of wrong parenting
The educational potential of the family
Violations of the behavior of the child in the family
Forms of dependent behavior of the child
Indicators of Parenting Behavior
The main activities of the class teacher in working with students and their parents
Forms of interaction between the class teacher and parents of students
The system of general education in Russia
Questions of the theory of school management
The main provisions of the law of the Russian Federation "On education"

1. The concept of pedagogy and the stages of its development

The word "pedagogy" is of Greek origin. Literally translated, it means "children".

In the modern sense pedagogy is a set of knowledge and skills in training and education, effective ways to transfer the accumulated experience and optimal preparation of the younger generation for life and work.

Sources of development of pedagogy:

- centuries-old practical experience of education, fixed in the way of life, traditions, customs of people, folk pedagogy;

- philosophical, social science, pedagogical and psychological works;

- current world and domestic practice of education;

- data of specially organized pedagogical researches;

- experience of teachers-innovators.

The source of European education systems was ancient Greek philosophy. Its most prominent representatives: Democritus, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle. A peculiar result of the development of Greek-Roman pedagogical thought was the work "The Education of an Orator" by Mark Quintilian, an ancient Roman philosopher and teacher.

Medieval education, squeezed in the grip of theology and scholasticism, largely lost the progressive orientation of ancient times. At this historical stage there were philosophers educated for their time who created extensive pedagogical works: Tertullian, Augustine, Aquinas.

The Renaissance gave a number of bright thinkers, humanist teachers. These are Erasmus of Rotterdam, Vittorino de Feltre, Francois Rabelais, Michel Montaigne.

The separation of pedagogy from philosophy and its formalization into a scientific system took place in the XNUMXth century. and is associated with the name of the Czech teacher Jan Amos Comenius. The principles, methods, forms of teaching he proposed became the basis of pedagogical thought.

The English philosopher and educator John Locke focused his main efforts on the theory of education ("The Thought on Education").

French materialists and enlighteners of the XNUMXth century. D. Diderot, K. Helvetius, P. Holbach, J.J. Rousseau waged an uncompromising struggle against dogmatism, scholasticism and verbalism in pedagogy.

The activities of the French enlighteners largely determined the work of the Swiss teacher Johann Pestalozzi. He proposed a progressive theory of teaching and moral education of students.

World fame for Russian pedagogy was brought by K.D. Ushinsky.

At the end of XIX - beginning of XX century. Intensive studies of pedagogical problems have begun in the USA, where the center of pedagogical thought is gradually dispersed. General principles were formed, patterns of human education were derived, effective education technologies were developed and implemented. The most prominent representatives of American pedagogy are John Dewey and Edward Thorndike.

S.T. took an active part in the creative search for a new pedagogy of the post-October period. Shatsky.

An outstanding domestic teacher is rightfully A.S. Makarenko. He rethought the classical pedagogical heritage, participated in pedagogical research in 1920-1930, developed a number of new areas of education.

The moral problems of educating young people were studied by V.A. Sukhomlinsky. His didactic advice retains its significance in comprehending modern ways of pedagogical thought and school.

The current stage of development of pedagogy is based on the self-development of the scientific branch, which combines the processes of integration and differentiation with interaction with other sciences.

2. Object, subject, tasks and functions of pedagogy

Object of Pedagogy - these are phenomena of reality that determine the development of a person, in other words, it is education, which is studied by a number of sciences (philosophy, psychology, sociology, etc.). Pedagogy - it's the only one special education science in a number of sciences that can study certain aspects of educational activity.

The subject of pedagogy education appears as a real holistic pedagogical process, purposefully organized in special social institutions (family, educational and cultural institutions).

Pedagogy as a science studies the essence, patterns, trends, prospects for education and means of human development throughout his life. On this basis, pedagogy develops the theory and technology of organizing the educational process, forms and methods of interaction between the teacher and students, as well as strategies and methods of their interaction.

Pedagogy is primarily concerned with three main components of the educational process:

- learning objectives (why to teach);

- content of training (what to teach);

- Forms and methods of teaching (how to teach).

The main tasks of pedagogy aimed at creating an effective pedagogical system in all areas of human life: public, personal, political, etc.

Such tasks include:

- identification and study of patterns in the field of education and training, management of educational and educational systems;

- study and dissemination of pedagogical experience;

- forecasting the further development of educational systems;

- development of new methods, means and forms of training and education;

- implementation of the results of pedagogical research in the practice of education;

- participation in international pedagogical projects, exchange of information, study of foreign experience in pedagogical work;

- development of systems for the functioning of pedagogical institutions and increasing their efficiency. Pedagogical science performs the same functions as any other scientific discipline: description, explanation and prediction of phenomena the area of reality that she is studying. But pedagogical science, the object of which lies in the social and humanitarian sphere, has its own specifics. Pedagogical reality cannot be limited only to the objective reflection of what is being studied. It combines two functions that in other scientific fields are usually divided between different disciplines:

Scientific and theoretical function that is implemented at three levels:

- descriptive (study of advanced, innovative pedagogical experience);

- diagnostic (identifying the state of pedagogical phenomena, the success and effectiveness of the joint activities of teachers and students);

- predictive (experimental studies of the pedagogical process and the construction of more effective models of this process). Structural and technical the function is also implemented at three levels:

- projective (development of teaching materials, curricula, teaching aids);

- transformative (introduction of the achievements of pedagogical science into practice);

- reflective and corrective (analysis and evaluation of the impact of scientific research results on the practice of teaching and education).

3. The structure of pedagogy and its relationship with other sciences

Pedagogy, having gone through a long path of development, has now turned into an extensive system of scientific knowledge.

The development of education as a social phenomenon, the history of pedagogical teachings explores history of pedagogy. The principle of historicism - the most important principle of development of any science. The study of what has already been, comparing it with the present, not only helps to better trace the main stages in the development of modern phenomena, but also warns against repeating the mistakes of the past, makes prognostic proposals aimed at the future more justified.

General Pedagogy - a basic scientific discipline that studies the general patterns of human education, developing the general foundations of the educational process in educational institutions of all types. There are two levels in general pedagogy: theoretical and applied (normative). Traditionally, general pedagogy contains four sections:

- general basics;

- didactics (learning theory);

- the theory of education;

- schooling.

Preschool and school pedagogy constitutes a subsystem age pedagogy. Here we study the patterns of upbringing of a growing person, reflecting the specifics of teaching and educational activities within certain age groups. Age pedagogy, as it has developed to date, covers the entire system of secondary education.

The subject higher education pedagogy are the laws of the educational process in the conditions of a higher educational institution, specific problems of obtaining higher education. Labor pedagogy deals with the problems of advanced training, as well as the retraining of workers in various sectors of the national economy, the development of new knowledge, and the acquisition of a new profession in adulthood.

In subsystem social pedagogy sectors such as family pedagogy, re-education of offenders and others. People with various disorders and developmental disabilities fall within the scope of special pedagogy. The issues of education and upbringing of the deaf and dumb are dealt with by deaf pedagogy, blind - typhlopedagogy, mentally retarded - oligophrenopedagogy.

A special group of pedagogical sciences are the so-called private, or subject, methodologies, investigating the patterns of teaching and studying specific academic disciplines in all types of educational institutions.

Comparative Pedagogy explores the patterns of functioning and development of educational systems in different countries.

Professional Pedagogy studies pedagogical processes focused on a specific professional education of a person.

Pedagogy, like any science, develops in close connection with other sciences. Philosophy, being the basis for understanding the goals of upbringing and education, plays an important methodological role in the process of developing pedagogical theories.

Anatomy and physiology form the basis for understanding the biological essence of man.

Of particular importance for pedagogy is its connection with psychology: pedagogy uses psychological methods of research, any section of pedagogy finds support in the corresponding section of psychology.

The links between pedagogy and physiology, sociology, history, literature, ecology, economics etc.

4. The main categories of pedagogy

The main pedagogical categories are upbringing, development, education, self-improvement (self-education).

Education - social purposeful creation of conditions (material, spiritual, organizational) for the assimilation of socio-historical experience by the new generation in order to prepare it for social life and productive work. The category "education" is one of the main ones in pedagogy. Characterizing the scope of the concept, they single out education in the broad social sense, including the impact on the personality of society as a whole, and education in the narrow sense - as a purposeful activity designed to form a system of personality traits, attitudes and beliefs. Education is often interpreted in an even more local sense - as a solution to a specific educational problem. Consequently, education - this is a purposeful formation of personality based on the formation of:

- certain relations to objects, phenomena of the surrounding world;

- outlook;

- behavior (as a manifestation of relationships and worldview).

Types of education:

- mental;

- moral;

- physical;

- labor;

- aesthetic, etc.

Pedagogy explores the essence of education, its patterns, trends and development prospects, develops theories and technologies of education, determines its principles, content, forms and methods.

Education is a concrete historical phenomenon closely connected with the socio-economic, political and cultural level of society and the state.

Humanity ensures the development of each person through education, passing on the experience of its own and previous generations.

Development - the process of quantitative and qualitative changes in the personality and human community. The result of this process is the development of the individual (collective, group). development - this is the level of perfection and effectiveness of the intellectual, creative, physical, professional, resilient qualities, features and abilities of the individual.

Personal development is carried out under the influence of external and internal social and natural, controlled and uncontrolled factors.

In the process of educating a person, his development takes place, the level of which then affects the upbringing, changes it.

Education is a specially organized system of external conditions created in society for human development. A specially organized educational system is educational institutions, institutions for advanced training and retraining of personnel. It transfers and receives the experience of generations according to the goals, programs, structures with the help of specially trained teachers. All educational institutions in the state are united in a single system of education, through which human development is managed.

Education is interpreted as a process and result of a person's assimilation of the experience of generations in the form of a system of knowledge, skills, attitudes.

The core of education is learning.

Training - a specially organized, purposeful process of direct transfer of the experience of generations, knowledge, skills in the interaction of a teacher and a student.

self-education - this is the process of assimilation by a person of the experience of previous generations through internal spiritual factors that ensure development.

5. The concept of methodology in pedagogical science

In a broad sense methodology is interpreted as a system of principles and methods for constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as a doctrine about this system. Respectively methodology of pedagogical science considered as a doctrine of the structure, logical organization, methods and means of activity in the field of pedagogical theory and practice.

Methodology can also be understood as the doctrine of the method of scientific knowledge and transformation of the world. According to this definition methodology of pedagogy is interpreted as a system of knowledge about the initial provisions, about the rationale and structure of pedagogical theory, about the principles of scientific approaches and methods of obtaining knowledge that reflect pedagogical reality; the doctrine of the initial (basic) provisions, structure, functions and methods of pedagogical research, of the knowledge and transformation of pedagogical reality.

Methodologists of pedagogical science provide a fundamentally reliable approach to the specifics of cognition of any objects and phenomena of pedagogical reality.

Methodology answers the question of how to achieve this or that result in cognitive or practical activity, focusing on a certain system of values. Therefore, it is a set of norms of behavior that lead to certain results in accordance with the goals that need to be achieved. She may be descriptive, studying, or regulatory.

In methodology as a branch of science, it is legitimate to single out the activity aspect, which is interpreted through the concept of "methodological activity" in two forms - methodological support and methodological research.

The task of methodological research - identification of patterns and trends in the development of pedagogical science and its connection with practice, principles for improving the efficiency and quality of pedagogical research, analysis of their conceptual composition and methods.

Methodological support a specific pedagogical research can be understood as the possibility of using a certain body of knowledge to substantiate the process of research activity, its logic and methods, as well as to assess its quality.

The sources of knowledge that allow to provide research methodologically are:

- general philosophical provisions and categories that make it possible to consider the problem through the prism of philosophical knowledge;

- general scientific methodology;

- knowledge obtained as a result of methodological research in the field of pedagogy;

- special-scientific theories that can become a means of methodological support for a particular study;

- the results of methodological reflection, the teacher's reflections on the methods of scientific knowledge used by him, on logic.

In recent years, educational institutions have a new function - research and search, the implementation of which contributes to increasing the efficiency of the entire pedagogical process.

The teacher becomes a researcher, i.e., the subject of knowledge, therefore, his activity also needs scientific support (primarily methodological). Methodological support is a set of means of cognition that act as a regulator, with the help of which one's own scientific search, the research process, is planned, corrected and controlled.

6. Methodological culture of the teacher

Methodological culture - a holistic, multi-level and multi-component education, which includes the pedagogical philosophy of the teacher (beliefs), mental activity in the mode of methodological reflection (understanding), the inner plan of consciousness (self-consciousness) and is determined by the multi-level properties of the integral individuality.

For a teacher-researcher, it is important to know the current approaches to research activities and rely on them.

Activity approach focuses on the study of the educational activity of the student, the professional activity of the teacher, the identification of their structures, conditions of formation, types of orienting basis of action, etc. It allows you to identify the possibilities for the formation of individual abilities and personal qualities of schoolchildren, students, teachers in various types of activity.

Personal approach takes into account that all external pedagogical influences always act indirectly, refracting through the internal conditions of a person’s personality and individuality (his mental and personal qualities), relying on his activity (self-education, self-development, self-education, self-government).

This approach focuses on the formation of a value attitude towards the child as a person, which, in turn, requires the study of the conditions for the development of the human in a person, the study of the mechanisms of self-realization, self-development, self-regulation, social self-defense, adaptation of a person to social conditions, his integration into society.

This method provides for the study of the nomenclature of personal goals, the identification of the specific content of education, on the basis of which personal qualities and the main areas of individuality are formed (intellectual, motivational, emotional, volitional, subject-practical, existential, self-regulation), the justification of pedagogical systems and technologies aimed at achieving personal development goals.

System approach (system analysis method) requires considering all phenomena and processes in their interconnection. It focuses on the consideration of pedagogical phenomena from the point of view of such categories as system, relation, connection, interaction.

Communication means the establishment of a common, unity. This is what unites the various elements of the system into a single whole. Communication (dependence, conditionality) is such a relationship between objects when a change in one of them leads to a change in the other, and in the absence of changes in one, there are no corresponding changes in the other. Communication is a kind of relationship.

The application of this approach allows the researcher to isolate the elements and determine the composition of the system; find the way in which the elements are interconnected; identify backbone, dominant factors; set the system integrity level; to study its interaction with the external environment; identify its functions.

Probabilistic approach orients the researcher to the identification of professional probable tasks that the teacher most often encounters. Having singled out a certain type of such problems, it is possible to develop a technology for solving them.

7. Methods of pedagogical research

Research methods are ways to solve research problems.

These include the following.

Pedagogical supervision

The study of pedagogical phenomena requires the researcher to directly observe them, accumulate and record factual material related to pedagogical work.

Research conversation

Using this method, the researcher finds out the opinion and attitude of both educators and educators to certain pedagogical facts and phenomena, and thereby tries to get a deeper understanding of the essence and causes of these phenomena.

Examination of school documentation and products of student activity

Studying the stimulating role of assessing students' knowledge for their academic performance, one cannot do without the analysis of class journals, progress sheets for the past years of study.

Pedagogical experiment

The essence of the experiment as a research method lies in the special organization of the pedagogical activity of teachers and students in order to test and substantiate previously developed theoretical proposals, or hypotheses.

Depending on the target settings, the following types of experiments are distinguished: ascertaining, creative-transformative and control.

Ascertaining experiment is usually carried out at the beginning of the study and has as its task the clarification of cases in school practice on one or another problem under study.

Essence creative and transformative experiment consists in the development of theoretical foundations and specific methodological measures to solve the problem under study. A new psychological situation is being created in order to transform the state of affairs for the better.

The next step in the study of this problem is the verification of the findings and the developed methodology in mass school practice. This task is solved using control experiment, the essence of which lies in the application of a proven methodology in the work of other schools and teachers.

Substance natural experiment consists in the analysis of certain pedagogical phenomena, the desire to create pedagogical situations in such a way that they do not violate the usual course of activity of students and teachers and, in this sense, are natural in nature.

Study and generalization of advanced pedagogical experience

This method is based on the study and theoretical understanding of the practice of the best schools and teachers who successfully carry out training and education.

If it is necessary to conduct a mass study of certain issues, it is legitimate to conduct questioning and invite students to answer a few specially selected questions. Thus, it is possible to study this problem relatively quickly and interview a large number of students.

Rating - a method of research, when the subjects are asked, for example, to assess the importance of certain moral qualities in the development of a personality. Close to him is method of competent assessments.

Methods of mathematical statistics are used for quantitative analysis of the factual material obtained during the study.

Theoretical analysis of pedagogical ideas makes it possible to make deep scientific generalizations on the most important issues of education and upbringing and to find new patterns where they cannot be revealed using empirical (experimental) research methods.

8. The concept of the goal of education

The purpose of education - these are those predetermined (predictable) results in preparing the younger generations for life, in their personal development and formation, which they strive to achieve in the process of educational work. A thorough knowledge of the goals of education gives the teacher a clear idea of what kind of person he should form, and gives his work the necessary meaningfulness and direction.

The goals and objectives of education are directly related to the definition of the content and methodology of educational work.

The purpose of education is determined the needs of the development of society and depends on the mode of production, the pace of social and scientific and technological progress, the level of development of pedagogical theory and practice achieved, the capabilities of society, educational institutions, teachers and students.

Now the goal of education is the formation of a personality that highly values the ideals of freedom, democracy, humanism, justice and has scientific views on the world around it, which requires a certain methodology of educational work. In the modern school, the main content of education and upbringing is the acquisition of scientific knowledge about the development of nature and society, and the methodology is becoming more and more democratic and humanistic.

Different goals of education determine both its content and the nature of its methodology in different ways.. There is an organic unity between them. This unity appears as essential regularity of pedagogy.

The formation of a comprehensive and harmoniously developed personality not only acts as an objective need, but also becomes the main goal of modern education.

The traditional components of education are: mental education, technical training, physical education, moral and aesthetic education, which should be combined with the development of inclinations, inclinations and abilities of the individual and its inclusion in production work.

In the development and formation of personality, it is of great importance, first of all, physical education, strengthening of strength and health, development of correct posture and sanitary and hygienic culture.

The key problem in the process of comprehensive and harmonious development of personality is mental education. An equally essential component of the comprehensive and harmonious development of the personality is technical training or introducing it to modern technological advances.

great role and moral principles in the development and formation of personality. At the same time, great importance is attached to the spiritual growth of the members of society, to familiarize them with the treasures of literature and art, to form in them high aesthetic feelings and qualities, i.e. aesthetic education.

Education should be not only comprehensive, but also harmonious. It means that all aspects of personality should be formed in close connection with each other.

Of paramount importance is the creation in the school of conditions for mastering the fundamentals of the modern sciences of nature and man, giving educational work a developing character.

The most important in the comprehensive development of the individual is moral education and development, civic and national education, education of environmental awareness, familiarization with the wealth of national and world aesthetic culture.

9. Patterns of education

Under laws of education should be understood stable, repetitive and significant connections in the educational process, the implementation of which allows you to achieve effective results in the development and formation of personality.

The patterns of education act as fundamental principles or requirements on the basis of which it is necessary to carry out educational work.

1. Unity of goals, content and methods of education.

2. Inseparable unity of education and upbringing (in the narrow sense) in a holistic pedagogical process.

3. Personal education occurs only in the process of including it in activities.. In order for a person to acquire knowledge, he needs to carry out cognitive activity. It is impossible to educate diligence, collectivism, without involving the pupil in labor activity, in interpersonal relations and solving collective problems. Based on this, S.T. Shatsky and A.S. Makarenko rightfully determined education as a meaningful organization of the life and activities of pupils.

4. Education is the stimulation of the activity of the formed personality in organized activities. This pattern is due to the fact that the effective development and formation of a personality occurs only if it is highly active in organized activities.

The root cause of a person's activity is those internal contradictions between the achieved and necessary level of development that he experiences in various life circumstances and which encourage him to work and work on himself.

The art of education in this case consists in the fact that the teacher is able to create pedagogical situations to excite such internal contradictions in students and thus stimulate their activity in various types of activity.

By developing the need-motivational sphere of the individual and creating the necessary conditions for the formation of healthy needs, interests and motives for activity (behavior) in her, it seems possible to stimulate her activity and achieve the proper educational effect.

6. In the process of education it is necessary to show humanity and respect for the individual, combined with high demands. The psychological basis of this regularity is that the nature of the relationship between the teacher and the person being educated causes certain internal (emotional-sensual) experiences in the latter and directly affects its activity and development.

7. In the process of education it is necessary to open before students the prospects for their growth, help them achieve the joy of success.

8. In the process of education it is necessary to identify the positive qualities of students and build on them.

9. In education it is necessary to take into account the age and individual characteristics of students.

10. Education should be carried out in a team and through a team..

11. In the process of education it is necessary to achieve unity and coherence of the pedagogical efforts of teachers, families and public organizations.

12. In the process of education encourage the child to self-educate.

10. Conditions for personal development

Human development - a very complex, lengthy and controversial process. A characteristic feature of this process is dialectical transition of quantitative changes into qualitative transformations of the physical, mental and spiritual characteristics of a person. The result of development is the formation of man as a biological species and as a social being.

The development of students occurs in three interrelated areas: biological, psychological and social. Stages (steps, phases) of development in each direction are relatively independent, do not directly depend on each other, although they have mutual influence. There are also their own patterns in each direction, which display cause-and-effect relationships between conditions and results (neoplasms).

Personal development occurs under the influence of many factors:

- heredity;

- environment (social, biogenic, abiogenic);

- education;

- a person's own practical activity.

In this context, the factor is considered as the driving force of the development process, and the condition is considered as the circumstance on which this development depends, the environment in which the development of the child takes place.

Terms - these are the components or characteristics of the environment in which the student develops. The system of all living conditions forms the human environment. It is possible to single out subsystems of biological, psychological and social conditions in it.

Development conditions are divided into necessary and sufficient.

The necessary conditions - the internal objective regularity of the emergence, existence and performance of students. They determine developmental education and upbringing.

Sufficient conditions associated with the causes, foundations, contradictions of development.

The absence or insufficiency of necessary and sufficient conditions leads to the cessation or slowdown in the development of students.

Biological development and the state of the body has a significant impact on other areas of development and to a certain extent determines the organization of the educational process and the socialization of the individual. The most significant of these influences are state of the central nervous system и Наследственность.

biological inheritance due to genes, determines the structure and size of the body, the stage of maturation of the organism, biological and some mental qualities.

The genetically social qualities of a person are not inherited: speech, morality, diligence, discipline, abstract-symbolic theoretical knowledge, skills, etc.

The biological development of the organism serves as the basis for the formation of mental functions (will, emotions, intellect, memory, etc.) of the child, among which there are natural mental functions and cultural mental functionsarising as a result of abstract sign activity (including speech) and are divided into simple and higher.

For education, socialization and life higher mental functions are most important, which are combined into complex systems (communication, activity, relationships, motives, etc.) and constitute the specific content of the psyche of an educated person. Education and training constitute the main conditions for the development of higher mental functions.

11. The relationship of development and education

Mental development (understood as the formation of the inner spiritual world of the individual) and education (defined as a purposeful development by the pupil of the spiritual culture of the people under the guidance of an educator) interconnected: the development of the spiritual culture of the individual occurs under the influence of factors of education, and, in turn, education will be effective only in accordance with the capabilities of the individual.

The influence of heredity and environment is corrected by education. Education is the main force that can give society a full-fledged personality. The effectiveness of educational influence lies in purposefulness, systematic and qualified leadership. Unlike upbringingWhich based on human consciousness and requires his participation, heredity and environment act unconsciously and subconsciously. This determines the role, place, possibilities of education in the formation of a person.

Education subordinates the development of a person to the intended goal.. The purposeful and systematic influence of educators leads to the formation of new pre-designed conditioned reflex connections that cannot be created in any other way. One of the most important tasks of properly organized education is the identification of inclinations and talents, development in accordance with the individual characteristics of a person, his abilities and capabilities.

Special studies have shown that education can ensure the development of certain qualities, only relying on the inclinations laid down by nature.

Influencing the development of a person, education itself depends on development, it constantly relies on the level of development achieved. This is the complex dialectic of the relationship between development and upbringing as ends and means. The effectiveness of education is determined by the level of preparedness of a person to perceive the educational impact, due to the influence of heredity and the environment.. People lend themselves to education differently - from complete rejection of educational requirements to absolute submission to the will of the educator. The existing "resistance to education" as a counteraction to the external environment emanating from the educator determines the final result. Based on this the decisive role is played by specific situations and relationships of people in the educational process.

The strength of the educational impact depends on a number of conditions and circumstances.

L.S. Vygotsky substantiated the pattern according to which the goals and methods of education should correspond not only to the level of development already achieved by the child, but also to his "zone of proximal development". He identified two levels of mental development:

- "level of actual development" - the child performs tasks independently;

- "zone of proximal development" - the child solves the problem with the help of adults.

Education is recognized as good if it goes ahead of development.

The task of upbringing is to create a "zone of proximal development", which would later move into the "zone of actual development".

The personality is formed by upbringing, which leads the development, focusing on processes that have not yet matured, but are in the process of formation.

12. The influence of the environment on the development of personality

A person becomes a person only in the process socialization, i.e. communication, interaction with other people. Outside of human society, spiritual, social, mental development cannot take place.

The socialization of the individual is an objective phenomenon, it is multifaceted, and therefore is studied in many sciences. In pedagogy as a science of education, all aspects of socialization are taken into account and used for cognition and optimal organization of the transfer of social experience and spiritual values from generation to generation.

In the process of social development, new formations appear in the inner world of the individual - higher mental functions, which include knowledge about social phenomena, relations and norms, stereotypes, social attitudes, beliefs, socially accepted forms of behavior and communication, social activity.

In socialization, cultural and social subsystems are distinguished. Information about them is located in the zones of potential and proximate development, so the success of socialization significantly depends on the social environment of the student, on those people who will explain to him the essence of social activity and relations, the norms of behavior.

The reality in which human development takes place is called environment. The formation of personality is influenced by a variety of external conditions, including geographical, social, school, family. According to the intensity of contacts the near (home) and distant (social) environments are distinguished.

Characteristics of the social environment: social system, system of production relations, material conditions of life, the nature of the flow of production and social processes, etc.

Near (home) environment - family, relatives, friends. This environment has a huge impact on human development, especially in childhood. As a rule, it is in the family that the first years of a person's life are decisive for the formation, development and formation. The family largely determines the range of interests of the child and his needs, views and value orientations. The family also provides conditions, including material ones, for the development of natural inclinations. Moral and social qualities are laid in the family.

The crisis of the family at the present stage, according to experts, has become the cause of many negative social phenomena, and above all, the root cause of the growth of juvenile delinquency.

In the family and school, in conditions limited by domestic relations and cognitive activity, partial socialization is carried out. The main social neoplasms appear in labor and social activities.

Social norms of behavior and cultural values are effectively mastered under the influence of an authoritative adult. Social interaction with it leads to the internationalization (assignment) of social experience through the actualization (reproduction) of cultural needs, desires, accompanied by considerations of prestige, profit, the need for obedience.

Authority culture is donor, adolescent culture recipient (perceiving). The adolescent's relationship with an authoritative adult is interpersonal acculturation - the interaction of two individual cultures, one of which is more developed and authoritative.

13. Pedagogical process as a system

Pedagogical process is a specially organized interaction between a teacher and a student, taking into account the content of education and upbringing, using various pedagogical means, aimed at the implementation of pedagogical tasks that ensure the satisfaction of the needs of society and the individual himself in his development and self-development.

The pedagogical process is presented as five element system: purpose of learning (why to teach); the content of educational information (what to teach); methods, teaching methods, means of pedagogical communication (how to teach); teacher; student.

The pedagogical process is created by the teacher. Wherever the pedagogical process takes place, no matter what teacher creates it, it will have the following structure:

Purpose - Principles - Content - Methods - Means - Forms.

Goal reflects the final result of pedagogical interaction, which the teacher and the student are striving for.

Principles designed to determine the main directions for achieving the goal.

Content - this is part of the experience of generations, which is passed on to students to achieve the goal in accordance with the chosen directions.

Methods - these are the actions of the teacher and the student, through which the content is transmitted and received.

Means as materialized subject methods of working with content are used in unity with methods.

Forms organization of the pedagogical process give it a logical completeness, completeness.

The dynamism of the pedagogical process is achieved through the interaction of its three structures:

- pedagogical;

- methodical;

- psychological.

For creating methodological structure the goal is divided into a number of tasks, in accordance with which the successive stages of the activity of the teacher and the student are determined.

The pedagogical and methodological structures of the pedagogical process are organically interconnected.

Psychological structure pedagogical process: processes of perception, thinking, comprehension, memorization, assimilation of information; manifestation by students of interest, inclinations, motivation for learning, dynamics of emotional mood; the rise and fall of physical neuropsychic stress, the dynamics of activity, performance and fatigue.

Consequently, in the psychological structure of the pedagogical process, three psychological substructures can be distinguished: cognitive processes; motivation for learning; voltage.

In order for the pedagogical process to "set in motion", management is necessary.

Pedagogical management - this is the process of transferring the pedagogical situation, processes from one state to another, corresponding to the goal.

Components of the management process: goal setting; information support (diagnosing the characteristics of students); formulation of tasks depending on the purpose and characteristics of students; design, planning activities to achieve the goal; project implementation; control over the progress of execution; adjustment; summarizing.

Pedagogical process - this labor process, it is carried out to achieve socially significant tasks. The specificity of this process is that the work of educators and the work of educators merge together, forming a kind of relationship between the participants - pedagogical interaction.

14. Patterns and stages of the pedagogical process

Among general patterns of the pedagogical process stand out like this.

1. The regularity of the dynamics of the pedagogical process - the magnitude of all subsequent changes depends on the magnitude of the changes in the previous stage. The pedagogical process has a gradual, stepwise character; the higher the intermediate achievements, the more significant the final result.

2. The pattern of personality development in the pedagogical process. The pace and the achieved level of personality development depend on: heredity; educational and learning environment; inclusion in educational activities; applied means and methods of pedagogical influence.

3. Pattern of management of the educational process. The effectiveness of pedagogical influence depends on: the intensity of feedback between students and teachers; the magnitude, nature and validity of corrective actions on students.

4. Pattern of stimulation. The productivity of the pedagogical process depends on: the action of internal incentives (motives) for educational activities; intensity, nature and timeliness of external (social, pedagogical, moral, material, etc.) incentives.

5. The regularity of the unity of sensory, logical and practice in the pedagogical process. The effectiveness of the educational process depends on: the intensity and quality of sensory perception; logical understanding of the perceived; practical application of the meaningful.

6. Pattern of unity of external (pedagogical) and internal (cognitive) activities. The effectiveness of the pedagogical process depends on: the quality of pedagogical activity; the quality of the students' own educational and upbringing activities.

7. The regularity of the conditionality of the pedagogical process. The course and results of the educational process depend on: the needs of society and the individual; opportunities (material, technical, economic, etc.) of society; conditions of the process (moral-psychological, sanitary-hygienic, aesthetic, etc.).

The main stages of the pedagogical process:

- preparatory;

- basic;

- final.

At the preparatory stage the following tasks are solved: goal-setting, diagnostics of conditions, forecasting of achievements, designing and planning the development of the process.

Stage of implementation of the pedagogical process (main) can be considered as a relatively isolated system, which includes important interrelated elements: setting and explaining the goals and objectives of the forthcoming activity; interaction between teachers and students; use of the intended means and forms of the pedagogical process; creation of favorable conditions; implementation of various measures to stimulate the activities of schoolchildren; ensuring the connection of the pedagogical process with other processes.

An important role at this stage is played by feedbacks, which serve as the basis for making operational management decisions. Operational feedback during the pedagogical process contributes to the timely introduction of corrective amendments that give the pedagogical interaction the necessary flexibility.

The cycle of the pedagogical process ends stage of analysis of the achieved results (final stage).

15. Pedagogical goals

The pedagogical process is created by the teacher to carry out the upbringing, education and training of students. At the same time, each student has his own goal of learning, his own methods and means of teaching. The goals of the teacher and the student during the same lesson may diverge. The closer the external process of teaching and the internal process of learning, the more successful the pedagogical process is, the better educational relations are built.

Goal - a philosophical category, represents an ideal prediction of the result of an activity, ahead of the reflection of events in the human mind.

Pedagogical goal - this is the prediction by the teacher and the student of the results of their interactions in the form of generalized mental formations, in accordance with which then all other components of the pedagogical process are correlated with the pedagogical goal.

Types of pedagogical goals Normative state goals - These are the most general goals defined in government documents, in state education standards.

public purposes - the goals of various sectors of society, reflecting their needs, interests and demands for vocational training.

Initiative Goals - these are the goals directly developed by the practicing teachers themselves and their students, taking into account the type of educational institution, the profile of specialization and the subject, taking into account the level of development of students, the preparedness of teachers.

Each goal has its own subject, that is, what is supposed to be developed in the pupil. Based on this, three groups of goals are distinguished:

- first group - the goals of the formation of knowledge, skills, abilities, i.e. goals of formation of consciousness and behavior;

- second group - the goals of forming attitudes to the most diverse aspects of life: society, work, lesson topic, profession, friends, parents, art, etc .;

- third group - the goals of the formation of creative activity, the development of abilities, inclinations, interests of students.

Organizational Goals are set by the teacher in the area of his managerial function (for example, the goal is to use self-government in organizing the educational activities of students).

Methodological goals associated with the transformation of learning technology and extracurricular activities of students (for example, change teaching methods, introduce new forms of organization of the educational process).

The functions of the teacher are to form goal-setting procedures for students; to study and know the goals of each of them, to contribute to the realization of useful goals. The goals of students should be included in the pedagogical process on a par with the goals set by the teacher. The coincidence of the goals of the teacher and students is the most important condition for the success of the pedagogical process.

Goal development - the process is logical and constructive, its essence is to:

1) compare, summarize certain information;

2) make a choice of the most significant information;

3) on its basis, formulate a goal, i.e., determine the object of the goal, the subject of the goal and the necessary specific actions.

Object of pedagogical goal - a specific student or group of students in certain role positions.

The subject of the pedagogical goal - this is the side of the personality of the pupil, which must be transformed in this pedagogical process;

4) make a decision to achieve the goal, implement the goal.

16. Pedagogical technologies

Technology - a body of knowledge about the methods and means of carrying out production processes.

The totality of knowledge about the methods and means of conducting the educational process can be called technology of the educational process.

In domestic literature, the concept "learning technology" expanded to the term "pedagogical technologies", understanding by this the meaningful technique of the educational process.

The most capacious meaning of the term "pedagogical technologies" conveys the following definition.

Pedagogical technologies - this is a way to implement the content of training provided for by the curriculum, representing a system of forms, methods and means of training that ensures the most effective achievement of the goals.

In teaching technology, the content, methods and means of teaching are interconnected and interdependent. The pedagogical skill of the teacher is to select the right content, apply the best methods and means of teaching in accordance with the program and the pedagogical tasks set.

The process of developing a specific pedagogical technology can be called pedagogical design process. The sequence of steps will be as follows:

- selection of the content of training provided for by the curriculum and curricula;

- the choice of priority goals for which the teacher should be oriented;

- the choice of technology focused on a set of goals or on one priority goal;

- development of training technology.

The design of teaching technology involves the design of the content of the discipline, the forms of organization of this process, the choice of methods and means of training.

Learning technology - a system category, the structural components of which are: learning objectives; content of training; means of pedagogical interaction (means of teaching and motivation), organization of the educational process; student, teacher; activity result.

Thus, learning technology involves the organization, management and control of the learning process. All aspects of this process are interconnected and influence each other.

To date, there is no clearly fixed classification of learning technologies, however, two gradations have been distinguished - traditional and innovative.

Traditional learning relies on explanatory-illustrative and reproductive methods, and its main essence is reduced to the process of transferring ready-made known knowledge to students.

New educational technologies arise as a result of scientific research, due to scientific discoveries. The development of cybernetics and computer technology has led to the development of programmed learning; the results of research into the patterns of development of human thinking have led to the development of problem-based learning; the activity approach arose on the basis of research by psychologists and philosophers in the field of human activity.

The formation of new technologies is carried out in the following sequence:

- identifying opportunities through basic research;

- determination of effectiveness through applied research;

- development of documentation, software and methodological tools; teacher training;

- replication and distribution of software.

17. Essence and direction of pedagogical innovations

Pedagogical innovations - these are ideas, processes, means and results taken in the unity of the qualitative improvement of the pedagogical system.

The pedagogical process takes place in the pedagogical system. Pedagogical system - this is a combination of components (parts), which remains stable with changes. If changes (innovations) exceed the allowable limit, the system collapses, and a new system with different properties appears in its place.

Higher productivity of the educational process is always a consequence of the improvement of the pedagogical system.

There are two main ways to improve the pedagogical system: intensive, extensive.

Intense way provides for the development of the pedagogical system due to internal reserves.

Extensive way development of the pedagogical system is based on attraction of additional capacities (investments) - new funds, equipment, technologies, investments, etc.

Western school develops along an extensive path, increasing the quantitative characteristics of the pedagogical product, mainly due to new information technologies, the redistribution of time for various types of educational activities, the differentiation and individualization of class work. At the same time, the question of improving the quality of the pedagogical product raises doubts.

The way out is the so-called "integrated innovations", opening up opportunities connection of intensive and extensive development paths pedagogical system.

The objects of innovation are the following pedagogical issues:

- increasing the motivation of educational activities;

- ways to increase the amount of material studied in the lesson;

- how to speed up the pace of learning;

- how to eliminate wasted time, etc.

The main directions of innovative transformations in pedagogy: the pedagogical system as a whole; educational establishments; pedagogical theory; teacher; learners; pedagogical technology; content; forms, methods, means; control; goals and results.

Innovation levels: low - innovations involving changes in the form of unusual names and wordings; average - change of forms, not affecting entities; tall - changing the system or its main components in essence.

More often Humanistic pedagogy is called innovative: it does not require an external restructuring of the pedagogical system; the effect of increased educational influence is achieved due to the internal restructuring of the system.

Humanistic Pedagogy - a system of scientific theories that affirms the pupil as an active, conscious, equal participant in the educational process, developing according to his abilities.

Distinctive features: a shift in priorities towards the development of mental, physical, intellectual, moral and other spheres of the personality instead of mastering the amount of information and forming a certain range of skills and abilities; concentration of efforts on the formation of a free personality, independently thinking and acting; providing appropriate organizational conditions for the successful achievement of the reorientation of the educational process.

Humanistic pedagogy requires school adaptation to students, providing an atmosphere of comfort and "psychological safety".

18. Innovative educational institutions

The educational institution is innovative, if a:

- the educational process is based on the principle of conformity to nature and the principles of classical pedagogy subordinate to it;

- the pedagogical system is evolving in a humanistic direction;

- the organization of the educational process does not lead to overloads of schoolchildren and teachers;

- improved results of the educational process are achieved not through the selection of students or teachers, but through the use of undisclosed and unused system capabilities;

- the productivity of the educational process is not a direct consequence of the introduction of expensive tools and media systems.

The innovation activity strategy requires a long-term study of the prospects for the development of an educational institution. After the development of the concept of innovation, there is the problem of the image of the educational institution.

Creating a positive image allows the school to solve the following main tasks:

- promote their achievements;

- lay in the image of the school the main goals to which it aspires;

- to stimulate a positive attitude of the general public towards the school.

Work on the formation of a positive image should be deployed in two main directions: inside the school and outside it.

During the perestroika period, various types of educational institutions began to be created, including those for children prone to mental activity - high schools и lyceums.

In accordance with the interpretation in the reference dictionary of Professor V.M. Polonsky high school - a general educational institution with an in-depth study of academic subjects, designed to ensure the variability of education depending on the direction of the educational institution, the study of educational disciplines and courses in the basic sciences in the profile (humanitarian, natural science, aesthetic, etc.) chosen by students.

Regulations on gymnasiums provides for the creation of gymnasiums of humanitarian, pedagogical, technical directions. The gymnasium includes pro-gymnasium (i-vii), gymnasium proper (viii-ix) classes and enrollment (grade xii, one year optional).

Lyceum - a general educational institution with in-depth study of disciplines in a specific profile. In contrast to the broad humanitarian gymnasium, this education has a narrower differentiation.

In the lyceum is given and pre-professional training. A lyceum, like a gymnasium, can exist in two versions: as a school of the 2nd and 3rd levels, or as a school that includes the senior level with a three-year term of study.

The main thing that distinguishes gymnasiums and lyceums from other types of educational institutions is their special philosophy, values, goals and image of the graduate, hard work on interdisciplinary coordination of training courses.

There should be enough gymnasiums and lyceums so that not a single intellectually gifted child ends up in a class for children with developmental delays, so that all children who need training in special technologies can have such an opportunity. At the same time, the main type of school will remain an ordinary general education school of an adaptive nature with a developed differentiation of education, with a wide range of various educational services that best meet the needs, requests, needs of the vast majority of children.

19. Educational systems

Pedagogical system - it is a holistic unity of all factors contributing to the achievement of the goals of human development.

Principles of the system functioning:

- optimality;

- Structurality - allocation of parts (components) of the system, their ordering and classification;

- functionality - as components of the system there are functions that regulate relations and connections in the system;

- integrativity - special attention is paid to the backbone elements that unite its components and contribute to the preservation and functioning of the whole.

Feature modern pedagogical science is comprehensive consideration of pedagogical activity, taking into account a wide range of both internal relations and external conjugated systems.

In systemic consideration, an object (phenomenon, process, relationship) is perceived not as a sum of parts, but as something whole.

Educational systems viewed as dynamic systems, the relationships between the components of which are constantly changing.

system-forming factor pedagogical process are its goals. If the goal is the formation of knowledge, then the learning process acquires an explanatory and illustrative character; if the main goal is the formation of cognitive independence, then the process acquires the features of partially problem-based learning; if the main task is set - the development of the individuality of the student and his personal qualities, then the process is a developing, holistic process of problem-developing education.

Pedagogical systems can be considered at the macro, meso and micro levels.

At the macro level - this is a state-public system of education and upbringing, regional education systems, etc.

At the mesolevel - this is the activity of educational institutions, children's organizations and other social institutions of society that realize pedagogical goals.

At the micro level - these are pedagogical systems that implement specific tasks; author's pedagogical systems; pedagogical systems that have developed within the framework of the activities of a group of teachers and students.

Components of the pedagogical system:

- activities of teachers and students;

- management activities aimed at creating conditions for solving educational problems;

- pedagogical means (content of pedagogical activity, forms and methods of pedagogical work).

The regularity of the pedagogical system is the connection between its components, they represent those essential connections on which the optimality of pedagogical tasks depends.

Factors, which have a significant impact on the management of the process of social development of the student's personality, are environment of the pedagogical system.

The functioning of the pedagogical system involves the interaction of its elements based on the implementation of internal and external relations, which allows you to achieve certain results in pedagogical activity.

Pedagogical systems are relatively independent and integral, directly generating the process of human development.

Pedagogical systems that involve direct contact with students are pedagogical systems in the family, at school, in external institutions at the place of residence, etc. The fundamental system is the pedagogical process.

20. Optimization of the pedagogical system

An enduring common innovation relating to the pedagogical system as a whole is optimization of the educational process. This idea was developed in the early 70s. Academician Yu.K. Babanskiy. Certain results were achieved, which are still significant for domestic pedagogy and schools.

Optimization - the process of the best option out of many possible.

Optimization can also be understood as the degree of compliance of the pedagogical system with the goals for which it was created.

The solution of optimization problems begins with the choice of a criterion. Optimality criterion - this is a sign on the basis of which the evaluation of possible options for the development of the process and the choice of the best of them is made.

Criteria for the optimality of the learning process (Yu.K. Babansky): the content, structure and logic of its functioning provide an effective and high-quality solution to the problems of teaching, educating and developing schoolchildren in accordance with the requirements of the state standard at the level of maximum learning opportunities for each student; the achievement of the set goals is ensured without exceeding the time allocated by the current plan for classroom activities, and also without exceeding the maximum time limits established by school and labor hygiene for homework of students and teachers, at the same time, it should prevent the facts of overwork of teachers and students.

Methodological basis optimization is systems approach, which requires considering all components of the pedagogical process in the unity of regular relationships, relying on the general theory of control of complex dynamic systems.

Main methodological requirements of optimization pedagogical system:

- holistic coverage of the optimization procedure of the entire system;

- support in choosing the best option for the entire system of laws of the educational process;

- consistent consideration of optimization opportunities for all components of the system;

- consideration of optimization as a constantly ongoing innovation process with ever higher tasks and more advanced technologies for their resolution.

Basic optimization methods:

- an integrated approach as a general requirement to prevent one-sidedness in the design, planning, implementation of practical activities, evaluation of results;

- concretization of tasks, taking into account the peculiarities of the pedagogical system;

- selection of the optimal variant of the content of the educational process by highlighting the main, interdisciplinary and interdisciplinary coordination, building a rational content structure;

- the choice of those methods and forms of the educational process that allow you to most successfully solve the tasks at the set time;

- implementation of differentiated and individual approaches to the weakest, the most prepared and all other students;

- a rational combination of management and self-management of educational activities, operational regulation and correction of its course. Gradual transformation of education into self-education, and education into self-education;

- analysis of the results of the educational process and the time spent to achieve them according to the established optimality criteria and in the ratio "costs - products".

21. Functions of a teacher

Teacher (teacher, lecturer, mentor, master) - a person who has special training and is professionally engaged in pedagogical activity.

Pedagogical function - the direction of application of professional knowledge and skills prescribed to the teacher.

The main directions of the application of pedagogical efforts are training, education, upbringing, development and formation of students.

Main function teachers - management of the processes of education, upbringing, development, formation.

1. Pedagogical functionsperformed by teachers at the preparatory stage each project (cycle) of educational activities.

Goal setting. The goal is the key result of pedagogical activity, it ideally anticipates and directs the movement of the common work of the teacher and his students towards their common result.

Diagnostic function. Management of the learning process is based primarily on the knowledge of students. Without knowledge of the characteristics of the physical and mental development of schoolchildren, their level of mental and moral education, the conditions of classroom and other education, etc., it is impossible to either set the goal correctly or choose the means to achieve it. The teacher must be fluent in predictive methods analysis of pedagogical situations.

predictive function. It is expressed in the teacher's ability to foresee the results of his activity in the existing specific conditions and, based on this, determine the strategy of his activity, evaluate the possibilities of obtaining a pedagogical product of a given quantity and quality.

Projective (projective) function consists in constructing a model of the forthcoming activity, choosing methods and means that allow achieving the goal under given conditions and at the set time, highlighting specific stages of achieving the goal, forming particular tasks for each of them, determining the types and forms of evaluating the results obtained, etc.

Scheduling function. Diagnosis, prognosis, project are the basis for the development of a plan for educational activities, the preparation of which completes the preparatory stage of the pedagogical process.

2. On implementation phase intentions teacher fulfills informational, organizational, evaluation, control and corrective functions.

Organizational The (organizational) activity of the teacher is connected mainly with the involvement of students in the planned work, cooperation with them in achieving the intended goal.

Information function. The teacher is the main source of information for students.

Control, evaluation and correction functions, sometimes combined in one, are necessary for the teacher, first of all, to create effective incentives, thanks to which the process will develop, and the planned changes will occur in it.

The collected information allows you to correct the course of the process, introduce effective incentives, and use effective means.

3. At the final stage pedagogical process the teacher performs analytical function, the main content of which is the analysis of the completed case.

In addition to his immediate professional functions, the teacher performs the functions of public, civil, family.

22. Requirements for a teacher

The first requirement for a professional teacher is to have pedagogical abilities, which represent the quality of the individual, integrated expressed in the propensity to work with children, love for children, getting pleasure from communicating with them.

Main ability groups

Organizational. They are manifested in the teacher's ability to rally students, keep them busy, share responsibilities, plan work, take stock of what has been done, etc.

Didactic. Specific skills to select and prepare educational material, visualization, equipment, accessible, clear, expressive, convincing and consistent presentation of educational material, stimulate the development of cognitive interests and spiritual needs, increase educational and cognitive activity, etc.

Perceptual, manifested in the ability to penetrate into the stuffy world of the educated, to objectively assess their emotional state, to identify the characteristics of the psyche.

Communicative abilities are manifested in the ability to establish pedagogically expedient relationships with students, their parents, colleagues, leaders of the educational institution.

suggestive abilities lie in the emotional-volitional influence on the trainees.

Research abilities, manifested in the ability to know and objectively evaluate pedagogical situations and processes.

Scientific and educationalreduced to the ability to assimilate scientific knowledge in the chosen field.

Important professional qualities of a teacher are diligence, efficiency, discipline, responsibility, the ability to set a goal, choose ways to achieve it, organization, perseverance, systematic and systematic improvement of one's professional level, the desire to constantly improve the quality of one's work, etc.

Required quality for a teacher humanism, i.e., the attitude towards a growing person as the highest value on earth, the expression of this attitude in specific deeds and actions. Students see these manifestations and follow them unconsciously at first, gradually gaining experience of a humane attitude towards people.

Professionally necessary qualities of a teacher are endurance and self-control.

The essential professional quality of a teacher is справедливость.

The educator must be demanding. This is the most important condition for its successful work. The teacher places high demands on himself. Pedagogical demands must be reasonable.

Pedagogical tact - this is the observance of a sense of proportion in communication with students. Tact is a concentrated expression of the mind, feelings and general culture of the educator. The core of the pedagogical tact is respect for the personality of the student.

Personal qualities in the teaching profession are inseparable from professionalacquired in the process of professional training, associated with the acquisition of special knowledge, skills, ways of thinking, methods of activity. Among them: possession of the subject of teaching, methods of teaching the subject, psychological preparation, general erudition, a broad cultural outlook, pedagogical skills, possession of technologies of pedagogical work, organizational skills, pedagogical technique, possession of communication technologies, oratory and other qualities.

23. Professional potential of a teacher

What matters is not the isolated qualities of the teacher, but their integral system. The systemic nature of teaching skills is reflected in the concept of "professional potential of a teacher", which combines many diverse and multi-level aspects of teacher training and activities.

Professional potential - this:

- the main characteristic of a teacher, which includes a set of natural and acquired qualities combined into a system that determine the ability of a teacher to fulfill his duties at a given level;

- the goal-adjusted ability of the teacher to realize it: in this case, we are talking about the ratio of intentions and achievements;

- the base of professional knowledge, skills in unity with the developed ability of the teacher to actively create, act, bring their intentions to life, achieve the planned results.

Professional potential is defined as a system of natural and acquired qualities in the process of professional training:

PPP \uXNUMXd Pnep + Pchip + Pdsp + Pdpd, where PPP is the professional potential of the teacher; Pnep - an unchanging part of the potential, due to the general innate abilities of the individual;

Pchip - a partially variable (progressive) part of the potential, due to the natural special abilities of the individual, the development of the latter in the process of professional training and practical activities;

Pdsp - potential component added by special training at the university (special);

Pdpd - part of the potential acquired in the process of practical activities of the teacher.

The RFP system contains structural parts, which are understood as major areas (aspects) of teacher training and their professional activities.

The general structure of the concept of "professional potential" is multifaceted.

On the one hand, PPP contains the ratio of orientation as an inclination towards pedagogical activity and the actual situation of activity. With this approach, the importance of the acquired and natural ability to engage in pedagogical activities is emphasized.

On the other hand, PPP reflects the attitude of the teacher to professional activities. This means that abilities alone, even when they exist, are not enough for the quality performance of professional duties.

On the third hand PPP is interpreted as an opportunity to perform one's work at the level of the requirements of the teaching profession, in combination with an individual understanding of the essence of the pedagogical process - the style of teaching and educational activities.

On the fourth side PPP is a concentration of acquired qualities, i.e. a system of knowledge, abilities, skills, ways of thinking and activity acquired in the process of training.

Common structural components pedagogical professional potential is intellectual, motivational, communicative, operational, creative.

Cultural, humanistic, activity components considered as general conditions in which professional activity takes place.

A general concept close to PPP is pedagogical professionalism, which means the ability to calculate the course of pedagogical processes, to foresee their consequences, while relying on knowledge of general circumstances, conditions and specific causes.

24. The structure of pedagogical activity and pedagogical skills

The following components are distinguished in the structure of pedagogical activity: gnostic, constructive, organizational and communicative.

Gnostic component - this is a system of knowledge and skills of a teacher, which form the basis of his professional activity, as well as certain properties of cognitive activity that affect its effectiveness. The knowledge system includes ideological, general cultural levels and the level of special knowledge.

К general cultural knowledge include knowledge in the field of art and literature, awareness and ability to navigate in matters of religion, law, politics, economics and social life, environmental problems; having meaningful interests and hobbies.

Special knowledge include knowledge of the subject, as well as knowledge of pedagogy, psychology and teaching methods.

Knowledge and skills, which form the basis of actual cognitive activity, i.e., activities to acquire new knowledge, are an important component of the gnostic component.

Structural or design abilities are decisive in achieving a high level of pedagogical excellence. The effectiveness of the use of all other knowledge depends on them. The psychological mechanism for the realization of these abilities is mental modeling of the educational process.

Design abilities provide a strategic orientation of pedagogical activity and are manifested in the ability to focus on the ultimate goal.

Structural Ability ensure the implementation of tactical goals: structuring the course, selecting specific content for individual sections, choosing the forms of conducting classes, etc.

Organizational skills serve not only the organization of the actual learning process, but also the self-organization of the teacher's activities.

From the level of development communicative ability and competence in communication depends on the ease of establishing contacts between the teacher and students and other teachers, as well as the effectiveness of this communication in terms of solving pedagogical problems. Communication is not limited to the transfer of knowledge, but also performs the function of emotional infection, arousing interest, encouraging joint activities, etc.

Can highlight several components of pedagogical skill (D. Allen, K. Rhine).

1. Variation in student stimulation.

2. Pedagogically competent summing up the results of the lesson or its separate part.

4. Use of pauses or non-verbal means of communication.

5. Skillful application of the system of positive and negative reinforcement.

6. Statement of leading questions and verification questions.

7. Asking questions that lead the student to generalize the educational material.

8. The use of divergent type tasks in order to stimulate creative activity.

9. Determining the concentration of attention, the degree of involvement of the student in mental work according to the external signs of his behavior.

10. Use of illustrations and examples.

11. Use of reception of repetition.

The professional competence of a teacher implies that he has a wide range of professional knowledge and skills.

25. Pedagogical qualimetry and certification of teachers

The main meaning of the term "qualimetry" (From Lat. cval - quality and meters - measure) - the direction of pedagogical research, the main content of which is the measurement and evaluation of pedagogical parameters and characteristics. However, a similar concept is more common, formed from two disparate parts - the Russian "qualification" and the Latin "metros" (measurement), which denotes the area of pedagogical research aimed at diagnosing the specific professional qualities of teachers. The combination of these qualities is called professionalism, skill, innovation, and the methodology for their assessment is traditionally defined as certification (of teachers, educational institutions).

Questions that now belong to the field of pedagogical qualimetry have always been solved, but at a qualitative, non-metric level, without the use of modern quantitative methods.

Teacher certification - study of teachers in order to establish compliance with the position held and assign one of the qualification categories.

The Regulations on the procedure for attestation of teachers provide an explanation that the certification of pedagogical workers of educational institutions is carried out in accordance with the goal of enhancing creative professional activity, stimulating continuous professional education, increasing teachers' motivation for quality work, professional responsibility for the results of training and education.

Teacher certification is carried out on the basis of an expert assessment of labor: its effectiveness and the quality of the educational process. It is carried out at the request of teachers and is based on the principles of democracy, collegiality, moral and material encouragement, stimulation of continuous education, and publicity.

Qualification serves as a mechanism for ensuring certification, provides for it the necessary tools, research tools.

The assignment of the title takes place on the basis of documentary materials (experience, characteristics and a document on the completion of advanced training courses), analysis of teaching activities and the results of the teacher's work.

General requirements for evaluating a teacher's work

1. Result Criteria. One of the decisive indicators in the work of a teacher is the result of his pedagogical activity - the quality of students' knowledge in the subject, their upbringing:

- stock of factual knowledge on the subject;

- the ability to use the acquired knowledge;

- understanding the essence of processes and phenomena in nature and society;

- the degree of independence of students, the ability to acquire knowledge;

- their attitude to business, behavior at school and outside of school, activity in social useful labor activity, their aesthetic and physical culture.

2. Process Criteria. In order to determine the level of preparation and pedagogical skills of the teacher, the following are studied:

- the teacher's work on improving their qualifications;

- the quality of lessons, extracurricular educational activities and educational activities;

- the ability of the teacher to carry out an individual approach to students in the process of education and upbringing;

- work with parents and help the family in raising children.

When evaluating the professionalism and work of a teacher, it is also important to take into account his personal qualities.

26. General concept of didactics

In the modern sense didactics is the most important branch of scientific knowledge that studies and investigates the problems of teaching and education. For the first time this word appeared in the writings of a German teacher Wolfgang Rathke (Ratichia) to denote the art of learning. The Czech teacher also used this concept in the same sense. Jan Amos Comenius. Remain unchanged since the time of Ratikhia main tasks of didactics - development of problems: what to teach and how to teach; modern science is also intensively investigating the problems: when, where, whom and why to teach.

Didactics - theoretical and at the same time normative-applied science. Its basis is the general theory of education, the foundations of this theory are fundamental for all educational sciences.

The object of study of didactics are real learning processes.

Didactic studies make real learning processes their object, provide knowledge about the regular connections between its various aspects, reveal the essential characteristics of the structural and content elements of the learning process. This is scientific and theoretical function of didactics.

The theoretical knowledge obtained allows us to solve many problems associated with learning, namely: to bring the content of education in line with changing goals, to establish the principles of learning, to determine the optimal possibilities of teaching methods and means, to design new educational technologies, etc. All this speaks of normative-applied (constructive) function of didactics.

Didactics covers the system of education in all subjects and at all levels of educational activity. According to the width of coverage of the studied reality, they distinguish general and particular didactics.

General didactics explores the process of teaching and learning along with the factors that give rise to it, the conditions in which it takes place, and the results to which it leads.

Private (concrete) didactics are called teaching methods. They study the patterns of the process, content, forms and methods of teaching various subjects. Each subject has its own methodology.

As a branch of scientific knowledge, didactics solves a number of theoretical problems:

- setting goals and objectives of the theory;

- analysis of the learning process, the establishment of its patterns;

- substantiation of the principles and rules of training;

- determination of the content and forms of organization of training;

- explanation of methods and means of training;

- characteristics of teaching materials.

The interaction and interconnection of didactics with other sciences, for example, with philosophy, sociology, logic, psychology, cybernetics, mathematics, etc., is traced. The philosophical theory of knowledge forms the methodological basis of didactics. The study of the laws of the functioning and development of society, social relations brings didactics closer to sociology.

The development of the modern didactic system is called the process of democratization and humanization.

The difference between modern didactics is that the goal of learning is the overall development of the individual, the learning process is seen as a two-way process managed by the teacher, while taking into account the interests and needs of the students.

27. Main categories of didactics

The main categories of didactics are: teaching, teaching, learning, education, knowledge, skills, purpose, content, organization, types, forms, methods, learning outcomes (products).

Consequently, the didactics - this is the science of training and education, their goals, content, methods, means, organization, results achieved.

Teaching - the ordered activity of the teacher to achieve the goal of learning (educational tasks), providing information, education, awareness and practical application of knowledge.

Teachings - a process (more precisely, a co-process), in the course of which, on the basis of cognition, exercise and acquired experience, new forms of behavior and activity arise, and previously acquired ones change.

Training - the ordered interaction of the teacher with students, aimed at achieving the goal.

Education - a system acquired in the process of learning knowledge, skills, ways of thinking.

Knowledge - concepts, schemes, facts, laws, patterns, a generalized picture of the world that have become the property of human consciousness. Knowledge can be empirical acquired through experience, and theoretical obtained as a result of consideration of patterns, connections, relationships between objects and phenomena. Knowledge plays a stimulating and regulating role. Their structure is the unity of cognitive, emotional, motivational and volitional components.

Skills - mastering the ways (techniques, actions) of applying the acquired knowledge in practice.

Skills - skills brought to automatism, a high degree of perfection. Skills are sensory, mental, motor, complex.

Goal (educational, educational) - what education strives for, the future towards which its efforts are directed.

Content (training, education) - a system of scientific practical skills, methods of activity and thinking that students need to master in the learning process.

Organization - streamlining the didactic process according to certain criteria, giving it the necessary form for the best realization of the goal.

Form - a way of existence of the educational process, a shell for its inner essence, logic and content. The form is primarily related to the number of trainees, the time and place of training, the order of its implementation, etc.

Method - the way to achieve (realize) the goals and objectives of training.

Means - subject support of the educational process. The means are the voice (speech) of the teacher, his skills in a broad sense, textbooks, classroom equipment, etc.

The results (learning products) - this is what learning comes to, the final consequences of the educational process, the degree of realization of the intended goal.

Recently, the status of the main didactic categories has been proposed to be assigned to the concepts didactic system (a set of methods, means and processes aimed at achieving the effectiveness of the educational process) and learning technologies (system of techniques, methods).

There is a close relationship between the main didactic categories as structural components of an integral didactic process, but at the same time, each category remains an independent element of the didactic system.

28. Basic didactic concepts

The learning process is based on psychological and pedagogical concepts, which are often also called didactic systems.

Under didactic system is understood as a holistic education selected according to certain criteria.

Didactic systems characterized by the internal integrity of structures formed by the unity of goals, organizational principles, content, forms and methods of teaching.

There are three fundamentally different didactic concepts:

1) traditional (J.A. Comenius, I. Pestolozzi, I. Herbart);

2) pedocentric (D. Dewey, G. Kershenstein, V. Lai);

3) modern didactic system (P. Galperin, L. Zankov, V. Davydov, K. Rogers, Bruner).

The division of concepts into three groups is based on how the learning process is understood.

В traditional education system the dominant role is played by teaching, the activity of the teacher.

Herbart's didactics is characterized by such concepts as management, teacher guidance, regulations, rules, prescriptions.

Herbart's main contribution to didactics consists in isolating the stages (steps) of learning. His scheme is as follows: clarity - association - system - method. The learning process proceeds from ideas to concepts and from concepts to theoretical skills. There is no practice in this scheme. These formal levels do not depend on the content of education, they determine the course of the educational process in all lessons and in all subjects.

By the beginning of the XX century. new approaches are born. The traditional system has been criticized for its authoritarianism, bookishness, isolation from the needs and interests of the child, for the fact that this education system only transfers ready-made knowledge to the child, but does not contribute to the development of thinking, activity, creativity, and suppresses the independence of the student.

At the heart pedocentric concept - the activity of the child, the main role is given to teaching.

Dewey proposed to build the learning process based on the needs, interests and abilities of the child, seeking to develop the mental abilities and various skills of children, teaching them in the "school of work, life", when learning is independent, natural, spontaneous in nature, students acquire knowledge in the course of their spontaneous activity, i.e. "learning through doing".

The absolutization of such didactics leads to an overestimation of the spontaneous activity of children, to the loss of systematic teaching, to a random selection of material, and to a decrease in the level of education.

The modern didactic concept is created by such areas as programmed, problem-based learning, developmental learning (P. Galperin, L. Zankov, V. Davydov), humanistic psychology (K. Rogers), cognitive psychology (Bruner), pedagogical technology and pedagogy of cooperation.

The goals of education in these modern approaches include not only the formation of knowledge, but also the general development of students, their intellectual, labor, artistic skills, the satisfaction of the cognitive and spiritual needs of students. Pedagogical cooperation is a humanistic idea of joint developmental activities of children and teachers based on mutual understanding, penetration into each other's spiritual world, collective analysis of the course and results of this activity.

29. The essence of the learning process

Education - a socially conditioned process, caused by the need to reproduce a person as a subject of social relations. Hence the most important social function of learning - the formation of a personality that meets social requirements.

Training there is a specially organized process of active interaction between the student and the teacher, as a result of which the student develops certain knowledge, skills and abilities based on his own activity. BUT teacher creates for student activity the necessary conditions, directs it, controls it, provides it with the necessary means and information. Learning function consists in the maximum adaptation of symbolic and material means for the formation of people's ability to act. Training there is a purposeful pedagogical process of organizing and stimulating active educational and cognitive activity of students in mastering scientific knowledge, skills and abilities, developing creative abilities, worldview and moral and aesthetic views.

In the modern sense learning is characterized by the following features:

- bilateral nature;

- joint activities of teachers and students;

- guidance from the teacher;

- special systematic organization and management;

- integrity and unity;

- compliance with the laws of age development of students;

- Management of the development and education of students.

During the learning process, you need to solve the following tasks:

- stimulation of educational and cognitive activity of trainees;

- organization of their cognitive activity to master scientific knowledge and skills;

- development of thinking, memory, creative abilities;

- improvement of training skills and abilities;

- development of a scientific outlook and moral and aesthetic culture.

Structural elements of the learning process: goals and objectives of training; content of training; subjects of learning; teaching methods; forms of organization of training, learning outcomes.

The organization of training is the teacher implements the following components:

- setting goals of educational work;

- formation of students' needs in mastering the studied material;

- determination of the content of the material to be mastered by students;

- organization of educational and cognitive activities for students to master the studied material;

- giving the educational activity of students an emotionally positive character;

- regulation and control over the educational activities of students;

- evaluation of the results of students' activities.

Parallel students carry out educational and cognitive activities, which in turn is of the following components:

- awareness of the goals and objectives of training;

- development and deepening of the needs and motives of educational and cognitive activity;

- understanding the topic of new material and the main issues to be mastered;

- perception, comprehension, memorization of educational material, application of knowledge in practice and subsequent repetition;

- manifestation of emotional attitude and volitional efforts in educational and cognitive activity;

- self-control and making adjustments to educational and cognitive activity;

- self-assessment of the results of their educational and cognitive activities.

30. The unity of the educational, developmental and educational functions of education

Learning Functions characterize the essence of the learning process, while problem are one of the components of learning.

educational function is that the learning process is aimed primarily at the formation of knowledge, skills, experience of creative activity. Assimilated, internalized knowledge is characterized by completeness, consistency, awareness and effectiveness. Modern didactics believes that knowledge is found in the skills of the student and that, consequently, education consists not so much in the formation of "abstract" knowledge, but in the development of skills to use it to obtain new knowledge and solve life problems. Therefore, the educational function of learning assumes that learning, along with knowledge, is aimed at the formation of skills and abilities, both general and special. Special Skills relate to the methods of activity in certain branches of science, academic subject. To general skills and abilities include the possession of oral and written speech, information materials, reading, working with a book, summarizing, etc.

Developmental function learning means that in the process of learning, assimilation of knowledge, the development of the student takes place. This development occurs in all directions: the development of speech, thinking, sensory and motor spheres of the personality, emotional-volitional and need-motivational areas. The developmental function of learning is essentially the problem of the relationship between learning and development - one of the most acute issues in psychology and modern didactics.

The modern organization of education is aimed not so much at the formation of knowledge, but at the versatile development of the student, primarily mental, teaching the methods of mental activity, analysis, comparison, classification, teaching the ability to observe, draw conclusions, highlight the essential features of objects, teaching the ability to identify goals and methods activities and check their results.

Any teaching leads to development, but training is developmental in nature, if it is specifically aimed at the development of the individual, which should be realized both in the selection of the content of education and in the didactic organization of the educational process.

The learning process is also nurturing character. Pedagogical science believes that relationship between education and training is an objective regularity, just as link between learning and development. However, upbringing in the learning process is complicated by the influence of external factors (family, microenvironment, etc.), which makes upbringing a more complex process.

educational function learning lies in the fact that in the process of learning moral and aesthetic ideas are formed, a system of views on the world, the ability to follow the norms of behavior in society, to comply with the laws adopted in it. In the learning process, the needs of the individual, the motives of social behavior, activities, values and value orientation, worldview are also formed.

In order to have a formative effect on students in learning, the teacher must, firstly, analyze and select educational material in terms of its educational potential, and secondly, build the learning and communication process in such a way as to stimulate the personal perception of educational information by students, cause their active evaluative attitude to the studied, to form their interests, needs, humanistic orientation.

31. Characteristics of the principles of education

Learning principles - these are the main provisions that determine the content, organizational forms and methods of the educational process in accordance with its general goals and patterns.

Acting as categories of didactics, the principles of learning characterize the ways in which laws and regularities are used in accordance with the intended goals.

The identification of a system of principles is based on the personal-activity and managerial approaches reflected in the works of Yu.K. Babansky, V.I. Zagvyazinsky, M.N. Skatkin and others.

The fundamental principles of teaching are as follows.

1. The principle of developing and nurturing education suggests that education is aimed at the goals of the comprehensive development of the individual, at the formation of not only knowledge and skills, but certain moral and aesthetic qualities that serve as the basis for choosing life ideals and social behavior.

2. The principle of scientificity requires that the content of education introduce students to objective scientific facts, theories, laws, and reflect the current state of science. This principle is embodied in curricula and textbooks, in the selection of the studied material, and also in the fact that schoolchildren are taught the elements of scientific research, the methods of science, and the methods of scientific organization of educational work.

3. The principle of systematic and consistent involves the teaching and assimilation of knowledge in a certain order, system. It requires a logical construction of both the content and the learning process, which is expressed in the observance of a number of rules.

The requirement of systematic and consistent teaching is aimed at maintaining the continuity of the content and procedural aspects of learning, in which each lesson is a logical continuation of the previous one both in terms of the content of the studied educational material and in the nature and methods of educational and cognitive activity performed by students.

4. The principle of linking learning with practice provides that the learning process stimulates students to use the acquired knowledge in solving practical problems, analyze and transform the surrounding reality, developing their own views. One of the significant channels for implementing the principle of linking learning with practice and life is the active involvement of students in socially useful activities at school and beyond.

5. The principle of accessibility requires taking into account the characteristics of the development of students, analyzing the material from the point of view of their real capabilities and organizing training in such a way that they do not experience intellectual, moral, physical overload.

6. The principle of visibility - one of the oldest and most important in didactics - means that the effectiveness of training depends on the appropriate involvement of the senses in the perception and processing of educational material. The use of visualization should be to the extent that it contributes to the formation of knowledge and skills, the development of thinking.

7. The principle of consciousness and activity students in learning is one of the main principles of the modern didactic system, according to which learning is effective when students show cognitive activity, are subjects of activity.

8. Strength principle based on the strength of fixing knowledge in the memory of students.

32. Patterns of learning, their classification

One of the functions of didactics as a science is the knowledge of the learning process. The result of this knowledge is the identification of the patterns of the didactic educational process, which is considered as a system, the components of which are different aspects of the integral process.

1. Didactic component, summarizing the didactic characteristics of the process.

2. Gnoseological component process, defining it in the aspect of students' cognition under the guidance of a teacher of objective reality, facts and laws of nature and society, themselves.

3. Psychological component, relating mainly to the internal, mental (cognitive) activity of students in the learning process.

4. In cybernetic aspect reflects all the variety of connections that exist in the educational process, the circulation of information flows, and most importantly - the management of the assimilation of information.

5. Sociological component covers the relationship between participants in the educational process.

6. Organizational component reflects the educational process in the aspect of intellectual work.

All regularities operating in the educational process are divided into general and private (specific).

General patterns cover the entire system.

Particular (specific) regularities cover by their action individual components (aspects) of the system.

Among the specific regularities of the learning process, regularities are distinguished: didactic, epistemological, psychological, cybernetic, sociological, organizational.

General patterns learning process are characterized by:

- the allocation of general or complex factors that determine the productivity of training by their influence;

- a certain selection of entities and fixations, common links between them;

- conciseness and accuracy of wording.

General patterns of the learning process

1. The regularity of the learning goal.

The purpose of training depends on: the level and pace of development of society; needs and opportunities of society; level of development and opportunities of pedagogical science and practice.

2. The regularity of the content of training. The content of training (education) depends on: social needs and learning objectives; rates of social and scientific and technical progress; age possibilities of schoolchildren; the level of development of the theory and practice of teaching; material-technical and economic opportunities of educational institutions.

3. The regularity of the quality of education.

The effectiveness of each new stage of training depends on: the productivity of the previous stage and the results achieved on it; nature and volume of the studied material; organizational-pedagogical impact of educators; student learning; learning time.

4. Pattern of teaching methods.

The effectiveness of didactic methods depends on: knowledge and skills in applying methods; learning objectives; content of training; the age of the students; learning opportunities (learning ability) of students; logistics; organization of the educational process.

5. Pattern of learning management.

The productivity of learning depends on: the intensity of feedback in the learning system; validity of corrective actions.

6. Learning Stimulation Pattern.

The productivity of learning depends on: internal incentives (motives) for learning; external incentives.

33. Influence of learning factors on the productivity of the didactic process

As a result of the research, four general factors have been identified that determine the complex formation of the products of the didactic process: 1) educational material; 2) organizational and pedagogical influence; 3) learnability of students; 4) time.

Educational material contains the general causes of information origin.

As part of this factor, two complex ones are distinguished: objective (pure) information - the content, quantity of educational material, its quality, form of presentation; information acquired in the process of didactic processing - method, structure, accessibility of presentation.

As part of factor of organizational and pedagogical influence there are two complex

- a factor of organizational and pedagogical influence in the classroom - teaching and learning methods, organizational forms, learning situations, teacher performance, student performance, monitoring and verification of work results, type and structure of the lesson, practical application of receiving knowledge, skills, use of teaching aids, equipment educational process, learning conditions;

- a factor of influence with educational goals outside of school hours - the volume and nature of assistance from parents, adults, friends; mode of educational work; adult supervision; using the media for purposes, reading literature; organization of independent educational work; participation in circles; communication with adults for cognitive purposes and many other factors.

Student learning factor - this is the ability of students to learn and the ability to achieve the projected results in a set time. In this factor, two complex factors are also distinguished:

- learning factor in the classroom - the level of general training (erudition) of students; the ability to master certain educational material, the assimilation of knowledge, skills; general abilities for educational and cognitive activity; general characteristics of attention; peculiarities of students' thinking when studying a particular academic subject; general characteristics of thinking; psychological setting for conscious and lasting assimilation of educational material; learning motivation; the rate of assimilation of knowledge and skills; student health; the age of the trainees; their value orientations; discipline; orientation to the future profession; lifestyle and many other reasons;

- learning factor in extracurricular activities - self-control; will and perseverance; purposefulness; performance; value orientations; stimulation; motivation; health status; features of the perception of cognitive activity in general; capabilities; speed of memorization and assimilation; level and features of thinking; age and individual characteristics, etc.

В time factor can be distinguished:

- the factor of spending time directly at the lesson;

- the factor of time spent on self-preparation.

Among the above factors of learning, the factor of organizational and pedagogical influence has the greatest productive effect. Therefore, in the practice of organizing the didactic process, it is necessary, first of all, to take care of the proper conditions for learning, providing the educational process with the necessary means, the use of effective technologies, teaching methods, and the use of progressive organizational forms.

34. Motives as the main driving forces of the didactic process

Motivation (from lat. move - move) - a common name for processes, methods, means of encouraging students to productive cognitive activity, active development of the content of education.

Motivation as a process of changing states and attitudes of an individual is based on motives, which means specific motives, reasons forcing a person to act, to perform actions.

In the role of motives are interconnected needs и interests, aspirations и emotions, install и ideals.

It is possible to classify the motives operating in the learning system according to various criteria.

1. By species stand out social and educational motives.

2. By levels these motives are divided into:

- on the broad social motives - duty, responsibility, understanding of the social significance of the doctrine;

- narrow social (positional) motives - the desire to occupy a certain position in the future, to gain recognition from others, to receive a decent reward for one's work;

- motives social cooperation - orientation to various ways of interacting with others, assertion of the role and position in the class;

- broad cognitive motives - orientation to erudition, are realized as satisfaction from the very process of learning and its results;

- educational and educational motives - orientation to ways of obtaining knowledge, assimilation of specific academic subjects;

- motives self-education - Orientation to the acquisition of knowledge.

3. In practical pedagogy, these motives are combined into groups according to focus и content: social (social value); cognitive; professional value; aesthetic; communication; status-positional; traditional-historical; utilitarian-practical (mercantile).

4. Incentive motives underlie various purposeful actions, meaningful "transfer" socially significant values to the personal level.

5. Motives for teaching external (come from teachers, parents, class, society as a whole and take the form of tips, hints, requirements, instructions) and internal.

6. Exist conscious и unconscious motives. Conscious are expressed in the ability of the student to talk about what reasons prompt him to act, to build motivations according to their significance. Unconscious motives are only felt in vague, not controlled by consciousness drives.

7. Motives real, perceived by students and teachers, objectively determining school achievements, and motives imaginary (contrived, illusory) that could act under certain circumstances.

One of the permanent potent motives of human activity is interest - the real reason for the action, felt by the person as especially important. The interests of trainees depend on the level and quality of their knowledge, the formation of ways of mental activity. The interests of schoolchildren also depend on their attitude towards teachers.

Ways and means of forming sustainable cognitive interests: novelty of educational material; the use of new, non-traditional forms of education; alternation of forms and teaching methods; showing the achievements of trainees; creating situations of success; trust in the student and much more.

Closely related to motives are needs, which are the source of activity and its driving force.

35. The concept of the content of education and the principles of its formation

Content of education is one of the basic concepts in didactics.

Under content of education one should understand the system of scientific knowledge, practical skills, as well as philosophical and moral and aesthetic ideas that students need to master in the learning process, this is that part of the social experience of generations that is selected in accordance with the goals of human development and transmitted in the form of information to him.

The content of education at all its levels should be aimed at achieving the main goal of education - the formation of a comprehensively and harmoniously developed personality.

The content of education should be built on a strictly scientific basis, include only facts and theoretical positions firmly established in science, educational material should correspond to the current state of science, and contribute to the formation of a life position.

General principles for the formation of the content of education

1. Humanistwhich ensures the priority of universal human values and human health, free development of the individual.

2. Scientific, which manifests itself in accordance with the knowledge offered for study at school with the latest achievements of scientific, social and cultural progress.

3. Sequences, which consists in planning the content that develops in an ascending line, where each new knowledge relies on the previous one and follows from it.

4. Historicism, meaning the reproduction in school courses of the history of the development of a particular branch of science, human practice, coverage of the activities of outstanding scientists in connection with the problems under study.

5. Systematic, involving the consideration of the knowledge being studied and the skills being formed in the system, the construction of all training courses and the entire content of school education as systems that are included in each other and in the general system of human culture.

6. Connections with life as a way to test the effectiveness of the knowledge and skills being studied and as a universal means of reinforcing education with real practice.

7. Compliance with age capabilities and the level of preparedness of students who are offered this or that system of knowledge and skills for mastering.

8. Availability, determined by the structure of curricula and programs, the way of presenting scientific knowledge in educational books, as well as the order of introduction and the optimal number of scientific concepts and terms studied.

General education at school should be combined with technical and labor training, and promote the professional orientation of students. General education aims to master the basics of the most important sciences of nature and society, the development of worldview and moral and aesthetic culture. Technical education introduces students in theory and practice to the main branches of industrial production.

Requirements for the content of education in a secondary general education school are determined state strategy for the development of education. Two aspects can be traced in the content of education - national and universal. The general bases for determining the content of education are: humanization, differentiation, integration, widespread use of new information technologies, the formation of a creative personality as a condition and result of a full-fledged, multicomponent learning process.

36. Theories of the organization of the content of education

The content of education is greatly influenced by the methodological positions of scientists and teachers. The two most popular theories are material and formal education.

Supporters material education share the point of view of Ya.A. Comenius, according to which the main goal of the school is to transfer to students as much knowledge as possible from various fields of science. A graduate who has gone through a good school should become encyclopedically educated.

Many famous educators of the XNUMXth century were adherents of material education. encyclopedic model was adopted in most prestigious educational institutions in Europe, in particular in Russian classical gymnasiums. Along with undeniable advantages, material education also has disadvantages. This is a weak connection between courses overflowing with educational material that is not always necessary for the development of students. Under these conditions, the teacher is forced to hurriedly, often superficially teach the subject, training programs can only be drawn up according to a linear scheme.

In contrast to the representatives of encyclopedism, supporters didactic formalism (Locke, Pestalozzi, Kant, Herbart) aimed not so much at mastering actual knowledge by students, but at developing their mind, their abilities for analysis, synthesis, logical thinking, and considered the best means for this to be the study of Greek and Latin languages, mathematics, while underestimating the importance of the humanities for the formation of a comprehensively developed personality.

K.D. Ushinsky criticized the theories of formal and material education, arguing that it is necessary not only to develop students, but also to equip them with knowledge and teach them to use it in practical activities.

Didactic utilitarianism (D. Dewey, G. Kershensteiner and others) proceeds from the priority of the individual and social activities of the student. He should be engaged in those activities that allowed civilization to reach the modern level. Therefore, attention should be focused on constructive activities: teaching children to cook, sew, introduce them to needlework, etc. Information of a more general nature is concentrated around these utilitarian knowledge and skills. Didactic utilitarianism has had a strong influence on both the content and methods of work in the American school.

Problem-complex theory, proposed by the Polish scientist B. Sukhodolsky, suggests studying individual school subjects not separately, but in a complex way, making problems the solution of which requires the use of knowledge from various fields as the subject of students' cognitive activity. This theory has much in common with the "method of projects" well-known in the history of pedagogy.

The content of education, according to the Polish professor of pedagogy K. Sosnitsky, should be organized in the form of a grid of large structures containing the main backbone components. Hence the name of the theory - structuralism. This is the only way to avoid overloading the content and reduce the volume of educational material without compromising the quality of education. In high school, the principles of systematicity, consistency and historicism should be abandoned, organizing structures according to a logical principle. This principle applies only to the study of exact subjects.

37. State standard

Standardization of education is one of the trends in its development. The main regulatory document along with the Law "On Education" is the state educational standard.

educational standard - this is a mandatory level of requirements for the general education of graduates and the content, methods, forms, means of training and control corresponding to these requirements.

In the state standard of general education, three components:

- federal;

- national-regional;

- local, school.

В federal component reflects the standards that ensure the unity of the pedagogical space of Russia and the integration of the individual into the system of world culture.

National-regional the component is made up of norms in the field of studying the native language, history, geography, art and other academic subjects that reflect the specifics of the functioning and development of the region, the people inhabiting it.

school component reflects the specifics of the functioning of a single educational institution.

As part of federal and national-regional levels of education standard includes:

- a description of the content of education at each of its levels, which the state is obliged to provide to the student in the amount of the necessary general education;

- requirements for the minimum necessary training of students within the specified scope of content;

- the maximum allowable amount of teaching load by year of study.

В substantive aspect the standard of the secondary school provides:

- possession of basic concepts;

- knowledge of theories, concepts, laws and regularities of the foundations of science, its history, methodology, problems and forecasts;

- the ability to apply scientific knowledge in practice in solving cognitive (theoretical) and practical problems both in a stable (standard) and in a changing (non-standard) situation;

- have their own judgments in the field of theory and practice of this educational area;

- knowledge of the main problems of society (Russia) and understanding of one's role in their solution;

- possession of the technology of continuous self-education by branches of knowledge, sciences and types of activity.

The foregoing is the general basis for the standardization of education by stages, levels of education and is specified by educational areas, specific academic disciplines, and already on the basis of the requirements for the level of presentation of educational material and the mandatory preparation of the student, a system of tasks (tests) is developed that serve as tools for monitoring and evaluation the level of preparation of schoolchildren.

State educational standards acquire a real embodiment in the formation of the content of education in the following regulatory documents: curriculum, curriculum and educational literature (textbooks, teaching aids, task books, etc.).

Each of these normative documents corresponds to a certain level of designing the content of school education. Curriculum - the level of theoretical ideas; curriculum - the level of the subject; educational literature - the level of educational material.

38. Curriculum

Educational plans - regulatory documents that guide the activities of the school.

Several types of curricula are used in the practice of a modern general education school.

Basic plan educational institutions is the main state normative document, which is an integral part of the state standard in this area of education. It is approved by the State Duma (for a basic school) or the Ministry of General and Vocational Education of the Russian Federation (for a complete secondary school). Being part of the state standard, the basic curriculum is state norm of general secondary education, which establishes requirements for the structure, content and level of education of students.

The basic curriculum covers the following range of standards:

- duration of training (in academic years) overall and for each of its levels;

- weekly teaching load for the core areas at each level of general secondary education, compulsory classes of students' choice and optional classes;

- the maximum mandatory weekly study load of a student, including the number of study hours devoted to compulsory elective classes;

- the total number of study hours funded by the state (the maximum mandatory study load for schoolchildren, extracurricular activities, individual and extracurricular work, division of study groups into subgroups).

The core curriculum serves the foundation for the development of regional, model curricula and the source document for school funding.

Model Curriculum - is advisory in nature and is developed on the basis of a basic plan. Approved by the Ministry of General and Vocational Education of the Russian Federation. This type of curriculum is not always suitable for new educational institutions (gymnasiums, lyceums, higher vocational schools) that develop their own documents.

The curriculum of the secondary school is developed on the basis of the state basic and regional curricula. It reflects the characteristics of a particular school. There are two types of school curricula:

- the actual curriculum of the school, which is developed on the basis of the basic curriculum for a long period. It reflects the characteristics of a particular school;

- a working curriculum, developed taking into account current conditions and approved annually by the school council.

The content of education of an educational institution of any type reflects the division of education into fundamental and technological. The fundamental component manifests itself to a greater extent in primary and secondary schools. At the senior level, the volume of technological training is enhanced.

Educational areas and, on their basis, the acquisition of curricula of the corresponding levels of educational institutions allows us to distinguish two types of education: theoretical and practical.

In the structure of the curriculum, there are invariant part (core), ensuring the familiarization of students with general cultural and nationally significant values and the formation of personal qualities of the student and variable partwhich ensures the individual character of the development of students.

The curricula highlight federal, national-regional and school components.

39. Characteristics of curricula

Based on the curriculum are compiled learning programs in all subjects.

Training program - This is a normative document that outlines the range of basic knowledge, skills and abilities to be mastered in each individual subject. It includes:

- a list of topics of the studied material;

- recommendations on the amount of time for each topic;

- their distribution by years of study;

- the time allotted for the study of the entire course. There are several types of training programs:

- standard programs;

- working school programs;

- personal-individual author's programs, which are compiled and applied by innovative teachers, masters of pedagogical work.

Typical Programs are approved by the Ministry of General and Vocational Education of the Russian Federation and are advisory in nature. They outline only the most generalized, basic circle of general educational knowledge, skills, abilities and a system of leading scientific worldview ideas, as well as the most general methodological recommendations listing the necessary and sufficient means and teaching methods specific to a particular academic subject.

On the basis of typical work programswhich, as a rule, reflect the national-regional component, local or school, take into account the possibilities of the methodological potential of teaching, as well as information, technical support and, of course, the level of preparedness of students.

Author's programs differ both in the logic of building the course, and in the depth of the questions and theories raised in them, and in the nature of their coverage by the author of the program. They are most often used in the teaching of special elective courses, compulsory electives and other academic subjects. Such programs, subject to reviews, are approved by the school council.

The curriculum is structurally composed of three main components:

- an explanatory note that sets out the goals and objectives of studying the subject;

- content, including a list of topics, the distribution of time for studying topics and sections, a list of recommended classes and teaching methods;

- guidelines on how to implement the program, concerning methods, organizational forms, teaching aids, as well as assessing the knowledge, skills and abilities acquired by students in the process of studying this academic subject.

Structurally, curricula are divided into linear, concentric, spiral and mixed.

RџSЂRё linear structure, individual parts of the material form a continuous sequence of closely interconnected links that are worked out during training, as a rule, once.

Concentric the structure implies a return to the knowledge being studied. The presentation of the same issue is gradually expanding, enriched with new information, connections and dependencies.

Recently, the so-called spiral way building school programs. A characteristic feature of the spiral structure of the presentation of the material is that students, without losing sight of the original problem, gradually increase and deepen the circle of knowledge related to it.

Mixed combine linear and concentric schemes, which allows flexible distribution of educational material.

40. Textbooks and study guides

The content of education is detailed in educational literature (textbooks, reference books, books for additional reading, atlases, maps, collections of tasks and exercises, printed notebooks, etc.). The effectiveness of training depends on the quality of educational literature.

The main type of educational literature is textbook - an important source of knowledge for students, one of the main means of learning. It reflects the theory and methodology of teaching, that circle of knowledge, skills, general culture and experience of human activity, which ensure the formation of the spiritual essence of a child's personality.

The textbook systematically outlines the foundations of knowledge in a particular area at the level of modern achievements of science and culture. The systematic presentation of educational material in textbooks should be carried out in unity with the methods of cognition and be distinguished by popularity, fascination, and problematic nature.

The textbook must be both stable and mobile. In accordance with the requirements of stability, the textbook must have a stable foundation. Mobility provides the ability to quickly introduce new knowledge without violating the basic structure. This goal is supported by block design textbook, which allows inserts that expand blocks.

The textbook structure includes text (descriptive texts, narrative texts and reasoning texts) as the main component and non-text auxiliary components (organization and assimilation apparatus).

The textbook should ensure the conscious and active participation of students in the learning process, the full basis of the educational material. In connection with the solution of these problems, the textbook performs the following didactic functions:

- motivational, expressed in the creation of such incentives for students that encourage them to study this subject, form an interest and a positive attitude;

- information, allowing students to expand the amount of knowledge by all available ways of presenting information;

- control and corrective (training), which involves the possibility of checking, self-assessment and correction of the course and results of training, as well as the implementation of training exercises to form the necessary skills and abilities.

In addition to the textbook are various kinds of teaching aids: anthologies, collections of exercises and tasks, dictionaries, reference books, books for extracurricular reading, atlases, historical and geographical maps, etc. A distinctive feature of teaching aids is that they provide educational material in more extended plan, largely supplements and expands the material of the textbook with the latest information, information of a reference nature. Working with textbooks, students learn to present, analyze, criticize, supplement, change both the style of their presentation and the text being studied with the involvement of additional literature.

Along with the traditional ones, paperless educational materials are used: video disks, video cassettes, etc. Didactic assessments of these new teaching aids are contradictory, therefore it is considered appropriate to use them in combination with traditional educational materials.

When studying knowledge that has a logical structure, computer learning materials are effective.

41. The concept and essence of the method and method of teaching

Teaching method (From the Greek. methods - the way to something) is an ordered activity of a teacher and students aimed at achieving a given learning goal. Teaching methods (didactic methods) are often understood as a set of ways, ways to achieve goals, solve educational problems.

Teaching method characterized by three features, it stands for:

- The purpose of training;

- way of assimilation;

- the nature of the interaction of learning subjects.

The concept of teaching method reflects:

- methods of teaching work of the teacher and methods of educational work of students in their relationship;

- the specifics of their work to achieve various learning objectives.

Teaching method - historical category. The level of development of productive forces and the nature of industrial relations have an impact on the overall goals of education. As goals change, so do teaching methods.

Techniques are distinguished in the structure of teaching methods.

Прием - this is an element of the method, its component part, a one-time action, a separate step in the implementation of the method or a modification of the method in the case when the method is small in volume or simple in structure.

Teaching method - complex, multidimensional, multi-qualitative education. The teaching method reflects objective patterns, goals, content, principles of teaching. The dialectics of the connection of the method with other categories of didactics is reciprocal: being derived from the goals, content, forms of teaching, methods at the same time have a reverse and very strong influence on the formation and development of these categories. Neither the goals, nor the content, nor the forms of work can be introduced without taking into account the possibilities of their practical implementation, it is precisely this possibility that the methods provide. They also set the pace for the development of the didactic system - learning progresses as fast as the methods used allow it to move forward.

In the structure of teaching methods, first of all, objective и subjective part.

The objective part method is due to those constant, unshakable provisions that are necessarily present in any method, regardless of its use by various teachers. It reflects the didactic provisions common to all, the requirements of laws and regularities, principles and rules, as well as the constant components of the goals, content, forms of educational activity.

The subjective part method is determined by the personality of the teacher, the characteristics of the students, specific conditions.

Teaching methods are carried out by various teaching aids, which include both material and ideal objects placed between the teacher and the student and used to effectively organize the educational activities of schoolchildren. These means are various types of activity, objects of works of material and spiritual culture, word, speech, etc.

Each individual teaching method has a certain logical structure - inductive, deductive or inductive-deductive. The logical structure of the teaching method depends on the construction of the content of the educational material and the learning activities of students.

Today, pedagogy has a variety of teaching methods, the effectiveness of which largely depends on the individual methodological system of the teacher and the methods and nature of his interaction with students.

42. Classification of teaching methods

Classification of teaching methods - this is their system ordered according to a certain attribute.

The most reasonable today are the following classifications of teaching methods.

1. Traditional classification teaching methods, originating in ancient philosophical and pedagogical systems and refined for current conditions. As a common feature of the methods distinguished in it, we take source of knowledge: practice, visualization, word, book, paperless source of information - video combined with the latest computer systems. This classification includes five methods: practical - experience, exercise, educational and productive work; visual - illustration, demonstration, observations of students; verbal - explanation, clarification, story, conversation, lecture, discussion, etc.; work with a book - reading, studying, summarizing, quoting, taking notes, etc.; video method - viewing, training, control, etc.

2. Classification of methods by purpose (M.A. Danilov, B.P. Esipov). As a general feature of the classification are successive stagesthrough which the learning process takes place in the classroom. The following methods are distinguished:

- acquisition of knowledge;

- formation of skills and abilities;

- application of knowledge;

- creative activity;

- fastening;

- test of knowledge, skills, skills.

3. The classification of teaching methods proposed by Academician Yu.K. Babansky. It distinguishes three large groups of teaching methods:

- methods of organization and implementation of educational and cognitive activities;

- methods of stimulation and motivation of educational and cognitive activity;

- methods of control and self-control over the effectiveness of educational and cognitive activity.

4. By didactic purposes There are two groups of teaching methods:

- methods that contribute to the primary assimilation of educational material, - information-developing methods (oral presentation of the teacher, conversation, work with a book); heuristic teaching methods (heuristic conversation, debate, laboratory work); research method;

- methods that contribute to the consolidation and improvement of acquired knowledge (G.I. Shchukina, I.T. Ogorodnikov, etc.), - exercises (according to the model, commented exercises, variable exercises, etc.); practical work.

5. Numerous attempts have been made to create binary (M.I. Makhmutov) and polynar (V.F. Palamarchuk and V.I. Palamarchuk) method classifications learning, in which the latter are grouped on the basis of two or more common features.

binary classification teaching methods is built on a combination of:

- teaching methods;

- teaching methods.

В polynar classification teaching methods combine sources of knowledge, levels of cognitive activity, as well as logical paths of educational knowledge.

The Polish scientist K. Sosnitsky believes that there are two methods of teaching, namely, artificial (school) and natural (occasional), which correspond to two methods of teaching: presenting and searching.

None of the considered classifications of methods is free from shortcomings. The search for better classifications that would clarify the conflicting theory of methods and help educators improve their practice continues.

43. Classification of methods according to the type (character) of cognitive activity (I.Ya. Lerner, M.N. Skatkin)

This classification is the most famous.

Type of cognitive activity - this is the level of independence of cognitive activity that students achieve by working according to the training scheme proposed by the teacher. In this classification, the following methods are distinguished: explanatory and illustrative (information and prescription); reproductive; problem presentation; partial search (heuristic); research.

Essence information-receptive method is expressed in the following characteristic features: knowledge is offered to students in a "finished" form; the teacher organizes the perception of this knowledge in various ways; students carry out the perception (reception) and comprehension of knowledge, fix them in their memory.

During reception, all sources of information are used (word, visualization, etc.), the logic of presentation can be developed both inductively and deductively. The managerial activity of the teacher is limited to the organization of the perception of knowledge.

В reproductive method of teaching the following features are distinguished: knowledge is offered to students in a "finished" form; the teacher not only communicates knowledge, but also explains it; students consciously acquire knowledge, understand it and remember it. The criterion for assimilation is the correct reproduction (reproduction) of knowledge; the necessary strength of assimilation is provided by repeated repetition of knowledge.

The main advantage this method is economical.

The reproductive method must be combined with other methods.

Problem presentation method is transitional from performing to creative activity. At a certain stage of learning, students are not yet able to solve problematic problems on their own, and therefore the teacher shows the way to study the problem, setting out its solution from beginning to end. And although students with this method of teaching are not participants, but only observers of the course of reflection, they receive a good lesson in resolving cognitive difficulties.

Essence partial search (heuristic) method learning is expressed in the following characteristic features:

- knowledge is not offered to students in a "ready-made" form, they need to be obtained independently;

- the teacher organizes not the communication or presentation of knowledge, but the search for new knowledge using a variety of means;

- students, under the guidance of a teacher, independently reason, solve emerging cognitive problems, create and resolve problem situations, analyze, draw conclusions, etc., as a result of which they form conscious solid knowledge.

Essence research method learning comes down to:

- the teacher, together with the students, formulates a problem, the solution of which is devoted to a period of study time;

- knowledge is not communicated to students. Students independently extract them in the process of studying the problem, comparing various options for the answers they receive. The means to achieve the result are also determined by the students;

- the activity of the teacher is reduced to the operational management of the process of solving problematic problems;

- the educational process is characterized by high intensity, the teaching is accompanied by increased interest, the acquired knowledge differs in depth.

The disadvantages of this method are the significant time and energy costs of teachers and students.

44. Verbal teaching methods

These methods occupy a leading place in the system of teaching methods, allow you to transfer large amounts of information in the shortest possible time, pose problems for the trainee and indicate ways to solve them.

Verbal methods are divided into the following views: story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book.

1. storytelling method involves an oral narrative presentation of the content of the educational material. From a pedagogical point of view, the story should:

- to ensure the ideological and moral orientation of teaching;

- contain only reliable and scientifically verified facts;

- include a sufficient number of vivid and convincing examples, facts;

- have a clear logic of presentation;

- be emotional;

- to be available;

- reflect the elements of personal assessment and the attitude of the teacher to the stated facts and events.

2. Under explanation one should understand the verbal interpretation of regularities, essential properties of the object under study, individual concepts, phenomena.

Explanation - This is a monologue form of presentation.

Using this method requires:

- accurate and clear formulation of the task, the essence of the problem, the question;

- consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships, argumentation and evidence;

- use of comparison, comparison, analogy;

- attracting vivid examples;

- impeccable logic of presentation.

3. Conversation - a dialogical method of teaching, in which the teacher, by setting a carefully thought-out system of questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their assimilation of what they have already studied.

Types of conversations: introductory or introductory, organizing conversations; conversation-messages or identifying and forming new knowledge (heuristic); synthesizing, systematizing or fixing.

During the conversation, questions can be addressed to one student (individual conversation) or students of the whole class (frontal conversation).

One type of conversation is job interview.

The success of the interviews largely depends on the correct formulation of questions, which should be short, clear, meaningful.

4. Main purpose educational discussion in the learning process - stimulating cognitive interest, involving students in an active discussion of different scientific points of view on a particular problem, encouraging them to comprehend various approaches to arguing someone else's and their own position. Before the discussion, it is necessary to thoroughly prepare the students both in terms of content and formally and to have at least two opposing opinions on the problem under discussion.

5. Лекция - a monologic way of presenting voluminous material. The advantage of a lecture is the ability to ensure the completeness and integrity of the students' perception of educational material in its logical mediations and relationships on the topic as a whole.

A school lecture can also be used when repeating the material covered (survey lecture).

6. Working with a textbook is the most important teaching method.

Techniques for independent work with a printed source: note-taking; drawing up a text plan; citation; annotation; peer review; compiling a certificate; compiling a matrix of ideas - comparative characteristics of homogeneous objects, phenomena in the works of different authors.

45. Visual and practical teaching methods

1. Under visual teaching methods are understood as such methods in which the assimilation of educational material is significantly dependent on the visual aids and technical means used in the learning process. Visual methods are used in conjunction with verbal and practical teaching methods and are intended for visual-sensory familiarization of students with phenomena, processes, an object in their natural form or in a symbolic image.

These teaching methods can be conditionally divided into two large groups:

- illustration method involves showing students illustrative aids, posters, tables, pictures, maps, sketches on the board, flat models, etc .;

- demo method usually associated with the demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, films, video films, etc.

In modern conditions, special attention is paid to the use of a personal computer (PC), which greatly expands the possibilities of visual methods in the educational process.

2. Practical teaching methods are based on the practical activities of students. The main types of practical methods: exercises, laboratory, practical work, didactic games.

Under exercises understand the repeated (multiple) performance of a mental or practical action in order to master it or improve its quality. Exercises by their nature are divided into: oral; written; graphic; educational and labor.

According to the degree of independence of students when performing exercises, they distinguish:

- exercises to reproduce the known in order to consolidate - reproducing exercises;

- exercises on the application of knowledge in new conditions - training exercises.

Exercises are effective if the following didactic requirements are met:

- Conscious approach of students to their implementation;

- observance of the didactic sequence in the performance of exercises.

3. Laboratory works - this is the study by students of any phenomena with the help of special equipment.

Laboratory work is carried out in an illustrative or research plan.

4. Practical work are carried out after studying large sections, topics and are generalizing character. They can be held not only in the classroom, but also outside the school.

A special type of practical teaching methods are classes with training machines, with training machines и tutors.

5. Didactic game - this is an active learning activity in simulation modeling of the studied systems, phenomena, processes, where each participant and the team as a whole are united by the solution of the main task and orient their behavior towards winning.

The game activates the process of involuntary memorization, increases interest in cognitive activity.

Basic structural educational game elements:

- a simulated object of educational activity;

- joint activities of participants;

- rules of the game;

- decision-making in the changed conditions;

- the effectiveness of the applied solution.

The didactic game as a teaching method contains great potential for activating the learning process, but they can play a positive role in learning if they are used as a factor that generalizes a wide arsenal of traditional methods, and not as a substitute for them.

46. Choice of teaching methods

Choice of teaching methods cannot be arbitrary.

In pedagogical science, based on the study and generalization of the practical experience of teachers, certain approaches have developed to the choice of teaching methods, depending on a different combination of specific circumstances and conditions for the educational process.

Sultan chose teaching methods It depends:

- from the general goals of education, upbringing and development of students and the leading principles of modern didactics;

- features of the content and methods of this science and the subject, topic;

- features of the methodology of teaching a particular academic discipline and the requirements determined by its specifics for the selection of general didactic methods;

- goals, objectives and content of the material of a particular lesson;

- the time allotted for the study of a particular material;

- age characteristics of students;

- the level of their real cognitive abilities;

- the level of preparedness of students (education, upbringing and development);

- features of the class team;

- external conditions (geographical, industrial environment);

- the material equipment of the educational institution, the availability of equipment, visual aids, technical means;

- the capabilities and characteristics of the teacher, the level of theoretical and practical preparedness, methodological skills, his personal qualities.

When using the complex of these circumstances and conditions, the teacher makes a number of decisions in one sequence or another: on the choice of verbal, visual or practical methods, reproductive or search methods for managing independent work, methods of control and self-control.

So, depending on the didactic goal, when the task of acquiring new knowledge by students comes to the fore, the teacher decides whether in this case he will present this knowledge himself; whether he organizes the students' acquisition by organizing independent work, etc. In the first case, it may be necessary to prepare the students for listening to the teacher's presentation, and then he gives the students the task either to make certain preliminary observations, or to preliminarily read the necessary material. In the course of the presentation itself, the teacher can use either an informational presentation-message or a problematic presentation (reasoning, dialogic). At the same time, when presenting new material, the teacher systematically refers to the material that the students received in their preliminary independent work. The presentation of the teacher is accompanied by a demonstration of natural objects, their images, experiments, experiments, etc. At the same time, students make certain notes, graphs, diagrams, etc. The totality of these intermediate decisions constitutes one holistic decision on choosing a certain combination of teaching methods.

In modern conditions, a personal computer becomes an important tool for a teacher in choosing the best teaching methods. It helps the teacher to "filter" methods depending on the specific learning conditions and opt for those paths that satisfy predetermined criteria.

47. The concept of teaching aids, their classification

learning tool - this is a material or ideal object that is used by the teacher and students to learn new knowledge.

objects, performing the function of learning tools, you can classify according to various criteria: according to their properties, subjects of activity, influence on the quality of knowledge, on the development of various abilities, their effectiveness in the educational process.

1. According to the composition of objects teaching aids are divided into material и ideal.

К material means include: textbooks and manuals, tables, models, layouts, visual aids, educational and technical aids, educational and laboratory equipment, premises, furniture, classroom equipment, microclimate, class schedule, other material and technical conditions of training.

Perfect teaching aids are those previously learned knowledge and skills that teachers and students use to learn new knowledge.

These intellectual learning tools play a leading role in the mental development of students. They can be given by the teacher in finished form in the process of explaining the topic of the lesson, but they can also be constructed by students on their own or in joint activities with the teacher in the lesson.

Material и ideal teaching aids do not oppose, but complement each other. The influence of all teaching aids on the quality of students' knowledge is multifaceted: material facilities mainly related with the arousal of interest and attention, the implementation of practical actions, the assimilation of essentially new knowledge; ideal means - with the understanding of the material, the logic of reasoning, memorization, the culture of speech, the development of intelligence. There are no clear boundaries between the spheres of influence of material and ideal means: often both of them influence the formation of certain qualities of students' personalities.

The effectiveness of the use of funds is achieved with a certain combination of them with the content and teaching methods.

Modern teaching aids often involve the use of new teaching methods. Personal computer-based learning is a new type of educational process that uses new methods and means of teaching and learning, uses various types of sign and graphic models, including animation tools.

2. By subject of activity teaching aids can be divided into teaching aids и means of teaching. Thus, the equipment of a demonstration experiment refers to the means of teaching, and the equipment of a laboratory workshop - to the means of teaching. The means of teaching are mainly used by teachers to explain and consolidate the educational material, and the means of teaching are used by students to assimilate new knowledge. At the same time, some means are used both in teaching and in learning.

Teaching facilities are essential to the implementation informational и control function teachers. They help to excite and maintain the cognitive interests of students, improve the visibility of educational material, make it more accessible, provide more accurate and complete information about the phenomenon being studied, intensify independent work and allow it to be done at an individual pace. They can be divided into means of explanation new material fixing means and repetitions and controls.

48. Equipment of the study room

Material resources, necessary for the assimilation of all educational information, constitute a system derived from the curriculum. It is built according to the following principles.

1. The equipment must fully meet the pedagogical requirements for other elements of the educational process: visually reproduce the essential in the phenomenon, be easily perceived and visible, have an aesthetic appearance, etc.

2. All general purpose appliances must be compatible with each other and with the demonstration units.

3. The number and types of teaching aids must fully meet the material needs of the curriculum in the system, but without frills.

4. The means of education must correspond to the real working conditions of the school and the needs of the local population.

The most rational form of organizing the system of teaching aids is cabinet system, in which all teaching aids in one subject (or used by one teacher) are located in one room - an office, to which, if necessary, other rooms are added: laboratory, laboratory utility, repair, workshop. Study rooms are designed to study theory and conduct exercises. Workshops, laboratory work are held in the educational laboratory audience, in which students form polytechnic, professional, labor, research and other skills.

All the conditions for demonstrating visual aids should be provided in the classroom: direct and alternating current sources, grounding, dimming, projection equipment, screens, stands, light pointer, stands, etc. Visual aids must be available for each topic of the lesson. Demonstration equipment, printed manuals do not replace, but complement each other, providing various didactic goals.

Visual aids perform the following Features:

- familiarization with phenomena and processes that cannot be reproduced at school;

- familiarization with the appearance of the object in its modern form and in historical development;

- a visual representation of the structure of the object, the principle of its operation, its management, safety precautions;

- a visual representation of the comparison or measurement of the characteristics of a phenomenon or process;

- a symbolic image of the stages of operation, manufacture or design of the product;

- familiarization with the history of science and the prospects for its development.

Visual aids are usually classified into three groups:

- voluminous manuals (models, collections, devices, devices, etc.);

- printed materials (pictures, posters, portraits, charts, tables, etc.);

- projection material (movies, videos, slides, etc.).

Collections and models play a significant role in learning. Under school collections it is customary to understand sets of objects or substances selected according to certain features or characteristics and serving both for studying new material, and for repetition and independent work (collections in botany and zoology, in physics, chemistry, drawing, for work in workshops).

printed manuals are widely used in teaching practice, it is advisable to use them as additional means along with natural objects or models.

49. Teaching aids

Technical training (TSO) are devices that help the teacher provide students with educational information, manage the processes of remembering, applying and understanding knowledge, and monitoring learning outcomes. They have special blocks that allow you to store and reproduce programs for information support, management of students' cognitive activity and control.

There are the following types of TSO:

- information;

- programmed learning;

- knowledge control;

- simulators;

- combined.

These include: film projectors, overhead projectors, epiprojectors, overhead projectors, video recorders, television complexes, personal computers and computer systems (classes). They are constantly improving; schools are systematically receiving new, tested and recommended TCOs, both general and specialized: language laboratories for learning foreign languages, complexes for studying physics, mathematics and other subjects.

Widespread in schools educational personal computers. They are used in lessons both sporadically and systematically, depending on the goals and methods of teaching, as well as on the technical capabilities of the computer itself.

A modern PC, equipped with additional devices that allow you to combine texts with graphics, animation, sound (speech and music) accompaniment, film and video images, is called multimedia ("multivariant environment").

With occasional use, PCs are used in a system with other teaching aids and methods; therefore, part of the lesson is devoted to their application; this requires small, often standard programs. With systematic use, computers work for many classes, occupying the main study time; for these classes, special large programs are developed that provide methods for storing (most often on diskettes), presenting information (mainly on a TV screen or display), managing students' cognitive activity, analyzing errors and evaluating the success of teaching the class as a whole and each student individually .

Before using TCO, students need to be taught how to use them. Here learning tool acts as subject of development.

Purity of TCO use affects effectiveness of the learning process. If TCO is used very rarely, then each of its use turns into an extraordinary event and excites emotions that interfere with the perception and assimilation of educational material. On the contrary, too frequent use of TSO leads to students losing interest in it and in an active form of protest.

Efficiency application of TCO It depends also from lesson stage. The use of TCO should not last more than 20 minutes in a row in a lesson. The use of TCO in the intervals between the 15th and 20th minutes and between the 30th and 35th minutes allows you to maintain a steady attention of students almost throughout the lesson. These provisions are due to the fact that during each lesson, students periodically change the characteristics of visual and auditory perception, attention, fatigue. Minutes of intense mental work must be alternated with emotional release, unloading of visual and auditory perception.

50. Developmental learning

Developmental learning - this is the orientation of the educational process to the potential capabilities of a person and their reaction. The purpose of this type of education is to prepare students for independent development of knowledge, the search for truth, as well as for independence in everyday life.

The theory of developmental learning originates in the works I.G. Pestalozzi, A. Diesterwega, K.D. Ushinsky, L.S. Vygotsky, L.V. Zankova, V.V. Davydov and more

Education is the leading driving force behind the mental development of the child, the formation of new qualities of thinking, attention, memory and other abilities in him. Progress in development is set as a condition for deep and lasting assimilation of knowledge. Work based on the "zone of proximal development" of the child helps to reveal his potentialities more fully and brighter. The child's "zone of proximal development" characterizes the area of actions and tasks that the child cannot yet perform independently, but can cope with them with the help, support and explanation of an adult. But what a child accomplishes today with the help of an adult, tomorrow becomes the child's internal property, his new ability, skill, knowledge. So learning stimulates development child. Regulatory role in the system of developmental education perform such didactic principles, as learning at a high level of difficulty, the principle of the leading role of theoretical knowledge, learning at a fast pace, the child's knowledge of the learning process, etc.

The structure of developmental education is a chain of increasingly complex objective tasks that cause the student to need to master special knowledge and skills, to create a new solution scheme, new ways of action. At the forefront is not only the actualization of previously acquired knowledge and methods of action, but also the promotion of a hypothesis, the search for ideas and the development of an original plan for solving the problem, finding a way to test the solution by using independently noticed new connections and dependencies between the known and the unknown. In the process of "acquiring" knowledge and creating new ways of performing an action, the student receives a specific result in the form of new facts. Thus, already in the very process of learning, the student rises to new levels of intellectual and personal development.

The main task of the teacher in the process of developmental education - the organization of educational activities aimed at the formation of cognitive independence, the development and formation of abilities, an active life position.

Developing education is carried out in the form of involving the student in various activities, using didactic games, discussions, as well as teaching methods aimed at summarizing creative imagination, thinking, memory, and speech in teaching.

Central technological link Developmental learning is an independent educational and cognitive activity of the child, based on the child's ability to regulate his actions in the course of learning in accordance with the perceived goal.

The essence of developmental learning in that the student not only acquires specific knowledge and skills, but also masters the methods of action, learns to design and manage his learning activities.

51. Problem-Based Learning

The essence of problem-based learning consists in the fact that the teacher does not communicate knowledge in a finished form, but poses problematic tasks for students, prompting them to look for ways and means of solving them.

The main psychological and pedagogical goals problem learning:

- development of thinking and abilities of students, development of creative skills;

- assimilation by students of knowledge, skills obtained in the course of active search and independent problem solving, as a result of which this knowledge and skills are stronger than in traditional education;

- education of an active creative personality of a student who can see, pose and solve non-standard problems.

An important stage of problem-based learning is the creation of a problem situation, which is a feeling of mental difficulty. The educational problem, which is introduced at the moment of the emergence of a problem situation, should be quite difficult, but feasible for students. Its introduction and awareness ends first stage.

On the second stage problem resolution ("closed") the student sorts through, analyzes the knowledge at his disposal on this issue, finds out that they are not enough to answer, and is actively involved in obtaining the missing information.

The third stage ("open") is aimed at acquiring the knowledge necessary to solve the problem in various ways. This stage ends with an understanding of how the problem can be solved.

This is followed by the stages of problem solving, verification (verification) of the results obtained, comparison with the initial hypothesis, systematization and generalization of the acquired knowledge and skills.

Terms successful problem-based learning:

- providing sufficient motivation that can arouse interest in the content of the problem;

- ensuring the feasibility of working with the problems that arise at each stage (the rational ratio of the known and the unknown);

- the significance of the information obtained in solving the problem;

- the need for dialogic friendly communication between the teacher and the student, when all the thoughts, hypotheses expressed by the students are treated with attention and encouragement.

Forms problem learning: problem statement educational material in the monologue mode of a lecture or the dialogic mode of a seminar; problematic presentation of educational material at a lecture, when the teacher poses problematic questions, builds problematic tasks and solves them himself, and students are only mentally included in the process of finding a solution; partial search activity when performing an experiment in laboratory work; during problem seminars, heuristic conversations. The questions of the teacher should cause intellectual difficulties for students and a purposeful thought flow; independent research activitywhen students independently form a problem and solve it with the subsequent control of the teacher.

The principle of problematic learning content can be implemented in the form of educational business games.

Benefits of problem-based learning: independent acquisition of knowledge through their own creative activity; high interest in learning; development of productive thinking; durable and actionable learning outcomes.

Disadvantages of problem-based learning: poor controllability of the cognitive activity of students; large expenditure of time to achieve the projected goals.

52. Programmed and computer training

The main goal programmed learning - improving the management of the educational process.

This type of training originated in the early 60s. based on new didactic, psychological and cybernetic ideas of programmed learning. American didacticians and psychologists stood at the origins of programmed learning N. Crowder, B. Skinner, S. Pressy, in domestic science, these issues were fruitfully dealt with N.F. Talyzina, P.Ya. Galperin, L.J. Landa, I.L. Tikhonov, A.Kh. Molibog, A.M. Matyushkin, V.I. Chepelev and many others.

Features programmed learning are as follows:

- educational material is divided into separate portions (doses);

- the educational process consists of successive steps containing a portion of knowledge and mental actions for their assimilation;

- each step ends with a control;

- with the correct performance of control tasks, the student receives a new portion of the material and performs the next step of learning;

- if the answer is wrong, the student receives help and additional explanations;

- each student works independently and masters the material at a pace that is feasible for him;

- the results of all control tasks are recorded, they become known both to the student (internal feedback) and to the teacher (external feedback);

- the teacher acts as an organizer of training and an assistant (consultant) in case of difficulties, provides an individual approach;

- in the educational process, specific means of programmed learning (programmed teaching aids, simulators, control devices, teaching machines) are widely used.

Modern training programs are most often compiled according to a mixed (combined) scheme, which makes them flexible.

Computer learning has replaced programmed learning. Computers equipped with special training programs, can be effectively adapted for solving almost all didactic tasks - presenting (issuing) information, managing the course of training, monitoring and correcting results, performing training exercises, accumulating data on the development of the educational process, etc.

Main directions computerization of education:

- improving performance in individual academic subjects (mathematics, natural sciences, native and foreign languages, geography, etc.), focused on the result of the process;

- development of general cognitive abilities - to solve tasks, think independently, master communication skills, i.e., emphasis on the processes underlying the formation of a particular skill;

- automated testing, evaluation and management, which allows you to free up the teacher's time and thereby increase the efficiency of the pedagogical process.

Computer learning is based on the selection algorithm training leading to the correct result, which prescribes to the student the composition and sequence of educational activities necessary for the full assimilation of knowledge and skills.

The effectiveness of training programs and all computer learning depends entirely on the quality of algorithms for controlling mental activity.

Quality computer learning is conditioned two main factors:

- the quality of training programs;

- the quality of technology.

53. Modular learning

Modular learning is a method in which the content of educational material and the organization of its study are contained in modules.

Module - this is a logically completed part of the educational material, necessarily accompanied by the control of knowledge and skills of students.

The basis for the formation of modules is the work program of the discipline. A module often coincides with a discipline topic or a block of related topics. However, unlike the topic in the module, everything is measured, everything is evaluated: assignment, work, student attendance, starting, intermediate and final level of students.

The module clearly defines the learning objectives, tasks and levels of study of this module, names the skills and abilities that the student must master. The number of modules depends both on the characteristics of the subject itself and on the desired frequency of learning control. Modular learning is inextricably linked with the rating control system. The larger or more important the module, the more points it gets.

The concept of the basic content of the discipline is inextricably linked with the concept of a training module, in which the basic content blocks are logically linked into a system.

When designing the content of a discipline, there has recently been a tendency to single out its conceptual base from the basis of the discipline - thesaurus, in which the main semantic units should be presented.

On the basis of the thesaurus, questions and tasks are compiled covering all types of work on the module and submitted for control (usually in test form) after studying the module. After studying each module, based on the results of the test control, the teacher gives the students the necessary recommendations. By the number of possible points scored, the student himself can judge the degree of his success in mastering the educational material.

Module contains cognitive и educational and professional parts. The first forms theoretical knowledge, the second professional skills based on acquired knowledge. The ratio of the theoretical and practical parts of the module should be optimal, which requires professionalism and high pedagogical skills of the teacher.

The modular interpretation of the training course should be based on consistency principle, assuming:

- consistency of content, i.e. that necessary and sufficient knowledge (thesaurus), without which neither the discipline as a whole, nor any of its modules can exist;

- alternation of cognitive and educational-professional parts of the module, providing an algorithm for the formation of cognitive-professional skills and abilities;

- systematic control that logically completes each module, leading to the formation of students' abilities to transform the acquired systematization skills into professional skills to analyze, systematize and predict engineering solutions.

With the modular interpretation of the academic discipline, it is necessary to establish the number and content of the modules, the ratio of the theoretical and practical parts in each of them, their sequence, the content and forms of module control, the content and forms of the final control.

54. Forms of organization of education and their development in didactics

Forms of organization of training (organizational forms) is an external expression of the coordinated activity of the teacher and students, carried out in a certain order and mode.

They have a social conditionality, arise and improve in connection with the development of didactic systems.

Organizational forms of education classified according to different criteria: the number of students; place of study; duration of training sessions, etc.

On number of students mass, collective, group, microgroup and individual forms of education are distinguished.

On place of study different school and extracurricular forms. The former include schoolwork, work in workshops, at the school site, in the laboratory, etc., and the latter include home independent work, excursions, classes at enterprises.

On duration of training A distinction is made between a classic lesson (45 minutes), a paired lesson (90 minutes), a paired shortened lesson (70 minutes), as well as "no bells" lessons of arbitrary duration.

The history of world pedagogical thought and teaching practice knows a wide variety of forms of organizing learning.

1. The oldest form of the educational process is individual form of education. Substance - the students completed the tasks individually, the teacher's help was either directly or indirectly through the study of the textbook, the author of which was the teacher himself.

2. The individual form of education gradually gave way individual-group form of organization of the educational process. Substance - classes were already conducted with a whole group of children of different ages, whose level of preparation was different, due to which the teacher conducted educational work with each student separately.

3. In the XVII century. founded and widely promoted classroom education system (Ya.A. Comenius).

4. The first attempt to modernize the classroom system of education belonged to the English priest A. Bell and teacher J. Lancarster (late XNUMXth - early XNUMXth century). This is how a modified class-lesson system of organization of learning appeared under the name Bell Lancaster Mutual Learning System. Substance - older students first, under the guidance of a teacher, studied the material themselves, and then, having received appropriate instructions, they taught those who know less.

5. At the beginning of the XNUMXth century. in Europe began to be created Mannheim system (Josef Zikkenger) differentiated learning by ability. While maintaining the class-lesson system, students, depending on their abilities and degree of preparation, were divided into classes into weak, medium and strong.

6. In the 20s. XX century in the USSR appeared brigade-laboratory training system. Tasks for studying the course, topics were taken by a group of students (team). They worked independently in laboratories and with the advice of teachers, reported collectively.

7. In the 50s and 60s. XNUMXth century designed by Lloyd Trump trump plan. Substance - maximum stimulation of individual learning with the help of flexibility in the forms of its organization. With such training, classes are combined in large classrooms, in small groups with individual lessons. Classes as such are abolished, the composition of small groups is unstable, it is constantly changing. This system requires the coordinated work of teachers, a clear organization, material support.

55. Class-lesson system of education

The most widespread both in our country and abroad was the class-lesson system of education, which arose in the XNUMXth century. and has been developing for more than three centuries. Its contours were outlined by a German teacher I. Sturm, but developed the theoretical foundations and embodied in practical technology Ya.A. Comenius.

class-lesson The form of organization of training is distinguished by the following features:

- a constant composition of students of approximately the same age and level of preparedness (class);

- each class works in accordance with its annual plan (study planning);

- the educational process is carried out in the form of separate interconnected, following one after another parts (lessons);

- each lesson is devoted to only one subject (monism);

- constant alternation of lessons (schedule);

- the leading role of the teacher (pedagogical management);

- various types and forms of cognitive activity of students are used (variability of activity).

The class-lesson form of organization of educational work has several advantages compared to other forms, in particular individual:

- with the massive coverage of school-age children with training sessions, this system ensures organizational clarity and continuity of students' work and the stimulating effect of the class team on the educational activities of each student;

- implies a close connection between the compulsory educational and extracurricular work of schoolchildren;

- provides the possibility of combining mass, group and individual forms of educational work;

- creates favorable conditions for the day of mutual learning, collective activity, competition, education and development of students;

- economical, since one teacher works simultaneously with a large group of students.

However, this form is not without shortcomingsthat reduce its effectiveness chief among which - reliance (orientation) on the "average" student, the lack of the possibility of individual educational work with students.

The class-lesson form of organization of education includes, along with the lesson, a whole range of forms of organization of the educational process. These include: lectures, seminars, excursions, classes in educational workshops, workshops, forms of labor and industrial training, interviews, consultations, exams, tests, forms of extracurricular work (subject circles, studios, scientific societies, olympiads, competitions), etc. Within the framework of these forms of education, collective, group, individual, frontal work of students of both a differentiated and undifferentiated nature can be organized.

The most important feature of the above forms of organization of education is that the student learns to work on any of them: listen, discuss issues in teamwork, concentrate and organize their work, express their opinions, listen to others, argue their evidence, make notes, compose the texts of reports , work with sources of knowledge, plan your actions, organize your workplace, etc.

In group work, students learn the elements of the organizational activity of a leader, employee, subordinate, form the experience of making contacts with the environment of adults.

56. Requirements for a modern lesson

Lesson is a key component of the classroom system learning. This is a segment of the educational process that is complete in semantic, temporal and organizational terms..

Among general requirementswhich the modern lesson must meet, the following stand out.

1. Using the latest achievements of science, advanced pedagogical practice, building a lesson based on the laws of the educational process.

2. Implementation in the classroom in the optimal ratio of all didactic principles and rules.

3. Providing appropriate conditions for productive cognitive activity of students, taking into account their interests, inclinations and needs.

4. Establishment of interdisciplinary connections realized by students.

5. Connection with previously studied knowledge and skills, reliance on the achieved level of development of students.

6. Motivation and activation of the development of all spheres of personality.

7. Logic and emotionality of all stages of educational activities.

8. Effective use of pedagogical means.

9. Connection with life, production activities, personal experience of students.

10. Formation of practically necessary knowledge, skills, rational methods of thinking and activity.

11. Thorough diagnostics, forecasting, design and lesson planning.

Each lesson aims to achieve a triune goal: educate, educate, develop. With this in mind, the general requirements for the lesson are specified in the didactic, educational and developmental requirements.

К didactic requirements include: a clear definition of the educational objectives of the lesson; rationalization of the information content of the lesson, optimization of the content, taking into account social and personal needs; introduction of the latest technologies of cognitive activity; rational combination of various types, forms and methods; creative approach to the formation of the structure of the lesson; a combination of various forms of collective activity with independent activity of students; providing operational feedback, effective control and management; scientific calculation and mastery of the lesson.

educational requirements to the lesson include: determination of the educational opportunities of the educational material, activities in the lesson, the formation and setting of realistically achievable educational goals; setting only those educational tasks that organically follow from the goals and content of educational work; education of students on universal human values, the formation of vital qualities; attentive attitude to students, compliance with the requirements of pedagogical tact, cooperation with students and interest in their success.

To constantly implemented in all lessons development requirements include: the formation and development of students' positive motives for educational and cognitive activity, interests, creative initiative and activity; studying and taking into account the level of development and psychological characteristics of students, designing a "zone of proximal development"; conducting training sessions at a "leading" level, stimulating the onset of new qualitative changes in development; forecasting "jumps" in the intellectual, emotional, social development of students and the operational restructuring of training sessions, taking into account the upcoming changes.

57. Typology and structure of lessons

There are several approaches to the classification of lessons, each of which differs in defining features.

One of the first most substantiated classifications belongs to the Soviet didact I.N. Kazantsevwho proposed grouping lessons according to two criteria: content (for example, mathematics lessons are divided into arithmetic, algebra, geometry and trigonometry lessons, and within them - depending on the content of the topics taught); method of conducting (lessons-excursions, film lessons, self-study lessons, etc.).

Lessons are also classified based on the purpose of organizing classes, the content and methods of conducting lessons (M.I. Makhmutov); the main stages of the educational process (S.V. Ivanov); didactic tasks that are solved in the lesson (N.M. Yakovlev, A.M. Sohor); teaching methods (I.N. Borisov); ways of organizing learning activities of students (F.M. Kiryushkin).

The greatest support among theorists and practice was received by the classification of lessons according to two essential features - didactic purposes и place of lessons in the general system:

1) combined (mixed);

2) lessons in learning new knowledge;

3) lessons in the formation of new skills;

4) lessons of generalization and systematization of the studied;

5) lessons of control and correction of knowledge, skills;

6) lessons in the practical application of knowledge and skills (G.I. Shchukina, V.A. Onischuk, N.A. Sorokin, M.I. Makhmutov, etc.).

In addition, non-standard forms of lesson classes, such as seminar lessons, conference lessons, business game lessons, auction lessons, integrated lessons, etc., have become widespread.

Structure of the lesson - this is its internal structure, the sequence of individual stages. The type of lesson is determined by the presence and sequence of structural parts.

The structure of the lesson is important in the theory and practice of the modern lesson, since it is it that ultimately determines the effectiveness and efficiency of learning.

Originates from Comenius and Herbart classic four-link lesson structure, based on the formal stages of education: preparation for the assimilation of new knowledge; assimilation of new knowledge and skills; their consolidation and systematization; application in practice.

Corresponding lesson type combined (mixed).

Stages of a combined lesson, decomposed into time intervals, are as follows:

1 stage - repetition of the studied (actualization of knowledge);

2 stage - the study of new knowledge, the formation of new skills;

3 stage - consolidation, systematization, application;

4 stage - homework.

The methodological substructure of the lesson, in contrast to the didactic one, is a variable value. The elements (stages) of the lesson can be combined in any sequence, which makes the lesson flexible and applicable to a very wide range of educational tasks.

In order to increase the effectiveness of training sessions, other types of lessons have arisen and are being practiced. Their structure usually consists of three parts:

- organization of work (1-3 min);

- the main part (formation, assimilation, consolidation, control, application, etc.) (35-40 min);

- Summing up and homework (2-3 minutes).

All components should be a single system - a lesson. The lesson will be effective and informatively complete only if the teacher is sure that all components of the lesson are interconnected.

58. Preparing a lesson

Lesson preparation - this is the development of a set of measures, the choice of such an organization of the educational process, which, in given specific conditions, provides the highest final result.

There are three stages in preparing a teacher for a lesson: diagnostics, forecasting, design (planning).

At the same time, it is assumed that the teacher knows the factual material well, is freely oriented in his academic subject.

Preparatory work comes down to "adaptation" of educational information to the possibilities of the class, evaluation and selection of such a scheme for organizing cognitive work and collective cooperation that will give the maximum result. In order to choose the optimal scheme for conducting a lesson, it is necessary to calculate the lesson preparation algorithm, the sequential execution of the steps of which guarantees that all important factors and circumstances are taken into account, the effectiveness of the future lesson depends on them.

1. The implementation of the algorithm begins with diagnosing specific conditions. Diagnostics consists in clarifying all the circumstances of the lesson: the possibilities of students; motives of their activity and behavior; requests and inclinations; interests and abilities; required level of training; the nature of the educational material, its features and practical significance; lesson structure; in a careful analysis of all the time spent in the educational process (for the repetition of basic knowledge, the assimilation of new information, consolidation and systematization, control and correction of knowledge and skills).

This stage ends with diagnostic map of the lesson, which clearly shows the effect of the factors determining the effectiveness of the lesson.

2. Prediction It is aimed at evaluating various options for conducting a future lesson and choosing the optimal one according to the accepted criterion. Modern forecasting technology makes it possible to derive quantitative indicator of the effectiveness of the lesson in the following way. The volume of knowledge (skills), the formation of which is the goal of the lesson, is taken as 100%. The influence of obstacles reduces this ideal indicator. The amount of losses is subtracted from the ideal result and determines the real indicator of the effectiveness of the lesson according to the scheme conceived by the teacher. If the indicator satisfies the teacher, he proceeds to the final stage of lesson preparation - planning.

3. Design (planning) - the final stage of lesson preparation, which ends with the creation student learning management programs. The management program is a short and specific arbitrarily compiled document in which the teacher fixes the important moments of process management for him.

At the initial stage of pedagogical activity, detailed lesson plans, which should include the following points:

- the date of the lesson and its number according to the thematic plan;

- the name of the topic of the lesson and the class in which it is held;

- goals and objectives of education, upbringing, development of schoolchildren;

- the structure of the lesson, indicating the sequence of its stages and the approximate distribution of time for these stages;

- content of educational material;

- methods and techniques of the teacher's work in each part of the lesson;

- educational equipment necessary for the lesson;

- homework.

59. Auxiliary forms of education

Auxiliary forms organization of educational work (a conditional definition, since some of these forms have moved into the category of non-standard lessons) - a variety of activities that complement and develop the classroom activities of students. These include: circles, workshops, seminars, conferences, consultations, extracurricular activities, educational excursions, home independent work of students, etc.

The main and stable types of extracurricular activities include home independent work students, considered as an integral part of the learning process. Its main goal - expand and deepen the knowledge, skills acquired in the classroom, prevent their forgetting, develop individual inclinations, talents and abilities of students. Homework is built taking into account the requirements of the curriculum, as well as the interests and needs of students, their level of development. Extracurricular educational activities are based on amateur performance, consciousness, activity and initiative of students.

Important didactic functions home independent work:

- consolidation of knowledge and skills acquired in the classroom;

- expansion and deepening of the educational material worked out in the classroom;

- formation of skills and abilities to perform exercises independently;

- development of independent thinking by performing individual tasks in a volume that goes beyond the scope of the program material, but meets the student's abilities;

- performance of individual observations, experiments; collection and preparation of teaching aids for the study of new topics in the classroom.

Subject mugsThe programs offered by the school are very diverse both in direction and content, working methods, teaching time, etc. They play a favorable role in developing the interests and inclinations of students, and contribute to the development of a positive attitude towards learning. Circles help to strengthen the connection between learning and life, the development of interdisciplinary connections. The work of students in subject circles activates the educational process, improves the quality of education.

Traditionally, auxiliary forms of educational work include excursions.

The method of conducting an excursion depends on the topic, the didactic goal, the age of the students, their development, and also on the object of the excursion.

The tour can be frontal, group or microgroup (brigade). Educational excursions are planned both for individual subjects and complex ones, including the topics of several related disciplines.

The final stage of the tour is important - summarizing и processing of the collected material. On the topic of the tour is conducted conversation.

Curriculum provides for the organization of all kinds of electives and elective courses. They are developed taking into account the wishes and interests of schoolchildren and their parents. The specific conditions and tasks of preparing students for practical activities in accordance with local conditions are taken into account.

Consultations enable the teacher to detect gaps in students' knowledge, draw their attention to issues that require serious study. Properly organized counseling instills self-control in students, a critical attitude towards their knowledge, helps to correctly establish the level of learning.

60. Organization of educational activities of students in the classroom

In the pedagogical literature and school practice, the following forms of organizing the educational activity of students in the classroom are mainly accepted: frontal; individual; group.

front shape organization of educational activities of students - this is a type of activity of the teacher and students in the classroom, when all students simultaneously perform the same work common to all, discuss, compare and summarize the results of it with the whole class.

The frontal form of organization of learning can be implemented in the form problematic, informational и explanatory and illustrative presentation and be accompanied by reproductive and creative tasks.

Advantages of the frontal form of organization of educational activities:

- instills in students a sense of teamwork;

- allows students to reason;

- forms stable cognitive interests;

- the teacher gets the opportunity to influence the entire team of the class;

- rhythm in the activities of schoolchildren based on their individual characteristics.

The main disadvantage of the frontal form of educational work is that it leads to the manifestation student leveling tendenciesencouraging them to work at the same pace.

Individual form The organization of the work of students in the classroom assumes that each student receives a task for independent completion, specially selected for him in accordance with his preparation and learning opportunities. Individual work is widely used in programmed learning.

Allocate two kinds individual forms of organizing tasks:

- individual - the student's activity in fulfilling tasks common to the whole class is carried out without contact with other students, but at the same pace for all;

- individualized - involves the educational and cognitive activity of students on the performance of specific tasks.

Such an organization of the educational work of students in the classroom allows each student to gradually but steadily deepen and consolidate the knowledge gained, develop the necessary skills, abilities, experience of cognitive activity, and form their own needs for self-education.

But the individualized form of educational work somewhat limits the communication of students among themselves, the desire to transfer their knowledge to others, to participate in collective achievements.

The main features group (link) form of organization of educational work of students are:

- the class in this lesson is divided into groups to solve specific learning problems;

- each group receives a specific task and performs it together under the direct supervision of the group leader or teacher;

- tasks in the group are performed in such a way that allows to take into account and evaluate the individual contribution of each member of the group.

This form of work of students in the classroom is most applicable and appropriate for practical work, laboratory work and workshops; in the preparation of thematic training conferences, debates, reports on the topic, additional classes for the entire group.

Disadvantages of this form of organization of educational activities: difficulties in recruiting groups and organizing work in them; students in groups are not always able to independently understand complex educational material and choose the most economical way to study it.

61. The essence of learning control as a didactic concept

Control, or verification of learning outcomes, is a mandatory component of the learning process. It takes place at all stages of the learning process, but acquires special significance after studying any section of the program and completing the learning stage. The essence of the check learning outcomes is in identifying the level of mastery of knowledge by students, which must comply with the educational standard for this program, subject. Control, verification of learning outcomes is interpreted by didactics as pedagogical diagnostics.

Learning control understood one side, as an administrative-formal procedure for checking the work of teachers and schools, as a management function, the results of which serve to make managerial decisions. On the other hand, control of learning has the already indicated values of checking and evaluating students' knowledge by the teacher.

Learning control as part of the didactic process and the didactic procedure raises problems about the functions of verification and its content, types, methods and forms of control, about measurements and, therefore, about the criteria for the quality of knowledge, measuring scales and means of measurement, about the success of learning and the failure of students.

Being an integral part of the learning process, control has educational, educational и developing functions. But the main control function is diagnostic. It is specified in a number of tasks depending on the type of control.

Types of control:

- current - this is a systematic test of the assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities in each lesson, this assessment of learning outcomes in the lesson. Main function current check - educational. As an integral part of training, current control is operational, flexible, diverse in terms of means, methods and forms, which depend on such factors as the content of the training material, its complexity, the age and level of training of students, the level and goals of training, specific conditions;

- periodic - carried out after major sections of the program, the training period. The purpose of such a test is to diagnose the quality of assimilation by students of the relationship between the structural elements of the educational material studied in different parts of the course. Main function - systematization and generalization;

- final - is carried out on the eve of transfer to the next class or stage of education. It is not reduced to the mechanical derivation of the arithmetic mean score by adding the scores obtained. This is, first of all, diagnosing the level of actual learning in accordance with the goal set at this stage.

A special kind is complex check, Home function which - diagnosing the quality of the implementation of interdisciplinary communications, the practical criterion for a comprehensive test is the ability of students to explain phenomena, processes, events, based on a set of information gleaned from all the subjects studied.

But Knowledge, the content of checking school achievements is social и general psychological development: speech, thinking, memory, ability to use knowledge in a standard and new situation, solve problems, perform practical work. The content of school control is also the formation of motives for teaching and activity, such social qualities as a sense of responsibility, moral standards and behavior.

62. Methods and forms of control

inspection method - this is a system of sequential interrelated diagnostic actions of the teacher and students, providing feedback in the learning process in order to obtain data on the success of learning, the effectiveness of the educational process. They should provide systematic, complete, accurate and prompt receipt of information about the educational process.

To date, the following methods of control are distinguished:

- methods of oral control;

- methods of written control;

- methods of practical control;

- test and rating control;

- observation.

There are also methods of graphic control (Schukina G.I.), methods of programmed and laboratory control (Babansky Yu.K.), use of the book, problem situations (V. Window).

Methods of oral control - this is a conversation, a student's story, an explanation, reading a text, a technological map, a diagram, a report on experience, etc. The basis of oral control is the student's monologue answer and / or question-answer form - a conversation in which the teacher puts questions and expects the student to answer.

Oral control (survey) as a current one is carried out on a weekly basis in an individual, frontal or combined form. Experienced teachers master a variety of survey techniques, use didactic cards, games, and technical means. An individual survey of students allows the teacher to obtain more complete and accurate data on the level of assimilation, but it leaves other students passive in the lesson, which forces the teacher to solve the problem of their employment during the survey. The frontal survey occupies all students at once, but gives a more superficial idea of their knowledge acquisition.

The most active and thorough test of knowledge for a certain period of study is a test and an oral exam.

Written control (test, presentation, essay, dictation, essay) provides a deep comprehensive test of mastering, since it requires a complex of knowledge and skills of the student. In written work, the student needs to show both theoretical knowledge and skills, apply them to solve specific problems, problems, in addition, the degree of proficiency in written speech, the ability to build logically, adequately to the problem, compose your text and present it, evaluate the work, experiment, problem.

Performance practical work can be considered an effective but little-used way to test learning outcomes. Practical work is a task that requires experience, measurements, so their role is great in testing knowledge, primarily in the subjects of the natural and mathematical cycle, in drawing, and physical education.

With the current control of knowledge at school, the teacher widely uses watching, the systematic study of students in the learning process, the discovery of many indicators, the appearance of behavior that speaks of the formation of knowledge, skills and other learning outcomes.

The results of observations are not recorded in official documents, but are taken into account by the teacher to correct learning, in the overall final grade of the student for the timely detection of poor progress.

63. Testing achievements and development

Learning test (school test) is a set of tasks focused on determining (measuring) the level (degree) of assimilation of certain aspects (parts) of the content of education.

Correctly designed tests should be:

- relatively short-term, i.e. do not require a lot of time;

- unambiguous, i.e. not to allow arbitrary interpretation of the test task;

- correct, i.e. exclude the possibility of formulating ambiguous answers;

- relatively brief, requiring concise answers;

- informational, i.e. those that provide the ability to correlate the quantitative assessment for the test with an ordinal or even an interval measurement scale;

- convenient, i.e. suitable for fast mathematical processing of results;

- standard, i.e. suitable for wide practical use.

If the basis test classifications put the various aspects (components) of the development and formation of human qualities, then it will look like this.

1. Tests of general mental abilities, mental development.

2. Tests of special abilities in various fields of activity.

3. Tests of learning, performance, academic achievements.

4. Tests to determine individual qualities (features) of a person (memory, thinking, character, etc.).

5. Tests to determine the level of upbringing (formation of universal, moral, social and other qualities).

The use of certain tests will be most effective and provide reliable conclusions only if they are correctly combined with all other groups of tests.

The most important criteria diagnostic tests of learning are efficiency (validity, exponentiality), reliability (probability, correctness), differentiation (distinguishability).

Learning tests are applied at all stages of the didactic process. With their help, preliminary, current, thematic and final control of knowledge, skills, accounting for academic performance, academic achievements are effectively provided.

For technical support of testing, special tools are used, which are divided into two large groups. The first one includes device (devices) for individual verification - punched cards of various types, matrices, accounting cards, etc. The second group consists of group control means - automated classes (control and training complexes) that implement the ideas of programmed learning. It is the combination of effective management of the cognitive process and systematic testing of learning (providing prompt feedback) that a significant increase in the quality of the didactic process is achieved. Modern high-speed computers make it possible to implement tests that are perfect in terms of diagnostics.

The advantage of a test check is that the whole class is busy and productive at the same time, and in a few minutes you can get a slice of the learning of all students. This forces them to prepare for each lesson, to work systematically. Individual and differentiated work with students to prevent academic failure is also based on ongoing testing.

Testing must necessarily be combined with other (traditional) methods and forms of verification.

64. Assessment of student knowledge

Under assessment knowledge, skills and abilities didactics understands the process of comparing the level of proficiency achieved by students with the reference representations described in the curriculum. As a process, the assessment of knowledge, skills and abilities is implemented in the course of control (verification) of the latter. The quantitative measure of evaluation is called "mark" and is expressed in points.

In domestic didactics, a 4-point system of marks is adopted:

- 5 - fully proficient (excellent);

- 4 - owns enough (good);

- 3 - insufficient knowledge (satisfactory);

- 2 - does not own (unsatisfactory).

There are other scales of marks for knowledge in the world.

Methods ratings:

- comparative - comparing the success of one student with the success of others;

- normative - assessment based on the requirements of the standard;

- personal - comparing the student's answer with his own answers, actions, knowledge and skills in the past.

In modern didactics, there are various approaches to the construction of indicators of knowledge, skills and abilities, focused on the goals of teaching various academic subjects, which leads to significant difficulties in their understanding by both the teacher and the student and, as a result, to formal use to the detriment of the objectivity of the assessment. .

In recent years, a supra-subject, general didactic level of understanding the indicators of schoolchildren's learning has been formed in didactics, and knowledge indicators are described through the possession of their elements, which is expressed in the performance by students of intellectual operations that can be objectively measured. Generalized system of oversubject learning indicators can be represented as follows.

1. Knowledge maturity indicator:

- possession of concepts;

- possession of facts;

- knowledge of scientific issues;

- possession of theories;

- possession of patterns and rules;

- Knowledge of methods and procedures.

2. The indicator of the formation of skills:

- construction of an algorithm (sequence) of operations for performing specific actions in the skill structure;

- modeling (planning) of the practical implementation of the actions that make up this skill;

- performing a set of actions that make up this skill;

- self-analysis of the results of performing actions that make up the skill in comparison with the purpose of the activity.

3. Skills indicators.

The generalized indicators of the formation of skills coincide with the indicators of the formation of skills. But since the skill involves the automation of actions, the time of its execution is also usually estimated, for example, measuring the speed of reading, mental counting, etc.

Primary flaw expert evaluation - subjectivism. The evaluation functions are not limited only to the statement of the level of learning. Evaluation is a means of stimulating learning, positive motivation, and influence on a person. Under the influence objective assessment schoolchildren develop an adequate self-esteem, a critical attitude towards their successes. Therefore, the significance of assessment and the variety of its functions require the search for indicators that would reflect all aspects of the educational activity of schoolchildren and ensure their identification. From this point of view, the current system of assessing knowledge and skills requires revision in order to increase its diagnostic significance and objectivity.

65. Student underachievement

Under underachievement is understood a situation in which behavior and learning outcomes do not meet the educational and didactic requirements of the school. Poor progress is expressed in the fact that the student has poor reading, counting skills, weak intellectual skills of analysis, generalization, etc. Systematic poor progress leads to pedagogical neglect, which is understood as a complex of negative personality traits that contradict the requirements of the school, society. Those who are pedagogically neglected often drop out of school and join risk groups.

underachievement - this complex problemwhich has didactic, methodological, psychological, medical and socio-pedagogical aspects.

Research has identified three groups of causes of school failure.

1. Socio-economic - financial insecurity of the family, general unfavorable situation in the family, alcoholism, pedagogical illiteracy of parents.

2. Causes of a biopsychic nature - these are hereditary features, abilities, character traits. Inclinations are inherited from parents, and abilities, hobbies, character develop during life on the basis of inclinations.

3. Pedagogical reasons. Education, the work of a teacher is a decisive factor in the development of a student. Gross mistakes of the teacher lead to psychogenies, didactogenies - mental trauma received in the process of learning and sometimes requiring special psychotherapeutic intervention.

More specific reasons for failures in studies: a rigid, unified system of education, the content of education, the same for everyone, not meeting the needs of children; uniformity, stereotype in methods and forms of teaching, verbalism, intellectualism, underestimation of emotions in learning; inability to set learning goals and lack of effective monitoring of results; neglect of the development of students, practicality, coaching, orientation to cramming.

Means to eliminate the didactic causes of failure

Pedagogical prevention - search for optimal pedagogical systems, including the use of active methods and forms of learning, new pedagogical technologies, problem-based and programmed learning, computerization. For this, Yu. Babansky proposed the concept of optimizing the educational process.

Pedagogical diagnostics - systematic monitoring and evaluation of learning outcomes, timely identification of gaps. To do this, there are conversations between the teacher and students, parents, monitoring a difficult student with fixing data in the teacher's diary, conducting tests, analyzing the results, summarizing them in the form of tables according to the types of mistakes made.

Educational Therapy - Measures to eliminate backlogs in studies. In the domestic school, these are additional classes. In the West, there are equalization groups, the advantages of which are that classes are conducted based on the results of serious diagnostics, with the selection of group and individual teaching aids. They are taught by special teachers, attendance is mandatory.

educational impact - individual planned educational work should be carried out with underachieving students, which includes work with the student's family.

66. The concepts of "education", "self-education", "re-education"

Education - a purposeful process of personality formation with the help of specially organized pedagogical influences in accordance with a certain socio-pedagogical ideal.

The concept of "education" is associated with the concepts of "formation", "formation", "socialization".

Socialization - the process of personality formation in certain social conditions, during which a person assimilates social experience, selectively introduces into his system of behavior the norms and rules of behavior accepted in a given society or social group.

Personality formation - a concept that reflects the child's achievement of such a level of development when he becomes able to live independently in society, independently build his behavior, realize his relationship with the world and make a relatively stable value choice.

Formation of personality - the process of personality change in the course of its interaction with reality, the appearance of physical and socio-psychological neoplasms in the personality structure.

Education as a pedagogical concept includes in its content three important features:

- purposefulness, the presence of some kind of model, socio-cultural landmark, ideal;

- compliance of the course of the process of education with socio-cultural values as the achievements of the historical development of mankind;

- the presence of a certain system of organized educational influences and influences.

Well-organized upbringing leads to the formation of a person's ability to self-education. Substance it - in an indication of the displacement of the subject of education: the pupil himself will correlate the socio-cultural pattern with behavior. The child is freed from dependence on adults raising him and turns his "I" into an object of his own perception and independent thoughtful influence on himself for the purpose of self-improvement, self-development. Basic techniques self-education are introspection, self-esteem, self-control, self-regulation, self-persuasion.

The latent (hidden) nature of the processes occurring in the personality and the duration of their final formation put both the teacher and the pupil before the fact of obvious inconsistencies of the personality with generally accepted norms and the underdevelopment of some qualities that are in demand in modern life. The desire to correct, correct, add, eliminate any qualities and habits of behavior characterize process of "re-education".

"Re-education" is a term of the distant pedagogical past, when the child, being an object of influence for the teacher, was interpreted as the bearer of the sum of qualities. It was assumed that negative qualities should be removed, destroyed, suppressed, and positive qualities should be put in place of the etched ones.

K.D. Ushinsky pointed out that bad habits are better eradicated by the formation of good habits, which will become a replacement for bad ones. A.S. Makarenko proved that any child can be brought up if placed in normal human conditions.

Today, pedagogical thought and humanistic psychology affirm the principle of accepting a child as a given, respect for his individuality, taking into account the history of his formation, development and formation. From these new positions, the term "re-education" is gradually becoming a thing of the past.

67. Principles of education

Principles - general guidelines requiring a sequence of actions under different conditions and circumstances.

1. The first principle of education, arising from the purpose of education and taking into account the nature of the educational process, - value orientation, the constancy of the professional attention of the teacher to the emerging relationship of the pupil to socio-cultural values (man, nature, society, work, knowledge) and the value bases of life - goodness, truth, beauty. The condition for the implementation of the principle of orientation on value relations is the philosophical and psychological training of the teacher, which only allows the teacher to recognize relations where they are not visible behind the objectivity of the world, allows you to see the phenomenon behind the fact, behind the phenomenon - the regularity, behind the regularity - the foundations of life. With the help of a teacher, children go through a school of kindness, but this does not mean that their choice is predetermined. Going into an independent life, they themselves will make a choice of those foundations that will be laid in the destiny they construct.

2. The second principle of education is the principle subjectivity. The teacher maximally contributes to the development of the child's ability to realize his "I" in relations with other people and the world, to comprehend his actions, to foresee their consequences for other people and his own destiny, to make a meaningful choice of life decisions. The principle of subjectivity excludes a rigid order addressed to children, but involves making a joint decision with the child so that the child himself comprehends: "If you do this, it will be for you ... it will be different ... Do you want this? Will it be right?" The essence of actions and deeds is revealed in their influence on the course of life, the indissoluble connection of all human actions with the state of the surrounding world is revealed. This is done in the course of daily activities, in separate hours of group reflection, in individual conversation with the child, through reference to works of art and through the analysis of one's own thoughts and own experiences for a certain period or at a given moment in life.

3. The third principle - the principle of the integrity of education arises from an attempt to harmonize social norms, rules of life and the autonomy of the unique personality of each child. This the principle is: "Accepting the child as a given, recognizing the child's right to exist as he is, respecting his life story, which has shaped him at the moment exactly as he is, recognizing the value of his personality, preserving in relation to each child outside depending on his success, development, position, ability to respect his personality.

The personal prerequisites for the implementation of the principle of integrity include the ability of a teacher in each situation to regard private and one-act manifestations of a person as his attitude to the world and specific objects of the world.

The union of the three principles of education gives it harmoniously combined characteristics: philosophical, dialogical, ethical. They cannot exist one without the other, just as the implementation of one of the named principles of modern education in isolation from others is impossible.

68. Humanistic pedagogy

The model of education, which is based on the direction of humanistic psychology, developed in 50-60s in the USA in the works of scholars such as Maslow, Frank, Rogers, Collie, Combs and more

The main concepts of humanistic pedagogy are "human self-actualization", "personal growth", "developing assistance". Each person is a whole formation, a unique personality. The behavior of a person is determined not by reinforcement coming from the external environment, as behaviorism teaches, but by the innate human desire for actualization - the development of one's natural abilities, the search for one's meaning and life path. Personality is understood as a complex autonomous system, characterized by orientation, the will to positive activity and cooperation.

Self-actualization - this is the realization of oneself in activity, in relations with people, in a full-blooded "good" life on a chosen and changing life path. This state is denoted by K. Rogers by the concept of "a fully functioning person." In Rogers' psychotherapy and pedagogy, the psychotherapist and educator must excite the person's own powers to solve his problems, not to decide for him, not to impose on him a ready-made solution, but to stimulate his own work of personal change and growth, which never has limits.

The goal of training and education should not be the acquisition of knowledge as a set of knowledge of facts, theories, etc., but change in the personality of the student as a result of independent learning. The task of school and upbringing is to enable the development, self-development of the individual, to promote the search for one's individuality, to go towards self-actualization.

The teaching in which the student is interested, where there is not just an accumulation of facts, but a change in the student, his behavior, his self-concept, Rogers called "a teaching that is significant for a person." He determined the following conditions under which it could take place.

1. Pupils solve problems in the process of learning that are of interest and significance to them.

2. The teacher feels congruent towards the students, that is, he manifests himself as such a person as he is, expressing himself freely.

3. The teacher shows an unconditional positive attitude towards the student, accepts him as he is.

4. The teacher shows empathy for the student. The ability to penetrate into his inner world, to understand him, to look through his eyes, while remaining himself.

5. The teacher provides the means of teaching students: books, textbooks, tools, materials.

The teacher plays the role of an assistant and stimulator of meaningful learning, must create psychological comfort and freedom for the student, i.e. teaching must be centered on the student, and not on the subject.

The educator within the framework of humanistic pedagogy should encourage students to make a moral choice by providing material for analysis. Education methods are discussions, role-playing games, discussion of situations, analysis and conflict resolution. For parents and teachers, scientists of the humanistic school offer the following techniques in communicating with the child: I-statement, active listening, unconditional love for the child, positive attention to him, eye contact, physical contact.

69. Methods of education and methods of pedagogical influence

parenting method - this is a model of organizing the mutually conditioned activity of the teacher and the child, designed to form his value attitude to the world and himself. This is a pedagogical projection of objective factors of social reality that have a formative influence on the personality.

Social environment factor in personal formation is transformed in educational practice into a method of organizing an educational environment, or rather, in method of organized interaction of children with the environment.

Factor of a person's own activity, decisively influencing the development of a person, undergoes a pedagogical transformation and receives the name method of organizing educational activities.

Factor of return-evaluative influence of adults onto the child is projected onto educational reality, transforming into organized comprehension by the child of unfolding life.

These methods of education are of a factorial nature, they have the power of objective influence on the growing personality.

Methods of education are implemented simultaneously in each separate period of children's lives.

Methods of educational influence - these are specific ways of influencing the consciousness, feelings, behavior of pupils to solve pedagogical problems in joint activities, communication of pupils with a teacher-educator.

The choice and implementation of methods is carried out in accordance with pedagogical goals (operational, tactical, strategic), which are set taking into account the specifics of the social and educational environment, age, individual typological characteristics of students, and the level of upbringing of specific teams. Methods of education should be distinguished from the means of education with which they are associated. The means of education are, first of all, objects of material and spiritual culture, which are used to solve pedagogical problems. The method of upbringing is realized through the activities of the teacher-educator, while the means (book, film, etc.) can also influence outside the activities of the teacher, without the teacher.

For the practical work of a teacher, the following classification of upbringing methods is most suitable:

- persuasion methods, with the help of which the views, ideas, concepts of the educated are formed, there is an operational exchange of information (suggestion, narration, dialogue, proof, appeals, persuasion);

- exercise methods - these are such influences that provide real practical actions of the child, embodying his inner attitude, which, as it were, materializes the attitude, making it visible to another. With the help of exercise methods, the activities of the students are organized and its positive motives are stimulated (various types of tasks for individual and group activities in the form of assignments, requirements, competitions, showing samples and examples, creating situations of success);

- assessment and self-assessment methods, with the help of which the assessment of actions is carried out, stimulation of activity, assistance is provided to the educated in self-regulation of their behavior (criticism, encouragement, comments, punishments, situations of trust, control, self-control, self-criticism).

Methods of educational influence are developed by such a scientific discipline as pedagogical technology.

70. Means of the educational process

means everything that is called uses the subject in the process of moving towards the goal. Funds are located outside the subject, they are borrowed from outside to facilitate the activity, to improve the quality of its product, to enhance any detail of the active process.

The role of a means can be performed by any object of reality, except for a person.

The means do not follow directly from the end, they are mediated by the chosen method. Having comprehended the goal, the teacher is affirmed in the method.

RџSЂRё selection of funds the main thing for the teacher in the first place are key educational functions, with which any object of reality is potentially endowed:

- visibility function, providing visual support to children in their representation of the phenomenon in question and which is being considered;

- trigger function, excitation of spiritual activity, mental activity, providing comprehension of the problem of life, the meaning of a particular phenomenon, the significance of an object for a person;

- instrumental functionwhich provides the child with independent interaction with objects of the surrounding reality as a reflection of the phenomena being studied: thanks to this function, children can first, in the course of group work, acquire the vital skills that are so necessary for a modern person in cultural life.

Tri-functional remedy is a pedagogically optimal means that allows the teacher to achieve relatively maximum educational results with minimal additional efforts.

Just as any phenomenon of reality that a person encounters causes certain reactions of a person, so a tool, being a part of life, cannot but cause a reactive response to its appearance. The teacher is forced to take into account the impact that the object introduced into the field of their attention and the field of relations will involuntarily have on children, so as to prevent negative well-being, aggression, and excessive excitement. A sense of proportion should help him. And, before finally choosing a means for working with children, he mentally reproduces the situation of bringing the means into the field of group communication and predicts the psychological impact of this means.

The art of choosing an educational means is conditioned by the preliminary readiness of the teacher to perceive the world. The teacher must see in a subject - a phenomenon, in a phenomenon - a pattern, in a pattern - the basis of life. The value abstraction of the teacher allows him to discover an educational tool behind any object.

The basis classification of educational means laid channel of psychological influence on a person:

- auditory (lat. "Audi" - hearing) - a word, music, song, poetry, etc .;

- visual (lat. "vis" - to see, vision) - an object, an image of an object, an artistic image, a conventional graphic image, video, film, photographic recording, etc.);

- kinesthetic (gr. "kine" - movement and "este" - flair, sensation) - rhythmic movements, symbolic gestures, change of posture, tactile touches, etc.

In practice, there is a syncretic unity of these means. In this case, one of the channels dominates in perception.

Means are neutral to educational influence, they are completely subordinate to the method.

The means chosen by the teacher determine the form of the educational act.

71. Forms of education

Forms of education - ways of organizing the educational process, ways of expedient organization of the collective and individual activities of students. The term "educational event, organizational forms of education" is also used. An event is an organized action of a team aimed at achieving some educational goals.

In the process of collective planning, preparation and holding of events, an atmosphere of co-creation is created, which contributes to the development of the individual, the team, and the development of intra-collective relations. The event is implemented as a purposeful interaction of the teacher-educator with each student, the educational team as a whole, aimed at solving certain educational problems.

In the pedagogical literature there is no single approach to the classification of forms of educational work. The most common is classification of organizational forms of education depending on how students are organized:

- mass forms (participation of the whole class);

- circle group;

- individual.

Noteworthy is the approach to determining the forms of educational work associated with the areas of educational activities, for example, for organizations of cognitive and developmental activities of students, such forms as a quiz, an auction of knowledge, a competition of experts "What? Where? When?", a competition of projects, business games are more suitable. , scientific conferences of students, a competition of inventors and dreamers, etc.).

When carrying out the tasks of moral education, such forms as debates, a round table, a conversation on ethical topics, a teleconference, charity events, literary and musical compositions, etc. can be used.

The choice of forms of educational work is determined on the basis of the scientific principles of education. For each children's team, the most suitable forms should be chosen. The more diverse and richer in content the forms of organization of the educational process, the more effective it is. The choice of forms of educational work should be based on pedagogical expediency.

Conditions associated with the pedagogical search for forms

1. Any form must be focused on three channels of perceptionso that auditory, visual, and kinesthetic learners receive sufficient spiritual nourishment for inner activity.

2. The form must be changeable, but this should be done not through a sharp replacement of a form known to children with a new one not known to them, but through the inclusion each time of new details, elements of novelty, so that the form can completely exhaust itself and imperceptibly be supplanted by something fundamentally different.

3. The form must be reproduced in its entirety, it is each time anew developed for specific circumstances. The starting point of this development is a meaningful idea, it is subject to analysis in relation to reality, and the variability of the form is born as a result of such an analysis.

Practice shows that the same forms of organization of educational work that are often used lose their novelty, become stereotyped, and therefore do not give the expected effectiveness. Experienced teachers tend to use a variety of forms of education.

72. Directions of educational work

In the complex educational process, the following areas can be distinguished: physical, mental, moral, aesthetic, labor and professional education.

Content physical education includes: improvement of the human body involves the development of the motor and musculoskeletal systems, nervous system, body proportions while maintaining and strengthening human health. The success of educational and professional activities depends on the physical condition; education of students in matters of physical culture and personal hygiene; formation of the mechanism of physical self-education, stimulation of self-education of the will, endurance, perseverance, self-discipline; versatile development of specific sports skills and mastery; development of professionally significant physical qualities that provide an increase in working capacity, stability of the nervous system, the appearance of good health; individual work with physically gifted children, taking into account their interests and inclinations.

Content mental (intellectual) upbringing: development of intellect through the development of all cognitive functions of a person: mental processes of sensation, perception, memory, thinking, imagination, speech; mental education of students in the field of sciences, activities, communication; formation of the mechanism of self-organization of mental activity; development of individual intellectual abilities and cognitive abilities of students; development of consciousness and self-awareness of students, their creative potential; formation of professional thinking.

Content moral education is:

- moral education - the formation of consciousness, moral feelings and skills of moral behavior;

- ethical education - the formation of good manners, culture of behavior and relationships;

- patriotic education - the formation of a sense of love and responsibility for their homeland, the formation of readiness to stand up for the motherland and their people;

- formation of a sense of one's own national dignity and respect for other nations and peoples;

- political education - the formation of political consciousness.

Content labor и professional education:

- the formation of the need for labor, the education of a person-worker, capable of creating material and spiritual values for himself and society;

- formation of general labor knowledge, skills and abilities; positive, conscious and creative attitude to work;

- professional education in the field of labor and production activities, economics and law;

- development of the mechanism of self-learning in the sphere of labor and professional activity;

- professional and legal education - the transfer of information about laws and regulations to students.

Content aesthetic education: development of aesthetic perception of the surrounding world and the ability to appreciate and create beauty; development of aesthetic feelings and emotions, development of imagination; aesthetic education of students in the field of art, culture, objects of nature; individual aesthetic education aimed at developing the artistic inclinations, abilities and inclinations of students; formation of the mechanism of aesthetic self-education; formation of aesthetic relations, perception, feelings, taste and ideal.

73. The educational system of the class as a pedagogical phenomenon and concept

Educational system of the class - this is a way of organizing life and educating members of the class community, which is a holistic and ordered set of interacting components and contributes to the development of the individual and the team. This is a rather complex socio-pedagogical phenomenon, consisting of a large number of elements.

These components are five components: individual-group; value orientation; functional and activity; space-time; diagnostic and analytical.

Individual-group the component is a community (community) of children and adults involved in the creation, management and development of the educational system of the class.

Elements of this component are parents, students, parents of students, teachers and other adults who participate in the educational process and the life of the class team.

Importance of this component: members of the class community decide what educational system to create, how to model and build it, how the system should function; the meaning and expediency of all activities to create an educational system are due to the need to realize the need for changes in the individual and group characteristics of this component and its constituent elements.

value orientation the component, in turn, is a combination of the following elements: goals and objectives of education; prospects for the life of the classroom community; principles of building the educational system and the life of the class.

This component is value-semantic core system or the main determining and integrating factor in the functioning and development of the educational system.

Functional and activity The component is made up of elements such as:

- a backbone type of activity, forms and methods of organizing joint activities and communication;

- the main functions of the educational system;

- pedagogical support and self-management of the classroom community.

This component plays the role the main system-forming factor, which ensures the orderliness and integrity of the educational system, the functioning and development of its main elements and connections.

Elements space-time component of the educational system of the class:

- emotional-psychological, spiritual-moral and subject-material environment;

- connections and relations of the classroom community with other communities of children and adults;

- the place and role of the class in the educational space of the educational institution;

- stages of formation and development of the educational system.

Diagnostic and analytical the component of the educational system of the class consists of the following elements: criteria for the effectiveness of the educational system; methods and techniques for studying the effectiveness of the educational system; forms and methods of analysis, evaluation and interpretation of the results.

Importance of this component is that in the absence of reliable, carefully analyzed information about the development of the child's personality and the formation of the class team, the pedagogical expediency of all activities for modeling and building the educational system of the class is called into question.

74. Interpersonal relationships in a team

Student (student) environment, peculiarities study group, which includes a person, features of others reference groups have a powerful socializing and educational impact on the personality of the student.

The behavior of people in a group has its own specifics in comparison with individual behavior, there is both unification, an increase in the similarity of the behavior of group members due to the formation and subordination of group norms and values based on the mechanism of suggestibility, conformism, submission to power, and the growth of opportunities to exert their response influence on group. In the study group there are dynamic processes of structuring, forming and changing interpersonal relationships, distribution of group roles and nomination of leaders etc. All these group processes have a strong influence on the personality of the student, on the success of his educational activities and professional development, on his behavior. The teacher must know and understand the patterns of group processes, have a beneficial effect on their formation.

Such individual characteristics of the teacherhow his psycho-sociotype, character, leadership style can significantly affect the nature of the relationship with the study group and the very functioning of the student (student) team, contributing to or hindering the growth of its cohesion.

Such a feature of the group as homogeneity of the age composition, determines the age similarity of interests, goals, psychological characteristics, contributes to group cohesion. The main activity of the study group is teaching, and the factors of educational cohesion are weaker than production ones, so sometimes a cohesive team does not work out.

In the student group, such socio-psychological phenomenaAs:

- "collective experiences and moods" - the emotional reaction of the team to events in the team, in the surrounding world; the collective mood can stimulate or inhibit the activities of the team, leading to conflicts, there may be an optimistic, indifferent or dissatisfaction mood;

- "collective opinions" - the similarity of judgments, views on issues of collective life, approval or disapproval of certain events, actions of group members;

- phenomena of imitation, suggestibility or conformism;

- the phenomenon of competition - a form of interaction between people who are emotionally zealous about the results of their activities, striving to succeed. A study group may evolve from an "association" type to a "collective" level, or change to a "corporation" type.

Association - a group in which relationships are mediated only by personally significant goals (a group of friends, acquaintances).

Cooperation - a group that is distinguished by a really operating organizational structure, interpersonal relations are of a business nature, subordinated to the achievement of the required result in the performance of a specific task in a certain type of activity.

Collective - a time-stable organizational group of people interacting with specific governing bodies, united by the goals of joint socially useful activities and the complex dynamics of formal (business) and informal relationships between group members.

75. Structure and stages of formation of the educational team

The teaching staff has dual structure:

- it is the object and result of conscious purposeful influences of teachers, which determine many of its features (types and nature of activity, number of members, organizational structure, etc.);

- the educational team is a relatively independently developing phenomenon, which is subject to special socio-psychological patterns, requiring an individual approach. The task of the teacher - to clearly see the structure of interpersonal relationships in a team in order to be able to find an individual approach to team members and influence the formation and development of a cohesive team. A real close-knit team does not appear immediately, but is formed gradually, passing through a series of stages.

On the first organizational stage, a group of students is not a team in the full sense of the word. This stage is characterized by socio-psychological adaptation, i.e., active adaptation to the educational process and entry into a new team, assimilation of the requirements, norms, and traditions of the life of an educational institution. The organizer of the life and activities of the study group at this stage is the teacher. At this organizational stage, the leader must carefully study each member of the group, his character, personality traits, identifying, on the basis of observation and psychological testing, the individual psychological map of the student's personality, gradually highlighting those who are more sensitive to the interests of the team, is an effective asset.

The second stage development of the team occurs when an effective, rather than formal, asset of the team is identified, i.e., the organizers of collective activity are identified, who enjoy authority among the majority of members of the team. Now the requirements for the team are put forward not only by the teacher, but also by the asset of the team. The teacher at the second stage of the development of the team must objectively study and analyze the interpersonal relationships of the members of the team. The upbringing of the group's asset is the most important task of the leader, aimed at developing the organizational abilities of the asset and eliminating negative phenomena: arrogance, vanity, "commanding tone" in the behavior of the asset. Knowing the structure of informal relationships, what they are based on, makes it easier to understand the intra-group atmosphere and allows you to find the most rational ways to influence the effectiveness of group work. Strengthening and development of the team at the second stage contribute to: the involvement of team members in various types of joint activities, the setting of interesting and increasingly complex goals and tasks for the team that are attractive to many participants, the establishment of friendly and demanding relations, responsible dependence between people.

In the third stage development, the team reaches a high level of cohesion, consciousness, organization, responsibility of the members of the team, which allows the team to independently solve various problems, move to the level of self-government. Not every team reaches this highest level of development.

A highly developed team is characterized by the presence of a positive psychological climate, a benevolent background of relationships, emotional empathy, sympathy for each other.

76. Modern foreign pedagogical concepts

Pragmatism - philosophical and pedagogical direction, advocating the convergence of education with life, the achievement of the goals of education in practical activities. Founders of pragmatic philosophy C. Pierce и W. James claimed to create a new philosophy, standing outside of idealism and materialism. The ideas of the early pragmatists were developed by an American philosopher and educator J. Dewey.

In the 60s. the philosophy of pragmatism and the pedagogy based on it lost their popularity, but revived in the 70s. under the flag neopragmatism.

Main entity neopragmatic concept of education is reduced to the self-affirmation of the individual. Her supportersA. Maslow, A. Combs, E. Kelly, C. Rogers, T. Brummeld, S. Hook etc.) reinforce individualistic orientation of education. Neopragmatists advocate complete arbitrariness in the actions and assessments of the individual. Neo-pragmatism remains the leading trend in American pedagogy and is becoming more and more widespread in other countries of the Western world.

Neopositivism - philosophical and pedagogical direction, trying to comprehend the complex of phenomena caused by the scientific and technological revolution. The current pedagogical neo-positivism is most often referred to as "new humanism", some directions as "scientism". The most prominent representatives of the new humanism and scientism - P. Here, J. Wilson, R.S. Peters, A. Harris, M. Warnock, L. Kohlberg and more

Supporters of the new humanism are in favor of the complete humanization of the education system. Supporters of scientism do not believe in feelings, but in logic and are convinced that only with the help of rational thinking will it be able to show the ability to self-realization, to communicate with other members of society.

Existentialism - philosophical direction, recognizing the individual as the highest value of the world. Each person is unique, unique, special. Each person is the bearer of his own morality. According to existentialists, the identity of the individual is especially harmed by the collective, which turns a person into a "herd animal".

The most prominent representatives of modern existentialist pedagogy - J. Kneller, C. Gould, E. Breisach, W. Barrett, M. Marcel, O.F. Bolnov, T. Morita, A. Fallico.

A detailed presentation of the pedagogical concept of modern Neo-Thomism given by French philosopher, head of neo-Thomism J. Maritain. Prominent Representatives catholic pedagogy - W. Cunningham, W. McGacken, M. Casotti, M. Stefanini, W. von Lowenich, R. Livigston, E. Gilson. The main provisions of neo-Thomist pedagogy are determined by the "dual nature" of man. Man is the unity of mother and spirit, and therefore he is both an individual and a personality. The purpose of education is derived from Christian morality, religious provisions about humility, patience, non-resistance to God.

Behaviorism - psychological and pedagogical concept of technocratic education. Classical behaviorism, at the origins of which was a prominent American philosopher and psychologist J. Watson, enriched science with the provision on the dependence of behavior (reactions) on the stimulus (stimulus). Neobehaviorists (B.F. Skinner, K. Huld, E. Tolman, S. Presen etc.) supplemented this provision reinforcements, as a result of which the chain of formation of the given behavior acquired the form "stimulus - reaction - reinforcement".

77. The goals of education in foreign pedagogy

Western pedagogy follows the course of moderation, practicality, attainability.

pragmatic Pedagogy upholds goals derived from life. The American school went after D. Deweywho managed to prove the need for pragmatic education and offer education goals consonant with the progress and interests of the general population. Education, in his opinion, cannot be a means of preparing a person for life, it is life itself. Education should unite people, it is necessary to educate young people in the spirit of social peace and harmony.

The Dewey education system appears as a decisive means of improving the social environment, changing the type of society without revolutionary changes.

Dewey's methodological principles on the goals of education are shared by modern American theorists. A. Maslow, A. Cobs, E. Kelly, C. Rogers, T. Brummeld, S. Hook and more

Summarizing the ideas of these theorists, one can conclude that the general goal of educating pragmatic pedagogy is in the self-affirmation of the individual.

New Humanist Pedagogy, which develops on the basis of neopositivism, sees the goal of education in the formation of an intellectual personality. The work of the well-known West German teacher and psychologist L. Kolberg, who led the direction towards the development of the cognitive-value orientation of the individual, had a great influence on the modern interpretation of goals. The list of educational tasks put forward by neo-humanists does not include the labor training of young people, since it interferes with the development of the intellect, taking away the strength and time of the trainees.

Pedagogy existentialism aims at arming man with the experience of existence. Priority in education, according to existentialist educators, belongs to self-education.

The main attention in the existentialist concepts of education is given to the individual, the analysis of his inner world, which determines the nature of all actions and actions of a person, his moral choice. Helping a person make a moral choice, justifying it is one of the central tasks of the scientific methodology of education.

In the 50-60s. new variants emerged in European countries and the USA existentialist pedagogical goal-setting, among which a prominent place is occupied by the views of the German philosopher and teacher O.F. Bolnov. The core of his teaching is moral education concept.

Pedagogy Neo-Thomism advocates the formation of a God-fearing personality, and education should be based on the priority of the spiritual principle. The tasks of education are determined by the eternal requirements of Christian morality, they must be put forward by the church.

Peculiar ways of solving the most important humanistic problems are offered by neobehaviorists. As main goal of education they put forward the task of forming a "managed individual". The main moral quality formed in young people should be a sense of responsibility as an important condition for the viability of the social system. Particular importance is attached to responsibility and discipline in the labor process.

Education in a technocratic society is likened to a social mechanism through which educational institutions introduce into practice ideas about the ideal personality of an industrial and post-industrial society.

78. Conceptual foundations of family education in different periods of the development of society

Family is the initial structural unit of society, laying the foundations of the individual. The main functions of the family are in the reproduction of the human race, in childbearing and education.

The concept of family pedagogy, i.e., scientific theories and main directions, in various historical periods and under various social structures, outwardly remained unchanged. It included the formation of universal human values and such qualities as honesty and honor, dignity and nobility, love for people and diligence, the ability to be grateful for kindness, etc.

The concept of family pedagogy is found in various verbal presentations. Its meaning was always the same: the creation of a system of education that ensures the comprehensive and harmonious development of the individual, the preservation and strengthening of physical, moral and mental health.

In families of all classes traditionally showed great concern for education.

At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. the model of the traditional patriarchal family has changed significantly. Social and political changes have led to intra-family contradictions.

In modern conditions, when there is a rapid restructuring of the political and socio-economic way of life of society and the state, the system of family education is undergoing significant changes. It has not yet received a deep scientific analysis, but at the level of facts it is already necessary to note that the destruction of the family in the traditional sense continues to grow. Among the reasons for this are the following.

Firstly, the single-child or small family has already been in many generations, especially over the past fifty years. Being brought up in such conditions, children do not receive practical skills in caring for and educating their brothers and sisters, which was typical in a large family.

Secondly, the influence of the older generation on children is declining, their wisdom accumulated over many years of life and life experience, rich in observations, remain unclaimed.

Thirdly, the traditions of folk pedagogy, which taught high morality through proverbs and sayings, have been thoroughly lost.

Fourth, among the reasons complicating family upbringing are ever-increasing social and economic difficulties.

Depending on the number of children, modern families are divided into large, small, one-child and childless families. According to their composition, they can be single-generation (only spouses), two-generation (parents and children), intergenerational, in which children, their parents and parents of parents live together. If the family has only one of the parents (mother or father), the family is called incomplete.

In pedagogy, there is a classification of families not only by composition, but also by the nature of the relationship in them. Yu.P. Azarov divides families into three types: ideal, average, negative or scandalously irritable.

M.I. Buyanov calls these types of families: harmonious, decaying, broken, incomplete.

Practitioners divide families into "prosperous" and "unfavorable" families.

In general, the crisis situation in polar opposite families has a significant negative effect on children, their upbringing in the family, and makes it difficult to organize the education and upbringing of children in general educational institutions.

79. Legal basis of family education

Family education is based on family law, which is enshrined in the country's constitution, legislative and regulatory documents on marriage, the family, the rights of the child and the protection of childhood.

An important place among the documents guaranteeing the life and health of children is International Convention on the Rights of the Child. In accordance with it, parents guarantee the freedom and dignity of their children, creating conditions in the family under which they can take place as individuals and citizens, providing the prerequisites for their free creative life.

The Convention on the Rights of the Child emphasizes that children have the right to special care and assistance, for which the necessary protection must be provided in the family as a natural environment for the habitat and well-being of all its members, and especially children. It is recognized that for the full and harmonious development of the child's personality, it is necessary to grow up in a family environment, in an atmosphere of happiness, love and understanding. Only such conditions can prepare children for independent life in society and educate them in the spirit of universal ideals.

The Convention warns parents about authoritarianism in family education. She encourages them to build relationships with children on a high moral and legal basis. Respect for the opinion, views, and personality of the child as a whole should become in the family not only a manifestation of the norm of universal culture, but also the norm of law.

Family pedagogy should be built by parents on the basis of relations of equal individuals, equal subjects of law, and not on the basis of the requirements of elders, not on the blind subordination of one to another. Parents should strive to ensure that the core in the formation of a growing personality is the upbringing of a respectful attitude to the law, to the rights of other people, each person.

In the Russian Federation, the legal foundations of family education are based on the relevant articles Constitution of the Russian Federation и Law of the Russian Federation "On Education". The public education system provides general educational and vocational training of citizens, their spiritual and physical development. The Constitution obliges parents to take care of the upbringing of children, to involve them in work and to educate them industriousness (Article 38). One of the main principles of raising children in a family, enshrined in legislation, is to provide father and mother with equal rights and obligations in relation to their children. This principle provides the best conditions for observing the interests of children, guarantees protection from the manifestation of parental egoism, and serves as the basis for objective, reasonable decisions.

Parents are obliged to support their minor children, as well as children who are unable to work and need help. The material maintenance of children is a necessary prerequisite for ensuring all other parental rights and obligations. The material maintenance of children is a moral duty of parents. Parents who do not fulfill their duty of maintenance and upbringing may be subject to a strict moral measure - deprivation of parental rights.

To resolve difficult situations in the upbringing of children is intended The Family Code of the Russian Federation, which determined the rights and obligations of parents in raising children, streamlined the amount of alimony for the maintenance of children, etc.

80. Family education: principles and content

Family is a socio-pedagogical group of people designed to optimally meet the needs for self-preservation (procreation) and self-affirmation (self-respect) of each of its members. All personal qualities can be formed in the family.

family education - This is a system of upbringing and education, developing in the conditions of a particular family by the forces of parents and relatives. It is influenced by heredity and biological (natural) health of children and parents, material and economic security, social status, lifestyle, number of family members, place of residence (place at home), attitude towards the child. All this is organically intertwined and in each case manifests itself in different ways.

Tasks families are:

- create maximum conditions for the growth and development of the child;

- to become the socio-economic and psychological protection of the child;

- to convey the experience of creating and maintaining a family, raising children in it and relating to elders;

- to teach children useful applied skills and abilities aimed at self-service and helping loved ones;

- educate self-esteem, the value of one's own "I".

Family education has its own principles. The most common ones are:

- humanity and mercy to the growing person;

- involvement of children in the life of the family as its equal participants;

- openness and trust in relationships with children;

- optimistic relationships in the family;

- consistency in their requirements (do not demand the impossible);

- providing all possible assistance to your child, willingness to answer questions.

In addition to these principles, there are a number of private, but no less significant for family education: the prohibition of physical punishment, the prohibition to read other people's letters and diaries, not to moralize, not to talk too much, not to demand immediate obedience, not to indulge, etc. All principles, however, come down to one thought: children are welcome in the family not because the children are good, it’s easy with them, but the children are good and it’s easy with them because they are welcome.

The content of family education covers all areas. The physical, aesthetic, labor, mental and moral education of children is carried out in the family, changing from age to age. To the best of their ability, parents and relatives in the family give the children knowledge about nature, society, production, professions, and technology; form the experience of creative activity; develop some intellectual skills; educate attitude to the world, people, profession, life.

occupies a special place in family education. moral education. And first of all, the upbringing of such qualities as benevolence, kindness, attention and mercy to people, honesty, openness, diligence. Sometimes this includes obedience.

The purpose of family education is the formation of such personality traits that will help to adequately overcome the difficulties and obstacles encountered on the path of life.

Family education has its own methods, or rather, the priority use of some of them. This is a personal example, discussion, trust, display, love, empathy, elevation of the personality, control, humor, instructions, traditions, praise, sympathy, etc. The selection is purely individual, taking into account specific situational conditions.

81. Types of wrong parenting

There are several types of bad parenting.

neglect, lack of control - occurs when parents are too busy with their own affairs and do not pay due attention to children. As a result, children are left to their own devices and spend time looking for entertainment, falling under the influence of the "street".

Hyperopia - the child's life is under vigilant and tireless supervision, he hears all the time strict orders, numerous prohibitions. As a result, he becomes indecisive, lack of initiative, fearful, unsure of his abilities, does not know how to stand up for himself, for his interests. Gradually, resentment grows for the fact that others "everything is allowed." In adolescents, all this can result in a rebellion against parental dominance: they fundamentally violate prohibitions, run away from home. Another type of overprotection is upbringing according to the type of "idol" of the family. As a result of such upbringing, the child, having matured, is not able to correctly assess his abilities, overcome his egocentrism. The team does not understand him. Deeply experiencing this, he blames everyone, but not himself, a hysterical accentuation of character arises, which brings a lot of experiences to a person throughout his future life.

Education like Cinderella, i.e., in an atmosphere of emotional rejection, indifference, coldness. This situation contributes to the emergence of neuroses, excessive sensitivity to adversity or anger in children.

"Hard parenting" - when a child is severely punished for the slightest offense and he grows up in constant fear.

Education in conditions of increased moral responsibility. The child is instilled with the idea that he must justify the numerous ambitious hopes of his parents, or else unchildish overwhelming worries are assigned to him. As a result, such children develop obsessive fears, constant anxiety for the well-being of their own and loved ones. Improper upbringing disfigures the character of the child, dooms him to neurotic breakdowns, to difficult relationships with others.

One of the most unacceptable methods of education used in the family is method of physical punishmentwhen children are acted upon with the help of fear. Physical punishment causes physical, mental, moral injuries, which ultimately lead to a change in the behavior of children. So, every second punished teenager has difficulties in adapting, adapting him to the team of children, almost all of these children lose their desire to study.

The most favorable variant of the relationship between parents and children is when they experience a steady need for mutual communication, show frankness, mutual trust, equality in relationships, when parents are able to understand the world of the child, his age requirements.

A good enough variant of relationships is when parents try to delve into the interests of children and children share with them. At the same time, parents must have the necessary sensitivity and tact, the ability to enter the children's world without pressure, imposing their views, critical remarks, without nervousness and prejudice.

It is important for parents to understand the motives and aspirations of children, showing enough respect for their arguments and arguments and convincingly revealing their arguments.

82. Educational potential of the family

Sociologists and criminologists, instead of an abstract opposition between "prosperous" and "unfavorable" families, distinguish between families with different educational potential.

On this basis, 10 types of family are distinguished (G.M. Minkovsky):

1) educationally strong;

2) educationally sustainable;

3) educationally unstable;

4) educationally weak with loss of contact with children and control over them;

5) educationally weak with a constantly conflicting atmosphere;

6) educationally weak with an aggressively negative atmosphere;

7) marginal with alcohol, sexual demoralization, etc.;

8) offending;

9) criminal;

10) mentally burdened.

In families first type educational situation is close to optimal. Its main feature is high moral atmosphere of the family as a whole.

The second type In general, family education creates favorable opportunities for education, and the difficulties and shortcomings that arise in the family are overcome with the help of other social institutions, primarily schools.

For third type The family is characterized by an incorrect pedagogical position of the parents, which, nevertheless, is leveled out due to the relatively high general educational potential of the family.

Fourth type unites families where parents, for various reasons, are not able to properly raise their children, have lost control over their behavior and interests, yielding their influence to the society of peers.

The remaining types are negative from a socio-pedagogical point of view, and even criminogenic. The risk of juvenile delinquency brought up in an environment of constant and acute conflicts and in mentally burdened families is higher than that of those who grow up in pedagogically strong and stable families. The point is not only in neglect, but also in the fact that children perceive the behavior of older family members as normal, ordinary, emotionally identify with their parents and reproduce the stereotypes of their behavior, without thinking about how correct they are from the point of view of society.

A disharmonious family is a risk factor for the dysfunctional development of a child's personality. There are several options for psychological distress:

- families where one of the members suffers from a neuropsychiatric disorder or chemical dependence (for example, alcoholism);

- actually disharmonious families, in which the main problem is the relationship between family members.

Various types of disharmonious families: actually disharmonious; destructive; disintegrating and disintegrated families as stages of transition from harmony to complete disintegration; rigid pseudo-solidary family; families in which the wrong type of education is practiced; difficult families, where the social situation of the child's development is unpredictable, beyond his control and fraught with unpleasant surprises, when the child can never be sure that he will be able to get the support of his parents when he needs it, etc.

Children growing up in such families, as a rule, have low self-esteem, which is often masked by perfectionism, that is, an obsessive desire for excellence in all matters, controlling others, showing contempt for people, the appearance of guilt, shame; the very ability to express their own feelings and understand the feelings of other people is reduced.

83. Violations of the child's behavior in the family

Typical children's behavioral reactions

Refusal reaction (from games, food, from contact) arises in response to a sharp change in the usual way of life, for example, when a "home child" begins to attend kindergarten, when a family loses someone close to them, etc.

Opposition reaction lies in the fact that the child resists attempts to force him to do something he does not like (runs away from home, from school, etc.).

Exorbitant imitation reaction to someone (a real person, a character in a movie, a book) is manifested in copying clothes, manners, speech, judgments, actions. A situation leads to deplorable results when a negative subject turns out to be an idol.

Compensation reaction It manifests itself in the fact that the child is trying with all his might to cover up or eliminate any of his weaknesses. Thus, failures in studies are compensated for by achievements in sports, and studies under the objective pretext of "employment" are relegated to the background. Or a physically weak boy, trying not to yield to stronger peers, boxing with amazing persistence; to prove his courage, he dives from a high bridge into the river.

Especially often there are conflicts between parents and teenagers. They are characterized by emotional instability, irascibility, mood swings, a combination of conflicting properties and aspirations (shyness - swagger, independence - indecision, soft-heartedness - callousness, dependence on authorities - fighting them, excessive self-confidence - an acute need for approval).

During adolescence, the following behavioral responses:

1) emancipation reaction (liberation) is manifested in the desire to escape from the care of parents, teachers, adults with their order, laws, standards and values; the desire to act in their own way, contrary to parents and even common sense; do not perceive even fair criticism from others;

2) grouping reaction with peers (mixed unstable groups depending on hobbies, circumstances; stable groups with a permanent leader, hierarchy; such groups have "their own territory", spend their free time in skirmishes with similar associations);

3) entrainment reaction - hobby - the reaction can be so strong that it completely captures the teenager, reduces interest in learning; hobby can be intellectual (music, drawing, poetry, radio engineering), bodily (sports, bodybuilding, driving a motorcycle, needlework), leadership (search for situations, companies where you can lead), accumulative (collecting), egocentric (stand out with fashionable clothes, appearance ; fascination with a literary or philosophical trend), gambling (betting, cards, risk situation), communicative;

4) hypersexual reaction - increased interest in the other sex, sexual literature, etc.

If parents were not ready for the natural teenage reactions of emancipation, grouping, sexual, etc., they are perceived with indignation, then conflict is inevitable. Relationship restructuring to matured children on the basis of great tact and tolerance - way to end the conflict.

84. Forms of dependent behavior of a child

Allocate five forms of addictive behavior (according to Sears).

1. "Search for negative, negative attention" - the child attracts attention with the help of quarrels, disobedience to parental instructions and requirements, and is aggressive. This form of child behavior occurs if it manifests itself: cessation of attention to the child by the mother; weakness of restrictive requirements; a strong participation in the upbringing of the father, as he does not trust the mother. The condescension of parents and the weak disposition of the father towards the son, the neglect of the son determine the aggressively dependent behavior of the boys.

2. "Seeking constant confirmation" - apologies, requests, promises, seeking protection, comfort, help or guidance from parents. This form of dependent behavior is associated with high demands for achievement on the part of both parents. If a girl's father is a more significant figure than her mother, if a girl feels jealous of her mother and is faced with the high demands of her mother and the high standards of achievement set by her father, then dependency-dependent behavior is clearly manifested in girls. In a boy, a similar style of behavior occurs if the mother is cold, makes restrictive demands, does not encourage the independence and dependence of the child.

3. "Searching for positive attention" - seeking praise, includes efforts to gain approval from the people around you. This form of dependent behavior is formed if the mother is tolerant of her daughter's behavior, encourages dependence "on seeking praise" from her daughter and believes that she is similar to her, if the mother takes little part in caring for her daughter, but shows strictness towards manifestations of aggressiveness and daughter's sexuality; the specified behavior at boys is a consequence of long frustration. And independence in boys is formed in the absence of conditions for dependence on praise, due to the tolerance of parents, their rare punishments of the child.

4. "Staying around" - the constant presence of a child near another child or group of children or adults. In girls, this form of behavior arises in the absence of restrictive requirements and little expectation by parents of mature behavior in their daughter. If the mother evaluates her son as less mature, shows insufficient requirements for cleanliness, strictly monitors the manifestation of aggressiveness in her son, does not value her husband highly, then this leads to infantilization of the boy due to the uncertainty for him what kind of behavior deserves encouragement.

5. "Touching and holding" - hugging, touching, holding others by a child. This form of dependent behavior manifests itself if the mother and father are deprived of anxiety and exactingness, and an atmosphere of infantilization is observed.

The success of each method of education depends on the ability of parents to find a middle path. The rule should be: neither too strong nor too weak dependence, neither too strong nor too weak identification. During school years, the child's dependence on the family decreases, and on the teacher and peer group increases, but these changes are determined by the child's previous experience, formed forms of dependent behavior. In general, the child behaves as he was raised by his parents.

85. Indicators of parenting behavior

The following indicators of parental behavior are distinguished (EG Eidemiller).

1. The level of protection in the process of education.

We are talking about how much effort, attention, time parents devote to raising a teenager. There are two deviations in the level of protection: excessive (hyperprotection) and insufficient (hypoprotection). With hyperprotection, the teenager is in the center of attention of the family, and the family strives to maximize the satisfaction of his needs. This type of upbringing contributes to the development of hysterical and hyperthymic character traits in a teenager. With insufficient protection (hypoprotection), the features of epileptoid character accentuation are enhanced, and in adolescents with emotionally labile, sensitive and asthenoneurotic character accentuations, decompensation processes and neurotic disorders can form.

2. The degree of satisfaction of the needs of a teenager - to what extent the activities of parents are tuned to meet the needs of a teenager, both material and domestic, and spiritual. "Spartan education" is an example of a high level of patronage and low satisfaction of the needs of a teenager. In the degree of satisfaction of needs, two deviations are also possible: indulgence and ignoring the needs of a teenager.

3. The number of requirements for a teenager in the family.

Requirements for a teenager are an integral part of the educational process. it duties teenager and requirements-prohibitions. Failure to comply with the requirement by a teenager provides for sanctions (from mild condemnation to severe punishment). Forms of violation of the system of requirements for a teenager are different.

4. Number of requirements-prohibitions.

Requirements-prohibitions, i.e., indications of what a teenager cannot do, determine, first of all, the degree of independence of a teenager, the ability to choose the way of behavior himself. And here two deviations are possible: excessive and insufficient requirements-prohibitions.

Excess requirements-prohibitions stimulates the development of an emancipation reaction in sthenic adolescents, and in less sthenic adolescents it provokes the development of features of sensitive and psychasthenic accentuations.

Failure requirements-prohibitions stimulates the development of a teenager in hyperthymic and especially unstable types.

5. Severity of sanctions.

Excess sanctions (hard parenting style). These parents are characterized by a commitment to strict punishments, an overreaction to even minor violations.

minimality sanctions. Parents tend to do without punishment or apply them rarely. They rely on rewards, doubt the result of any punishment.

6. Unsustainable parenting style.

A sharp change in the style of upbringing - the transition from very strict to liberal and vice versa - is often found in families of adolescents with character deviations. This style contributes to the formation of stubbornness, a tendency to resist any authority. Parents of such teenagers, as a rule, recognize significant fluctuations in education, but underestimate the scope and frequency of these fluctuations.

Negative features of parental behavior are the cause of the formation of deviant behavior and neurotic state of children.

86. The main activities of the class teacher in working with students and their parents

The main task of the class teacher (common with the tasks of parents) is to create conditions for the free development of the physical and spiritual strengths of students, guided by the interests of children and their age-related needs, to protect them from all adverse factors that interfere with this.

The class teacher should be aware of the physical and mental health problems of their students and do everything possible so that both parents and students are not afraid to tell the class teacher about their difficulties.

First place the work of the teacher is taken out physical health problems students.

To ensure the normal physical health of schoolchildren, the class teacher works in the following areas:

- education of children under the program "Health";

- involvement in this activity of a teacher of physical culture, parents;

- preparation and holding of class events aimed at developing students' awareness of the intrinsic value of health;

- information for parents on the specifics of physical development, the presentation of issues of maintaining physical health at parent meetings, the involvement of medical specialists in educational and practical work with the parents of students and the students themselves.

Second direction class teacher activities communication.

The class teacher should perceive children as carriers of an autonomous individual inner world and therefore be easy to communicate, kind in assessment, calm and unfussy in organizing the case, that is, professionally competent.

Culture, like all life, is constantly changing, is in constant development. The task of the teacher is to help students understand that without accepting the cultural values of the world, without mastering them, they will not be able to take place in adulthood.

third direction The activity of the class teacher is the cognitive sphere of the child's life.

To solve this problem, attention should be paid to: developing, together with the family, a unified tactic in developing the student's learning skills, his cognitive activity, his future professional definition; implementation of activities that expand the horizons and cognitive interests of the student, stimulating curiosity, research thinking; holding psychological and pedagogical consultations that develop programs for correcting the general educational skills of individual students and the entire class; organization of class hours to improve students' learning skills and abilities, self-development.

Fourth direction activity of the class teacher is a family in which the student grows, is formed, is brought up. The class teacher must remember that by educating a student, he primarily affects the educational potential of the family. The object of professional attention is not the family itself and not the parents of the child, but family education. It is within this framework that his interaction with his parents is considered. The teacher needs to know what is the scope of the material existence of the child, what is the way of his life, what are the traditions and customs of the family.

Thus, the class teacher implements the function of parental education and correction of family education - exactly the side that is related to the child, the mode of life and activity of the child, which also provides correction of the personality of the parents.

87. Forms of interaction between the class teacher and the parents of students

In practical work with parents of students, the class teacher uses collective и individual forms of interaction. Moreover, in both cases they are implemented as traditionalAnd non-traditional work forms.

Traditional forms work with parents:

- parent meetings;

- all-class and all-school conferences;

- individual consultations of the teacher;

- home visits.

A universal form of interaction between a teacher and parents is PTA meeting.

Cool parent meetings are held once a quarter, if necessary, they can be held more often. The parents' meeting should become a school for educating parents, should broaden their pedagogical horizons, and stimulate the desire to become good parents. At the parent meetings, there is an analysis of the educational achievements of students, their capabilities, the degree of advancement of the class in educational activities. Parent meeting is an opportunity to demonstrate the successes achieved by the child. For the parent meeting, it is necessary to prepare exhibitions of students' creative works, their achievements, and not only in educational activities.

School-wide parent meetings are usually held no more than twice a year. The subject of such meetings is in the nature of a report on the work of the school for a certain period of time. The director, his deputies speak at them, the parent committee of the school reports on the work.

A school-wide parent meeting can be used to showcase positive parenting experiences. So, at the end of the school year, it is possible to reward families with a positive experience in raising children.

Parent conferences (general class, general school) are of great importance in the system of educational work of the school. Parents' conferences should discuss the pressing problems of society, of which children will become active members. Their task is to conduct sociological and psychological research on the problem of the conference and their analysis, as well as to familiarize the participants of the conference with the results of the research.

Individual consultations - one of the most important forms of interaction between the class teacher and the family. It is especially necessary when the teacher is gaining a class. In order to overcome the anxiety of parents, the fear of talking about their child, it is necessary to conduct individual consultations-interviews with parents.

The teacher should give parents the opportunity to tell him everything that they would like to acquaint the teacher with in an informal setting, and find out what is necessary for their professional work with the child: the characteristics of the child's health; his hobbies, interests; preferences in communication, in the family; behavioral responses; character traits; motivation for learning; moral values of the family.

Conversation in the educational arsenal of the class teacher is of great importance. It is necessary to use a conversation in working with parents in order to establish a trusting atmosphere, to identify difficult points of contact in conflict situations.

One of the forms of interaction between the class teacher and the family is visiting a student at home. Visits are only possible with parental permission.

Non-traditional forms of work with parents:

- thematic consultations;

- parent readings;

- parenting evenings.

88. The system of general education in Russia

Under general education system refers to the totality of institutions of preschool education, general education schools, boarding schools, orphanages, institutions for educational work with children, as well as all institutions of higher education and secondary vocational education.

Principles of building the education system in Russia

1. Connection of education with specific conditions and goals of state policy in the context of the transition to market relations.

2. Preservation of the main provisions that have developed in the Russian school: the priority of the educational sphere, the secular nature of education, joint education and upbringing of both sexes, a combination of collective, group and individual forms of the educational process.

3. Professional self-determination of youth, taking into account social needs, regional, national and general cultural traditions of the peoples of Russia.

4. The diversity of educational institutions, the diversity of forms of education in state and non-state educational institutions with and without interruption from work.

5. Democratic nature of the education system.

The current education management system performs functions of regulation, coordination and control at the federal, state and local levels.

All educational authorities are under the control Ministry of General and Vocational Education of the Russian Federation, including its subordinate educational institutions.

State governing bodies carry out licensing and accreditation of both state and non-state educational institutions, justify targeted financial and other costs for the development of regional education systems, direct financing of the activities of educational institutions, develop standards for their financing, form the structures of educational systems, develop a list of professions and specialties for which vocational training is conducted in the country.

The most important function state educational authorities is control implementation of the legislative framework in the field of education, the implementation of educational standards and the implementation of budgetary and financial discipline.

Management state and municipal educational institution is carried out by an administrator (head, head, director, rector, head), who is hired, appointed or elected to a leadership position in accordance with the charter of the educational institution.

Мanagement non-state educational institution it is carried out by the founder or, in agreement with him, the board of trustees formed by the founder.

At the present stage of development, there is a need for a new reform of the Russian education system. Her the main task - lighten the state's burden of maintaining the school in all its links, turn both higher and secondary schools towards the market.

In the field of management, it is planned to significantly expand the rights of municipal bodies and individual educational institutions on the basis of the autonomy of educational institutions and the strengthening of public components of control and management. Significant changes are expected in the area of financing.

89. Questions of the theory of school management

Management - the process of influencing the system in order to transfer it to a new state based on the use of objective laws inherent in this system.

Fundamentals of School Management - this is the creation of conditions for the normal course of the educational process.

Head teacher must ensure a high level of planning, organization, control. The director is an accomplice in the pedagogical process, a co-defendant, he is directly involved in the work of the school team in the education and upbringing of children, he constantly works with people: teachers, students, parents of children.

Management methods - these are ways of influencing one or another link of the management system on other, lower links or managed objects to achieve the intended management goals. Leadership Methods - ways of influencing people realizing and implementing these goals.

Leadership style depends on how objective factors (working conditions, the specifics of the tasks to be solved, the level of development of the team), and on factors subjective (features of the personality of the leader, the degree of his preparedness, etc.).

Allocate three main leadership styles: authoritarian, liberal and democratic.

Most consistent with management principles democratic leadership style, which is based on the right combination of collegiality and unity of command, involves the active participation of public organizations, all teachers in making managerial decisions at school.

The largest schools have linear system. The director exercises leadership through his assistants.

In universities and large complexes, there is functional system management.

К basic management functions include analysis and planning, organization and control, coordination and stimulation.

Analysis - this is the basis on which the entire system of planning and organization of the educational process rests.

Planning as one of the most important functions of management includes the determination of the most appropriate ways to achieve the goals. It is designed to generate plans, projects, programs, standards, standards, criteria, etc.

Organization there is the formation and establishment of relatively stable relations in the managed and managing systems, acting and developing as a whole.

Coordination implies high efficiency in establishing harmony between all links and areas of the educational process, between the control and managed systems, a change in relationships, motivation, involvement in work, and an increase in creative activity.

Control - this is the active stage of the management process, when the results achieved are compared with what was planned. The basis of the entire system of control measurements (quantitative and qualitative) is feedback.

Stimulation is a system of measures aimed at creating a creatively working teaching staff and active purposeful activity of students.

the most important pattern management is the unity of the ultimate goals and objectives of the administrative-pedagogical, family and social impact and the process of shaping the personality of schoolchildren.

For the manifestation of this pattern, coordination of the actions of the school, family and community is very important.

90. The main provisions of the law of the Russian Federation "On education"

The Law of the Russian Federation "On Education" contains the basic principles and provisions on the basis of which both the strategy and tactics for implementing the legally enshrined ideas for the development of education in Russia will be built.

These provisions are addressed simultaneously to society, to the education system itself, to the individual and provide both external socio-pedagogical conditions development of the education system, and internal proper pedagogical conditions her full life.

These include:

- humanistic nature of education;

- priority of universal human values;

- free development of personality;

- public accessibility of education;

- free education;

- comprehensive protection of the consumer of education.

Special meaning in managing the functioning and development of schools, they maintain the unity of the federal, cultural and educational space; freedom and pluralism in education; openness of education, democratic, state-public nature of education management; the secular nature of education in state-municipal educational institutions; receiving education in their native language; connection of education with national and regional cultures and traditions; continuity of educational programs; variability of education; differentiation of competencies of the subjects of the system.

Central link The system of education in the Russian Federation is general secondary education, including secondary general education schools, schools with in-depth study of individual subjects, gymnasiums, lyceums, evening schools, boarding schools, special schools for children with disabilities in physical and mental development, out-of-school educational institutions.

Main tasks general educational institutions are: creating favorable conditions for the mental, moral, emotional and physical development of the individual; development of scientific outlook; the development by students of a system of knowledge about nature, society, man, his work and methods of independent activity.

In accordance with the Law "On Education" (Articles 21-23), a new interpretation is the traditionally existing vocational and secondary specialized education, which are now considered as primary and secondary vocational education. Primary vocational education aims to train qualified workers in all main areas of socially useful activity, as a rule, on the basis of basic general education (basic school).

Secondary vocational education is focused on the training of mid-level specialists for all sectors of the national economy on the basis of basic general, secondary (complete) general or primary vocational education.

The modern school is developing in the conditions of the market, new economic relations. The law on education, specific conditions of material support require fundamentally new approaches to school management from school leaders.

First of all, the Law requires the establishment of educational standards. This is necessary in the conditions of multidisciplinary and multi-level secondary education in order to provide equivalent secondary education for graduates of all types of secondary educational institutions.

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