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Table of contents

1. What is business? (Business and entrepreneurship. Concept and essence. Basic signs and features of entrepreneurship. Forms of entrepreneurship. History of Russian entrepreneurship. Resources, factors and business results. New approaches to the problem of increasing the efficiency of entrepreneurship. Virtual business)
2. Types of entrepreneurship (Private, collective, public entrepreneurship. Industrial entrepreneurship. Trade entrepreneurship. Financial entrepreneurship. Insurance entrepreneurship. Intermediary entrepreneurship. Combination of types of entrepreneurship)
3. Business Operations (Business operation: concept, essence, components. Scheme of resource support for a business operation. Monetary calculation of a business operation)
4. Business planning (The importance of a business plan in entrepreneurial activity. The company and its business. Entrepreneurial product: concept and essence. Market analysis. Marketing. Organization of production management. Financial resources and their sources. Final section of the business plan)
5. Forms of business organization (Forms of business organization. Business partnerships. Full partnership. Individual entrepreneurship. Limited liability company (LLC). Joint-stock companies. Additional liability companies. Limited partnerships. Cooperatives. Municipal and unitary enterprises. Public and religious organizations. Associations of entrepreneurs)
6. Finance and business (The importance of finance in the activities of an entrepreneur. Sources of business financing. Accounting and balance sheet. Financial analysis of the company’s activities. Business and prices)
7. Entrepreneurial risk (Risk: concept and types. Classification of risks. Risk factors, their structure. Risk assessment. Ways to reduce risk)
8. Ethics and Morals of Entrepreneurship (Business and morality. Moral and ethical code of a civilized entrepreneur. Culture of entrepreneurship. Office etiquette)

LECTURE № 1. What is a business?

1. Business and entrepreneurship. Concept and essence

In any economic system, there are forces that are leading in the implementation of the main economic goal of this system. In the planning and administrative system, these are state enterprises, in the market - business and entrepreneurship of all forms of ownership, divided according to production volumes into small, medium and large businesses. Small forms of business play a significant role because of their large number and high profitability.

Business and Entrepreneurship - one of the main elements of a market economy, without them the state cannot develop intensively. Business and entrepreneurship affect the rate of economic growth of the state, the structure, volume and quality of the gross national product.

Recently, concepts such as "business" and "entrepreneurship" have begun to mix and lose their original meaning.

One of the most common definitions today says that business is any activity aimed at making a profit, carried out through the sale of goods and services that are in demand.

However, there are other definitions that are more adapted to real conditions, for example: business is an entrepreneurial activity that is carried out by subjects of a market economy and government agencies at their own expense or borrowed funds under their own responsibility and whose main goals are to make a profit and develop their own enterprise.

Entrepreneurship or entrepreneurial activity - independent activities of citizens and their cooperatives, associated with risk, carried out under their own responsibility, aimed at generating income from the use of property, the sale of goods, the performance of work or the provision of services by persons, in accordance with the law.

It is difficult to separate these concepts, since they are equivalent, but, of course, there are differences.

Business, like entrepreneurial activity, is divided by the size of its implementation into large, medium and small. They differ significantly both in production volumes, and in the size of fixed assets, and in labor and financial resources.

Big business - this is one of the foundations of the modern economy, and small and medium-sized businesses are an important indicator of its state and development.

Entrepreneurship as the basis of business involves one's own business, which is always associated with the danger of losing it and losing the expended material and intellectual resources.

For the intensive development of business and entrepreneurship, certain conditions and factors are necessary:

1) entrepreneurial ability, personal interests, creative ideas, benefits;

2) the existence of free space in the market or the likelihood of market expansion;

3) the possibility of increasing profits;

4) the ability to economically use resources, innovation;

5) the possibility of predicting crisis situations and ways to resolve them.

Each novice entrepreneur or businessman must first analyze all the factors affecting the business, for example:

1) choose the main direction of their own business, taking into account their own experience, available resources, potential and (not least) competition and possible demand;

2) determine the tactics and strategy of the organization, commercial opportunities, select qualified personnel;

3) evaluate the financial potential of the enterprise, calculate the costs, current and fixed assets, the required amount of authorized capital and attract possible sponsors.

On the development of entrepreneurship, in addition to the abilities and desires of the entrepreneur himself, the influence of state policy and the state of the economy as a whole is great.

2. Main signs and features of entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurship plays a key role in the formation and development of market relations. World experience shows that the more opportunities for individual entrepreneurs for their activities, the higher the pace of development of the country's economy. Therefore, it is very important to create favorable conditions in the country for the development of entrepreneurial activity.

Entrepreneurs face both economic and organizational and legal difficulties in their practical activities. Entrepreneurial activity has two sides - economic and legal.

From an economic point of view, entrepreneurship plays a certain role in the development of the economy of any country. According to Schumpeter, entrepreneurs are "economic entities that carry out new combinations in their activities." The function of entrepreneurs is to implement innovations that play a significant role in the development of the economy. Innovations include the introduction of advanced technologies, new products, the development of new sources of energy and raw materials, the search for markets with a shortage of goods, the use of modern personnel policy and wage systems, the introduction of organizational innovations, etc.

Consequently, the in the economic aspect, entrepreneurship - this is an innovative activity, and the entrepreneur himself can be considered as a carrier of an innovative idea.

The content of the essence of an entrepreneur and entrepreneurial activity has changed with the history of the formation of commodity-market relations, the development of exchange, the production of new types of goods and the distribution of goods and services; the development of scientific and technological progress is also of great importance.

The entrepreneur, in addition to the desire to get the maximum possible profit, also sets as his goal the establishment of the production process, the constant resumption of production cycles. Therefore, in order to achieve the set goals, it is necessary to quickly respond to all, even minor changes in the market, and monitor consumer sentiment.

Entrepreneurship - this is not just any business, it is a special form of management, which is inherent in everything new, while business - this is an activity in the field of production of goods and services, distribution and sale of goods and services without innovation, without the initiative to promote the application of new scientific and technical developments. Thus, the same product is produced from year to year, its sale is carried out in the same markets, despite the fact that demand is falling, and interest in the product is fading, the sale occurs according to the classical established pattern.

There are 4 main areas of entrepreneurship:

1) production;

2) commercial;

3) financial;

4) the sphere of consumption.

Other types of entrepreneurial activities, such as marketing, are part of the four main areas of entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurship is characterized by such features as self-sufficiency, initiative, independence, responsibility, riskiness, active search for a new one, dynamism in development, mobility.

Entrepreneurship, in principle, can be done by everyone, since it is a public activity, but not every person has the opportunity and ability to entrepreneurship. According to Russian law, any citizen capable of acting can be an entrepreneur. To become a successful businessman, you need abilities, knowledge, ability to work, energy.

Entrepreneurial activity can go in two directions:

1) direct production of any goods, product or service;

2) the implementation of intermediary functions to promote the goods from the producer to the consumer.

Entrepreneurship has the general properties of any economic processes. However, it has its own specific content, direction, sequence of procedures carried out by the entrepreneur.

Business Factors - this is everything that an entrepreneur uses in his activities, this includes both the means of production and the circulation of goods in the form of human resources, material resources, information and finance involved in production that require transportation. In part, these factors are available to the entrepreneur himself. If the entrepreneur does not have such factors, then it is possible to purchase these factors from their right holders (owners) for a certain cost; with their help, the entrepreneur produces and sells goods to the consumer.

If the factors are the goods necessary for the consumer, then the entrepreneur acts as an intermediary dealer.

Entrepreneurship is a certain type of economic activity.

As a result of entrepreneurial activity, the goals set by the entrepreneur are realized.

The main objectives of entrepreneurial activity are:

1) profit from capital, financial, resource and material resources spent on a particular activity for a certain period of time;

2) satisfaction of consumer demand, its specific needs.

Of course, there are many more goals and In a broad sense, we can talk about the following goals:

1) the accumulation of funds to expand production, to conquer new markets and increase capital;

2) stimulating the motivation of employees, increasing interest, increasing labor productivity;

3) orientation of customer demand for these products.

To achieve the goals, specific tasks of entrepreneurial activity are determined and solved in accordance with the policy of the enterprise. The purpose of the organization forms the direction and methods of entrepreneurial activity. The tasks of entrepreneurial activity and their solution, which lead to the achievement of the set goals, can be divided into two areas:

1) a set of tasks, the implementation of which positively affects the success of the innovative activity of the entrepreneur;

2) a set of measures to increase the efficiency of production processes or intermediary activities that were previously carried out or have just begun to be carried out.

3. Forms of entrepreneurship

The success of entrepreneurial activity is associated with the correct choice of its form, especially organizational and legal, since this directly affects the efficiency of the enterprise. At the present stage in Russia, this issue is quite acute in the transition to an entrepreneurial type of management. A significant drawback, which greatly slows down the creation and development of entrepreneurship, is a weak legislative and regulatory framework. It is easier for small and first-time organizations in this regard; the situation is more complicated with large, especially privatized enterprises. The growing bureaucratic apparatus puts more and more obstacles in the way of entrepreneurs. The choice of the form of entrepreneurship in any case will be faced by a specific manager. Those forms of entrepreneurship are effective that, under certain conditions, allow the most profitable use of financial and material resources, industrial and social infrastructure, labor, intellectual and natural resources, existing economic and market relations.

According to the form of ownership, there are personal, private (including private collective), state, municipal and mixed enterprises. There are also several types of entrepreneurship; there is no single classification. Entrepreneurship is also divided by scale into small, medium and large (corporate); are considered by the breadth of territorial coverage (local, regional, national and interstate) and by sectoral focus (industrial, agricultural, construction, transport, trade, etc.).

The cornerstone is the organizational and legal aspects of entrepreneurship. Recently, some changes have taken place in the classical structure - it has expanded. The choice of the form of economic activity is determined by the amount of capital and the responsibility of the entrepreneur for the results of his activities. Of great importance here are such factors as the scale of the proposed activity, its types, sectoral orientation, the economic situation in the country and in the region, state policy and the social structure of society. All this must be taken into account and calculated when drawing up a business plan. Only a comprehensive consideration of all factors and conditions helps to answer the question of which of the organizational and legal forms will be the most effective for a given organization.

4. History of Russian entrepreneurship

In the Russian economy, especially after Perestroika, small businesses are the basis for a new economic system. The private sector as such originated precisely in the sphere of small business. The internal opportunities and potential for the development of small business are quite wide and are not fully disclosed.

In the 1990s The volume of the small and medium-sized business sector as a part of GDP has been steadily growing - this is a significant fact, especially against the background of the ongoing decline in almost all areas of the Russian economy. In the development of entrepreneurship in general, over the past few years, radically new trends have emerged, expressed, first of all, in a significant decrease in the growth rate of the percentage of small enterprises, while in the early 1990s. the dynamics of small business development was characterized by a steady growth in their number and quantity.

Russian entrepreneurship in its development over the past 10 years has already gone through two stages and is on the eve of entering a new, third stage.

First (the most striking) took place in the conditions of the former USSR in the late 1980s. Huge benefits of all kinds were allocated, various subsidies, including those from the state budget. Since the conditions were quite favorable, there was a very rapid and easy accumulation of capital, the production of scarce consumer goods and the sphere of all kinds of household services, which were equally scarce at that time, retail trade, public catering, etc., began to develop. All this had a positive effect on the economic situation in the country, but small businesses only acted as channels for transferring the resources of centrally controlled state-owned enterprises to the shadow economy, in favor of criminal entrepreneurship. These negative processes were influenced by a huge number of objective factors. Huge funds siphoned off by entrepreneurship from the accumulation sphere of the public sector, and often from the country, were not used for the further development of national entrepreneurship, production and its infrastructure.

Of course, not only negative aspects took place in the development of business in Russia. All reforms were carried out from above, in the strict traditions of the command-administrative system.

The second stage conditionally begins in 1992, the year of shock therapy, which was characterized by the highest since the mid-1980s. the growth rate of the number of small enterprises (by 2,1 times) and the number of employees of these organizations. This fact is phenomenal, since the price liberalization carried out at that time and the introduction of tax pressure greatly undermined the financial base of small businesses. The huge rate of inflation led to the depreciation of the savings of the population and, as a result, a decrease in purchasing power and a sharp increase in interest rates on bank loans. Investment activity was in a stupor, this task does not lose relevance until now.

The expected rapid and effective development of the country's economy did not happen, since the illiterate domestic policy of the state did not help the development of entrepreneurship, but only slowed it down.

The active growth of private entrepreneurship in 1992 was due to the rapid development of the trade and intermediary business, which in turn was a response to the undermining of the original financial base. The liberalization of foreign trade back in the conditions of the former USSR and the absence of prohibitions on private activities within the country created favorable conditions for any trade activity.

The sharp decline in consumer effective demand was then significantly compensated by small trading businesses by importing goods that were not of very high quality (such as Chinese-made products), but were in great demand among the Russian consumer. Small trade was mobile, easily adjusted to the growing socio-economic differentiation of Russian society. The positive impact of trade and intermediary activities of entrepreneurship is participation in the creation of new economic ties. A complete break in the ties established in the Soviet era between enterprises opened up wide opportunities for the activities of small firms in the supply and marketing of products.

The rush of entrepreneurship towards trading and intermediary activities is also a natural reaction to the tax pressure imposed by the government. Trade and intermediary activities, focused on working with hard-to-control cash, opened up great opportunities for tax evasion.

In connection with the prevailing objective conditions, by 1995, all the possibilities of super-profitable trading and intermediary activities and free market niches had practically exhausted themselves. Many enterprises of a predominantly trade and intermediary orientation that arose during the period of Perestroika either ceased to exist or fell into a difficult crisis situation. This situation has led to the formation of new trends in the development of Russian entrepreneurship. From this moment begins the third stage of serious changes in the dynamics and structure of entrepreneurship.

Only by 1995 did the regularities of a civilized market economy become more and more apparent. In the economic life of Russia, a trend began to be traced towards the beginning of a market concentration of capital, which was new for that time. The process of takeover of enterprises, often the most profitable, is gaining momentum. In this sense, at this stage of Russian reforms, there is also a decrease in the number of entrepreneurial projects.

The slowdown in the creation and development of new enterprises is also explained by the fact that such a negative powerful factor influencing the increase in the number of enterprises, such as rising unemployment, has come into force in economic and social terms, especially according to unofficial data.

The most significant and negative effect is the criminalization of entrepreneurship, which significantly slows down the development and normal functioning of entrepreneurship.

It can be stated that in 1994-1995. the policy of moderately soft financial stabilization pursued by the Russian government, on the one hand, was accompanied by a significant slowdown in the growth of the number of private enterprises, but, on the other hand, the sanation effect was clearly visible. In Russia, a completely different economic situation began to emerge, in which the private sector began to play the role characteristic of entrepreneurship in a normal market economy.

The policy of state support, as a rule, was carried out on the basis of subsidies, tax incentives, the creation (albeit still in an incomplete form) of a civilized legislative space, information support, training of qualified personnel, establishing effective coordination in the field of business between the Federal Center and the subjects of the Federation, as well as with local authorities.

Theoretically, a new breakthrough in the dynamics of entrepreneurship can lead to an increase in its macroeconomic weight in all respects. This should be expected as the prerequisites for the formation of an integral system of market management are accumulated, decisive steps are taken in the field of de-monopolization of the economy, de-bureaucratization of management and, of course, a general transition to the phase of revival and growth of production and industrial investment.

In order to consolidate and further develop the positive trends in the growth of Russian entrepreneurship and to radically expand the field of its activity, it is necessary to intensify state support at all levels. First of all, the sphere of lending and insurance of small businesses needs support, in which many questions remain to this day. The need is to decriminalize small businesses. It is also fundamentally important to expand the innovative and scientific activities of entrepreneurs in the interests of the development of all spheres of the Russian economy. Only a real recovery in the economy will make it possible to move on to the fourth stage of a truly market development of Russian small business.

5. Resources, factors and business results

As world experience and practice have shown, the existence and interaction of large, medium and small businesses are important elements of a market economy.

Of particular importance for business are structural restructuring of the economy, accelerating the pace of development of the scientific and technological process, and the formation of a new social stratum. The development of all forms of business creates the prerequisites for accelerating economic growth, contributes to the saturation of markets with all kinds of goods and services, making it possible to deal with the negative aspects of a market economy, such as unemployment and various kinds of crises.

Business has a huge potential for the intensive development of the economy and society as a whole. A characteristic feature of the business is high efficiency in the use of all types of resources and the constant desire to minimize losses, ensure their most rational proportions for the given conditions - after all, the enterprise does not have extra equipment, excess stocks of raw materials and materials, excess labor. This factor is one of the most important circumstances for achieving dynamic indicators of the economy as a whole.

Thus, in general, for the country's economy, the importance of business cannot be overestimated, and its influence on various aspects of social reproduction is very significant.

A special role for a single country is played by small business as the leading sector that determines the rate of economic growth, the structure and qualitative composition of the gross national product. However, it is not only quantitative indicators that matter; this factor, in principle, is typically a market one and underlies the modern market infrastructure.

The main advantages and characteristics of a small business:

1) mobility, the ability to make more flexible, timely and operational decisions; in large corporations, unlike small businesses, the structure of managerial decision-making is simplified, which makes it possible to easily and quickly respond to market changes taking place on the market, including even switching from one type of production to another;

2) orientation of producers mainly to regional and local markets;

3) maintaining the level of employment of the population and creating new jobs is extremely important, especially for Russia;

4) performance of auxiliary functions in relation to large enterprises; large firms break up the production process, bringing it to the phase of small enterprises;

5) small initial investment - small enterprises have shorter construction periods; medium-sized sizes allow them to rearm faster and cheaper, introduce new technologies and automate production, achieve the optimal combination of mechanized and manual labor.

Venture capital firms are very active in the field of innovation, which can quite successfully create competition with large ones, achieving accelerated rates of introduction of scientific and technical innovations. Small firms with their mobility and innovative solutions in the conditions of competition of new products have found their place in the management system. They are engaged in the development of innovations, allocating large firms only capital-intensive stages of industrial production. The achievements of scientific and technological progress used make it possible to quickly connect to knowledge-intensive industries in the absence of large capital.

Small firms have to work in conditions of strong market competition, which not everyone is able to cope with. In most cases (about 90%), firms go bankrupt not because of a lack of finance or irrational technology, but because of the lack of managerial knowledge that is necessary to make competent decisions in market conditions.

Reasons for failure can be: incompetence or lack of experience in commercial and financial operations, in supply, production and management, low sales volumes, fierce competition, too high production costs.

6. New approaches to the problem of improving the efficiency of entrepreneurship

The effectiveness of entrepreneurship is characterized by the full and competent use of resources to achieve the goals. The problem of entrepreneurial efficiency exists both at the level of a single enterprise and within the entire economic system, when one can talk about the efficiency of the economy as a whole. Here we are talking about reducing production costs and maximizing profit in such conditions.

It should be noted that an increase in efficiency always exacerbates the contradictions between economic and social structures, as the gap between the incomes of different social strata increases, but in the long run it generally leads to an increase in GDP per capita. Thus, by developing production and increasing investments in it, society creates a platform for improving the living standards of people later.

When evaluating the effectiveness of a market economy, inflation gives it an important specificity, which leads enterprises to crisis situations, distorting all data on their condition, which threatens with incorrect management decisions. Therefore, correct and objective performance indicators are only those that are cleared of the inflationary component.

As a result, increasing efficiency comes down to maximizing profits while reducing costs against the background of increasing labor productivity using the achievements of scientific and technological progress (the use of the latest technology, advanced technologies, modern forms of production management, etc.).

The versatility of entrepreneurial activity determines various aspects of the content of the effectiveness of entrepreneurship.

Market research plays an important role in improving the efficiency of entrepreneurship. Such data are taken as the basis for choosing the strategy and activities of entrepreneurs. The stability of the enterprise in the market and profit volumes largely depend on the quality and objectivity of these data. Even with minor inaccuracies in information, an enterprise can fail and subsequently fall into a crisis.

At the end of the XNUMXth century, when many countries began to strive to open their economies and domestic markets were oversaturated with their products, new trends emerged, enterprises gained access to new markets against the backdrop of fierce competition, which ultimately led to an increase in the efficiency of those who remained afloat in the prevailing conditions. To emerge victorious in the competition, ensure the competitiveness of manufactured products and reduce business risks, today it is not enough to study, predict and take into account consumer demand. It is necessary to adapt to the constantly changing tastes of the consumer.

The assessment of the functioning of the company is carried out according to performance indicators and depends on the goals of the analysis:

1) strategic goals - selection of indicators and comparison of the results of the organization's activities with its competitors;

2) tactical goals - management controls not only the organization as a whole, but also all its structural divisions at different levels;

3) planning tasks - can be very different - from the product and the technology of its production to the organization of the work of personnel;

4) other management objectives - negotiations with trade unions, advertising campaigns, evaluation of the impact of expected government restrictions, etc.

The activity of the firm (entrepreneurial activity) is involved in the cycle of financial investments of creditors and investors, which turn into real-life factors of production, which in turn turn into finished physical products, and goods and services (through trade transactions) are transformed into outgoing financial flows that are divided between creditors. and investors and then put back into production.

At the stages of investing in production, developing a business plan and selling the company's products, there are various aspects of the use of production factors and therefore the system of indicators of the effectiveness of their use is complex and multilateral.

The generalizing indicators of the efficiency of the production activity of the company as a whole are determined by comparing the volume of all material resources and the final result of its activity: the return on capital (assets) of the organization, the turnover of all capital, costs per unit of finished products, profitability of production and the average annual cost of fixed and working capital. The most general indicator is the profitability of all capital. It reflects the organization's profit per one ruble of funds spent. This indicator is the most objective, it is also called the rate of return or the rate of return on funds. Tracking changes in this indicator and the reasons for such changes is the main task of the enterprise administration.

For a complete picture of the state of the enterprise, a full extended analysis of all performance indicators is required, taking into account the factors influencing their changes.

7. Virtual business

Management activity is in modern conditions one of the most important factors in the functioning and development of entrepreneurship. This activity is constantly changing in accordance with the objective requirements of the production and distribution of goods, the development of economic relations, the increasing role of the consumer in shaping the range of products, their technical, economic and other parameters. Changes in the conditions of the general economic situation and production activities, the need for timely and adequate adaptation of managerial decisions to it affect the redistribution of management functions according to levels of responsibility, forms of their interaction.

The latest developments in the field of electronics have led to new forms of organization of information services. Thanks to high-performance, fast and economical microprocessors, information and computing resources greatly facilitate the work and increase the productivity of managers, accountants, economists, administrators, engineers and other categories of workers.

In a market economy, information has become one of the main commodities. The success of business and entrepreneurial activity is almost always associated with municipal, banking, exchange information systems, wholesale or retail trade, labor and employment management services; in addition, data banks of goods and services markets are often created, reference information centers are being developed; E-mail and electronic data interchange are becoming indispensable means of information transfer for both small firms and large companies. Typically, the operation of such systems is based on local and global networks, called the Internet.

Modern business cannot develop successfully without information; a huge number of means of communication are used. From the office of any organization stretches a lot of wires, through which a wide variety of information is transmitted, as a rule, in digital and voice form.

Internet - one of the most popular systems for selling information and advertising. The prevalence and interest in it is only increasing every year, and at a tremendous pace. This system allows you to arrange a profitable business, opens up new opportunities for generating income. Most experts agree: the Internet is the business of the XNUMXst century; but in Russia it is only gaining momentum. Information brokers, Web-designers and other areas are especially popular today. Right now, there are opportunities for many organizations to take advantage of the opportunities that are opening up.

A year ago, a number of leading Russian companies began to discuss purely theoretical questions about whether e-commerce is a viable commercial environment. It cannot be said that over the past few years there have been some global changes. Although the number of online stores and various types of companies trading on the Internet has increased, the distrust of a larger number of users in their activities has remained. This, in turn, is a significant problem and hinders the development of this industry.

Today in Russia, an electronic store is not a very profitable enterprise. It is more correct to consider it as advertising, an image addition to "physically" existing stores, that is, attracting the attention of potential consumers, customers, partners, sponsors and demonstrating the company's competence in its field. It is also important to take into account the leap in science and technology that has taken place in recent years, the competence of consumers, the level of which is constantly growing. The Internet is more detailed and cheaper to provide informative information, which, accompanied by descriptions of real goods, allows the organization to attract a potential buyer to purchase in its stores. When a potential buyer is interested, managers are involved in working with him, whose competence includes the sale of goods to a specific person. Prices and novelties are the most important elements of the driving force of consumer demand. Advertising today is a rather long and expensive process that does not always pay off the costs. To date, many organizations have begun to focus not on classic intrusive advertising, but on small frequent reminders not even about the product, but about their company. In this regard, the Internet is indispensable for any organization. Moreover, this information is in front of the user around the clock. For companies (both small and large) it is important to work on the formation of a permanent customer base.

At any time, without delay, a potential buyer can:

1) contact the firm;

2) get advice on questions of interest to him or information about the availability of goods;

3) place an order and receive an invoice.

If such conditions are provided, the likelihood that its purchase will take place here increases.

In this aspect, the role of a round-the-clock available virtual store is increasing.

Successes in the economy and the national economy are always inextricably linked with the development of industry. In these areas, the issues of virtual data exchange, financial transactions, transactions, etc. do not arise at all, since the issue of automation and computerization of industry has not been resolved.

Many enterprises need funds, but often use the available finance illiterately. Today, massive unsystematic purchases of PCs and office equipment are carried out, software (especially licensed) is outdated or not available at all. Enterprises do not have information about the existing unique programs that might be suitable for them, and about the venues for various exhibitions and presentations of modern equipment and software.

Government agencies and the media usually do not cover such events, since this is not included in the list of their interests. In many cases, the development strategy of an enterprise is determined by a random combination of circumstances. In addition, the question of the low level of staff training remains. Modern higher education rarely meets the requirements of employers, people with experience are often not ready to work with new technology, equipment and programs. To work effectively, firms have to take care of the training or retraining of employees.

The main requirement for production management systems is integration. Each organization has its own information field, where information is accumulated, interacts with others, and a new one is generated, which is necessary for making specific management decisions.

One of the issues solved by the enterprise when purchasing a program, in addition to choosing the content, is the choice of the manufacturer. Domestic manufacturers are skeptical because of the underdevelopment of this industry in Russia, the incompatibility of programs with each other, the impossibility of transferring data from one system to another. Western analogues meet modern requirements, but can not always be applied in our conditions.

LECTURE No. 2. Types of entrepreneurship

1. Private, collective, state entrepreneurship

Entrepreneurial activity is classified according to various criteria: type of activity, forms of ownership, number of owners, organizational, legal and economic forms, the degree of use of hired labor and other indicators.

All types of business can operate separately or in combination.

In modern market conditions, state entrepreneurship plays an important role. A market operating according to its own laws, without state regulation, remains only a theory. In reality, the state is an active participant in market relations. Even in the period of free competition, most of the productive forces went beyond the scope of classical private entrepreneurship and the state had to take on the maintenance of large socially important economic structures: railways, mail, telegraph, etc. capital and energy-intensive production, the monopolies themselves became interested in strengthening the regulatory role of the state, in its support, and through it, providing access to new domestic and foreign markets. The market mechanism is unable to solve all the difficulties associated with defense, science, ecology, reproduction of the labor force and, ultimately, with the overall economic growth of the country. But there are also disadvantages, since the state cannot always respond in time to changing conditions, thereby holding back production processes.

State regulation of the economy dates back to the Middle Ages. In modern conditions, any state regulates the national economy - with different levels of pressure.

As history has shown, everything is good in moderation - since both state monopoly and the complete absence of state regulation cause significant damage to the country's economy. With skillful competent influence by means of tax policy, the legislative system, etc., amazing results can be achieved. During the XNUMXth century, the entrepreneurial activity of the state itself was formed and expanded, the public sector in the economy gained an increasing share.

State enterprise takes over management in cases where huge capital investments are required, the payback period is long and the risks are high. This is where the main difference from private entrepreneurship emerges: the primary goal of state entrepreneurship is not to make a profit, but to solve social and economic problems (ensuring the necessary rates of economic and production growth, mitigating cyclical fluctuations in the economy, ensuring employment and eliminating unemployment, stimulating scientific and technological progress). etc.).

There are challenges faced by the state enterprise:

1) provision of benefits;

2) financial assistance to important science- and capital-intensive sectors of the economy;

3) stimulation of scientific and technological progress and strengthening of the country's place in the world economy;

4) creation of new industrial enterprises;

5) increase in the number of jobs;

6) protection of the environment and the ecological situation;

7) development of fundamental scientific research;

8) production of goods that are, by law, a state monopoly.

However, private entrepreneurship, for objective reasons, is developing at a faster pace than the state one. In the activities of state enterprises there are always political motives, which often run counter to economic ones.

The state can regulate market relations only when powerful economic control levers are in its hands.

The state influences the market mechanism through:

1) their expenses;

2) taxation;

3) regulation;

4) state entrepreneurship.

Government spending represents government purchases and transfer payments. Such spending contributes to national income and directly uses resources.

Taxation is an indispensable element of state policy. Taxes make up 75-85% of the budget. The government levies various types of taxes.

At high tax rates, massive tax evasion begins, and budget replenishment decreases. It's a vicious circle.

The legislative form of regulation shapes the activities of entrepreneurs (antimonopoly laws).

Tax and credit forms affect the national volume of production, changing the volume and direction of production, affecting private and collective entrepreneurship.

The collective enterprise acts in two guises: on the one hand, it hires labor, on the other, the members of the labor collective live by selling their own labor. This feature determines the specifics of the economic behavior of such an enterprise.

The utility function of a collective enterprise is comparable to the utility function of a family enterprise and includes the total money income and the total free time of the work collective. Each of its members is faced with a contradiction in the desire to get the maximum income and free time. The assessment of value in this case will be subjective.

In the collective enterprise, there is another task that does not face the family economy: the division of income between the members of the collective. Often, due to dissatisfaction with this issue, labor motivation decreases and production efficiency decreases.

Most often this type is found in agriculture. As a rule, the entire volume of manufactured products is sold on the free market at a market price, so the proceeds from the sale are equal to the cash income of the labor collective.

Collective income is divided into 2 parts: the first is distributed in proportion to the labor expended by each member of the collective, the other is divided according to other principles determined by the members.

2. Industrial entrepreneurship

Industrial entrepreneurship is one of the leading types of entrepreneurship. Here the production of products, goods, works is carried out, services are provided, certain values ​​are created. The function of production in this type of business is the main, defining, and the accompanying functions are of complementary importance (storage, transportation, marketing, etc.). After Perestroika in Russia, this sphere of activity underwent the most significant negative changes: economic ties were broken, logistics was disrupted, the sale of the previous volumes of products became impossible, and the financial situation of enterprises deteriorated sharply.

Manufacturing businesses include innovative and scientific and technical activity, direct production of goods and services, their use in further production. Every entrepreneur who is ready to engage in production activities must first determine what exactly he will produce. Then the entrepreneur conducts marketing activities, is engaged in market research and consumer demand. If you conclude a contract with a potential buyer, then this will minimize entrepreneurial risk, but this ideal option is almost always not possible.

The next stage in the activity of industrial entrepreneurship is the acquisition or rental of factors of production.

Factors of production include: production assets, labor force, information. Production assets, in turn, are divided into fixed and circulating.

Basic production assets - buildings, structures, transmission devices, power machines and equipment, working machines and equipment, etc.

Working capital assets include raw materials, basic and auxiliary materials, fuel and energy resources, containers. The entrepreneur needs to calculate the costs of the future period. The point is to ensure cost savings in the early stages of new product development. Subsequently, over a certain period of time, these costs will be charged to production costs.

An entrepreneur hires labor through advertisements, through labor exchanges, employment agencies, with the help of friends and acquaintances. When selecting personnel, one should take into account the candidate's education, his ability to learn, the level of his professional skills, previous work experience, and personal qualities.

Further, the entrepreneur acquires all the information he needs about the possibility of attracting resources: material, financial and labor, about the market for the product or service planned for manufacturing, etc.

Factors affecting entrepreneurship, especially production, can be divided into economic, technological, political and legal, institutional, socio-cultural, demographic and natural. All of them have an impact on the prevalence of resources and society as a whole, which is important for entrepreneurial activities.

Numerous economic factors include:

the scale of markets and the level of their development, the income of the population, the size of effective demand and competition in different industries, the exchange rate of the national currency, etc. All this affects industry business and entrepreneurial initiative. In Russia, the situation is extremely difficult, since the incomes of the population remain low, effective demand is not provided, enterprises have nowhere to sell their goods, and foreign markets are practically inaccessible.

Technological factors talk about the level of scientific and technological progress and material and technical base. There are 7-8 programs in Russia that can make it one of the leading countries in the world technology market: developments in the field of nuclear energy, biotechnology, etc. Without state support, this is impossible.

Political and legal factors determine the relationship between society and the state, the mechanisms of state influence and the processes of making important decisions, the development of the legal framework and legal awareness in the country.

It is necessary to significantly strengthen the role of the state in regulating and stimulating industrial entrepreneurship, which is objectively due to the national specifics of Russia (a vast territory, a multinational population, a diversified nature of the economy), and factors associated with its modern socio-economic conditions. Difficulties are caused by the loss of control over economic processes, since the state has lost its authority and many of the regulatory functions that are necessary in market conditions. Political and economic instability to this day hinders entrepreneurship, including manufacturing.

The deepest crisis has befallen all sectors and sectors of the economy, and without state support, entrepreneurship will not be able to cope with it on its own.

The quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the material and technical base allow us to conclude that in the current state, entrepreneurship will not be able to move not only to expanded, but also to simple reproduction. In addition, outdated equipment and production methods greatly increase the risk of industrial accidents.

The role of the state for the successful functioning of industrial entrepreneurship consists in solving the following tasks:

1) state financial support for industrial entrepreneurship;

2) competent tax regulation;

3) legal and information support for industrial entrepreneurship.

Large and medium-sized industrial enterprises, due to their characteristics, no less than small ones, require state attention and financial support. In the context of limited budget funds, their lack of support for industrial entrepreneurship, it is possible to provide indirect support, which today is poorly applied and highly corrupt.

3. Trading business

Production is inextricably linked with entrepreneurship in the sphere of circulation - in order to make a profit, the goods produced must be sold or exchanged for other resources. Therefore, it is trade entrepreneurship that is developing at the fastest pace as one of the main types of Russian entrepreneurship. The functioning of commercial business differs from production. Here the entrepreneur acts as an intermediary between the producer and the consumer. He, as a merchant or trader, sells purchased finished goods received from other persons to the buyer, receiving income from the difference in prices.

A characteristic feature of commercial entrepreneurship are close economic ties with wholesalers and retailers, consumers of goods, works, services.

Commercial business includes all types of activities that relate to all kinds of types of exchange of goods and money. Despite the fact that financial and monetary relations of purchase and sale of goods are fundamental for commercial entrepreneurship, it uses the same factors and resources as in industrial entrepreneurship, but the scale is less significant.

Trading activities are especially attractive for entrepreneurs, since there are real prospects for making significant profits in the shortest possible time. In addition, there are no difficulties that arise during the production process. Despite the seeming ease of conducting trading activities, an entrepreneur must have certain skills, knowledge and skills, as well as a certain amount of luck. There is a trading business with shops, markets, stock exchanges and other trading institutions. In a market economy, entrepreneurs get a wide range of opportunities to start their own business by buying or building a store, organizing a retail outlet.

In order for the activity of commercial entrepreneurship to be successful, it is necessary to constantly study the unsatisfied demand of the consumer, to be able to respond quickly, providing the necessary goods and services. Trade entrepreneurship is mobile, constantly changing, adjusting to the interests of a particular consumer. For the development of Russian commercial entrepreneurship, it is necessary to fulfill such conditions as a constant steady demand for goods (market research is necessary), low purchase prices for goods from manufacturers. This will allow traders to recoup trading costs and get the desired profit.

Domestic trade is an independent system of this industry and is a set of trading enterprises that are engaged in the purchase and sale of goods and the provision of services on the territory of the Russian Federation.

Retail is the final element in the movement of goods from the manufacturer to the final consumer.

Retail trade has its own characteristics:

1) explores the relationship between supply and demand in the market;

2) determines the market situation;

3) selects goods according to the principle of greatest utility;

4) makes settlements with suppliers for the goods received;

5) finalizes goods and forms prices for them.

Retail trade is an important element of the country's economy and commercial entrepreneurship. Every year the turnover in Russia is growing, this is confirmed by the positive trends in the development of retail trade.

There are various retail enterprises in the domestic market of the country. They can be divided:

1) according to the assortment sold;

2) in the form of trade services;

3) by price level;

4) by type of operating enterprise;

5) by concentration and location of trading organizations.

Retail is focused on a specific consumer, adapts to his interests.

Today, retailers are used to varying degrees by different segments of society.

Wholesale trade is no less important for the country's economy, facilitating maneuvers with material resources, the distribution of stocks of products and their surpluses, and the elimination of commodity shortages.

Wholesale trade makes the most of the totality of commodity resources. In wholesale trade, goods are purchased in large quantities. Wholesalers, as a rule, are not connected at all with end consumers in their activities.

Most often, this form of trade is established between enterprises of individual regions and various industries.

Wholesale trade is characterized by:

1) creation of a resource base for wholesale trade;

2) participation in the creation of market infrastructure elements that assist in the free choice of trading partners and the formation of commercial relations for the successful implementation of trade transactions.

Today, wholesale trade is of great importance for the Russian economy, since it is it that is an active conductor of domestic and imported goods.

4. Financial entrepreneurship

The sphere of activity of financial entrepreneurship is the circulation and exchange of values. Financial activity is connected with production and commercial activities, and these relationships are constantly deepening. However, financial entrepreneurship can also be in the form of banking, insurance, etc. The main field of activity of financial entrepreneurship is commercial banks and stock exchanges.

Commercial Bank - this is a financial and credit institution of a joint-stock type, lending on a fee basis to various organizations, accepting cash deposits and performing all kinds of settlement operations on behalf of the client.

The operations of commercial banks are divided into three areas:

1) passive (raising funds);

2) active (placement of funds);

3) commission and intermediary (performing various operations on behalf of clients with payment of a commission).

In Russia, a feature of the activities of commercial banks is the attraction of funds from enterprises for a significant period; however, credits and loans are issued for relatively short periods. Banks are exposed to risks of a commercial nature no less than entrepreneurs, since they have their own debts and obligations that must be fulfilled within a certain time frame. Therefore, the bank must have certain reserves in case of unforeseen circumstances.

In addition, at this point in time, in today's conditions, most banks do not have the ability to provide long-term loans in significant amounts. The share of long-term loans issued by commercial banks is only 3% of all assets. And the main source of income in private banks in Western developed countries are long-term loans. Hence the instability of the income of commercial banks in Russia, their frequent bankruptcy. This also leads to distrust of them and unwillingness to use their services.

Stock Exchange - institutionalized, regularly functioning securities market, which contributes to increasing the mobility of capital and revealing the real value of assets.

The principle of operation of the stock exchange is based on the rapid and timely regulation of supply and demand. There are so-called stock quotes on the stock exchange. They are regularly evaluated by specialists of the quotation department for all securities with which they work on the stock exchange. Such information is always available, current rates are constantly displayed on a light board and are regularly published in special bulletins. The change in rates shows at what price at a certain moment on a given exchange you can buy or sell specific shares. These prices are recalculated according to a certain system of formulas and serve as the basis for the subsequent receipt of exchange activity indices that reflect all changes in the economic situation. Abroad, firms and enterprises themselves are not present on the exchange - their interests are protected either by a bank or a brokerage company of the exchange.

Financial entrepreneurship acts as a special form of commercial entrepreneurship, in which currency, values, securities (stocks, bonds, etc.) sold by the entrepreneur to the consumer or provided to him on credit are the subject of sale and purchase. The essence of financial entrepreneurship is that the entrepreneur acquires finance and sells it to the buyer for a fee higher than the initial one, as a result of which an entrepreneurial profit is created, which is based on the price difference.

5. Insurance business

The essence of the insurance business is that the entrepreneur guarantees the client compensation for damage in accordance with the conditions prescribed in the contract, which does not contradict the current legislation, in the event of unforeseeable circumstances of the loss of property, valuables, health, life and other losses for a certain amount when concluding an insurance contract. The profits of the insurance business are insurance premiums minus insurance payments under certain circumstances. As a rule, the probability of occurrence of force majeure circumstances is small and a significant part of insurance premiums forms entrepreneurial income.

Despite the fact that the insurance business does not produce any goods, it still remains one of the most risky activities. Insurers (organizations, enterprises, individuals), on the contrary, can receive compensation for a certain fee when the events specified in the contract occur. Despite the fact that this type of entrepreneurship is gaining momentum, the level of trust of potential clients remains very low. Entrepreneurs have to resort to certain tricks and spend money on large-scale advertising campaigns.

Each client, in accordance with the contract, pays insurance premiums, which form the insurance fund. It is used for insurance payments. However, the conduct of insurance activities is possible only if there are legislative documents, instructions and methodological materials necessary for the formation of insurance relations, which together form the insurance legislation.

The foundations of insurance legislation in Russia were laid back in 1987 by the adoption of the Law "On Cooperation". The Law "On Insurance" was considered in 1992, but it really came into effect only in 1995, together with the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, in which an entire chapter is devoted to insurance, and many other normative acts.

Insurance legislation covers all branches and types of insurance, reinsurance operations; only legal relations on state social security are not regulated.

On January 17, 2004, the Law "On the organization of insurance business in the Russian Federation" came into force. It covers in detail the issues of interaction between insurance companies among themselves, it also talks about the principles of state regulation of insurance business. In addition, there have been changes in the size of the authorized capital (it has increased), the calculation coefficients have increased, the entry of foreign insurers into the Russian insurance market has been simplified. This document is the most important and authoritative.

Tasks, the implementation of which is necessary for the development of insurance:

1) formation of a strict legislative framework for insurance activities that does not allow for various interpretations;

2) development of compulsory and voluntary insurance;

3) creation of an effective body controlling the insurance activity;

4) joint work of the national insurance system with foreign insurance markets.

The legal essence of the insurance business is to establish legal relations to protect the client's property interests at the expense of insurance payments in accordance with the concluded contract. The property interest of the insured is a condition for cooperation with the insurer; without it, insurance activities are impossible.

Insurance business is different from commercial insurance and all kinds of government support. In this case, insurance is only a type of activity for the purpose of making a profit, and insurance payout funds are formed separately for each company.

The basic principles of insurance, which are reflected in Russian legislation, are formulated as follows:

1) existence of property interest;

2) provision of complete and reliable information about the risk;

3) compensation in proportion to the insurance premium;

4) the existence of a causal relationship between the event discussed in the insurance contract and the damage caused to the object of insurance.

All legal relations in the insurance business are divided into two groups:

1) legal relations belonging directly to insurance;

2) all processes of organization of insurance business.

Issues of the first group are regulated directly by the insurance legislation, and criminal and civil law can be connected to the solution of the problems of the second.

The obligations of the insurer include:

1) inspection and evaluation of objects subject to insurance;

2) informing the client about the rules of insurance;

3) calculation and acceptance of insurance premiums;

4) confirmation of the occurrence of an insured event and its causes, drawing up an insurance document;

5) determination of the amount of compensation;

6) insurance payment.

The insured also has obligations:

1) timely payment of insurance premiums;

2) transfer to the insurance company of all necessary information for the conclusion of the insurance contract;

3) notification of the insurer about the occurrence of an insured event within the established time limits;

4) providing data on the circumstances and cause of the insured event, the amount of damage.

Voluntary insurance consists in drawing up a contract with the provision of a written or oral application of the insured and the issuance of an insurance certificate (policy). This applies only to the insured, since the insurance company does not have the right to refuse the client. The main feature of insurance contracts is that formally they are considered bilateral, but in fact they turn out to be trilateral or multilateral. Insurance premiums are not reimbursed, with the exception of cases specified in the contract, when the amount of insurance premiums paid is equal to the amount of compensation.

6. Intermediary business

Intermediary activity is to make a profit for the provision of certain services to the consumer, in the role of which entrepreneurs can also act. As a rule, this is a simplification of purchase and sale operations, information services, etc.

An entrepreneur as an intermediary is faced with the following tasks in order to attract clients:

1) determining the deficit, the needs of certain market segments and finding ways to meet them;

2) identification of business areas that need intermediary services of various types.

Intermediaries - individuals or legal entities that can engage in entrepreneurial activities without creating a legal entity, representing the interests of the manufacturer or consumer, acting on their behalf and receiving income from this.

In economic theory, mediation - this is an operation carried out in the period of time between the release of products (provision of services, performance of work) and its delivery to the consumer. In the process of doing business, most entrepreneurs use the services of intermediaries when concluding transactions.

Mediation facilitates the manufacturer's sales processes, increases the efficiency of his work, since he does not have to be distracted directly from production, sharing with the intermediary the responsibility for promoting the goods to the consumer.

Trading intermediary activity differs from other varieties of this entrepreneurial activity in that it acquires ownership of the goods with which it works. The largest part is retail trade (products are resold to the final consumer) and wholesale trade (very rarely deals with the final buyer).

Wholesalers improve the efficiency of the sales process. A small manufacturer, which has limited financial resources, cannot create and ensure the organization of competent marketing. Even if you have sufficient funds, it is more productive to direct them to the development of your own business, and not to the organization of wholesale trade. Good wholesalers - with decent experience in their activities, with a stock of special knowledge and skills - have a large number of business contacts in the field of retail sales. Retailers who need a wide range of products usually prefer to buy a complete set of products from one wholesaler, rather than piecemeal from different manufacturers, as this saves time and money. In addition, wholesale trade stimulates the sale of goods. Wholesalers have a mature customer base that helps the manufacturer reach many small consumer firms at relatively low cost. The buyer, as a rule, receives more guarantees from the wholesaler than from some distant manufacturer. The wholesaler selects the necessary products and forms the necessary product range, thereby relieving the client of significant hassle. With wholesalers, in contrast to manufacturing enterprises, it is possible to agree on a reduction in the size of consignments of goods or their crushing. Wholesalers carry out warehousing of commodity stocks, thereby reducing the corresponding costs of the supplier and consumer, perform faster delivery of goods, being closer to customers than manufacturing enterprises. Taking ownership of the goods, the intermediary assumes additional risks, bears the costs in case of its theft, damage, deterioration and obsolescence (moral and physical). Wholesalers assist their customers in providing information about competitor activity, new products, price developments and market changes.

Resellers provide customers with the purchase of products at a lower cost than the manufacturer would provide, the seller, in turn, is relieved of the need to find ways to sell, which significantly increases the cost of advertising, transport, and storage facilities. Intermediaries can provide a full range of services to manufacturers and consumers - from finding a partner and concluding a deal agreement to post-warranty service.

Agency intermediaries act only as a representative of their client. They do not acquire ownership of the product they work with. If resellers earn on the difference in prices for the purchase and sale of products, then agency intermediaries receive their income in the form of fees and commissions. Commissioners are endowed with broad powers on the part of the client. They take over all the physical manipulations with the goods, agree on the terms of the transaction. Payment for their services is determined by deducting their remuneration from the profits received, the remainder is given to the client. An organization acting as a commission agent concludes a commission agreement with the client, carries out entrepreneurial activities that are aimed at making a profit from the performance of services for the conclusion of transactions for the sale of commission goods, i.e. the property of another organization (committent). The commission agent often has the necessary inventory for receiving, storing, processing and selling goods. The commission agreement contains a number of provisions:

1) upper and lower price levels for the sale of goods;

2) clear deadlines for the delivery of goods on customer orders;

3) warranty periods of the goods, the period of time for satisfaction of claims;

4) the amount and terms of payment of the commission.

Under commission agreements, the commission agent sells goods owned by the client firm, or, conversely, purchases goods for the committent, and, if necessary, does both.

Commission relations mainly arise when dealer relations are unprofitable, and agency agreements severely limit the powers of intermediaries and interfere with work when concluding purchase and sale transactions.

When making a commission transaction, the remuneration in most countries is small (no more than 4%), and in retail sales, with the provision of guarantees for the operation, its size can increase up to 10-15%.

A commission agent can provide additional services to increase income: evaluate the quality of goods, carry out advertising, determine the size of the optimal price, etc. There is also a commercial risk when providing commission services.

A variety of such agents are traveling salesmen - intermediary entrepreneurs who search for and select available resources in various regions interacting in commodity exchange operations, and involve production waste and secondary resources into circulation. A traveling salesman, as a rule, is a representative of an enterprise, but can carry out his activities freely from anyone; his fee depends on the completion of a trade transaction for a certain type of product. Salespeople are engaged not only in selling, but also in delivering to the client. Traveling salesmen include traveling representatives of trading companies. They offer customers products based on samples and catalogs, provide fairly effective and intrusive advertising of goods and services, and use previously established strong sales channels for products.

Brokers do not work directly with the goods. They clearly follow all the instructions and instructions of the client, have fewer opportunities in the course of work. Speculative intermediaries buy and sell goods with one goal - to profit from price changes, very often slow down transactions and trading operations in order to increase income due to constantly occurring changes in the level of inflation. In agricultural markets, the most well-known participants are processors and producers of basic foodstuffs. There are also support organizations that assist the rest of the intermediary groups in their tasks. They do not participate in commodity research processes, but provide assistance: they provide premises, equipment, provide various services, conduct research for various groups of intermediaries.

7. Combination of types of entrepreneurship

The combination of types of entrepreneurship is typical in the conditions of concentration of production and the transitional economy, as well as for large enterprises that carry out a variety of activities. With a variety of types and subspecies, ways of doing business, any business operation is characterized by the presence of certain characteristics that have a certain sequence. Entrepreneurship is characterized by fairly typical commodity-money relations that are carried out between the participants in the operation.

Any entrepreneur in the process of carrying out his activities is not isolated, he interacts with other businessmen, organizations, structures. In general, there are no clear boundaries in the division of entrepreneurship into types in reality. The same organization can belong to different types under certain conditions. In a market economy, an enterprise has to mobilize all its resources to stay afloat. If business partners fail, an enterprise has to look for others to avoid a crisis or perform their functions itself - for example, a manufacturing company can refuse the services of intermediaries, having a good marketing research department, performing its functions. Thus, the types of entrepreneurship are combined. There are many such examples, every entrepreneur is constantly faced with this.

LECTURE #3. Business Operations

1. Business operation: concept, essence, components

There is a concept in business business operations. It means a short-term business, as a result of which the entrepreneur or businessman makes a profit. In other words, business transaction - it's a deal. Such a definition takes place in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

A businessman can carry out both one business operation and several operations at the same time. In addition, a businessman can conduct business transactions sequentially, one after another. In any case, a business operation is a separate and independent business that is planned and carried out over a certain period of time.

A business transaction consists of several stages.

A business transaction structure can have the following content:

1) definition of goals and objectives;

2) drawing up a plan;

3) determination of participants, conclusion of contracts;

4) resource provision;

5) production or receipt of products;

6) sales of products and profit.

1. At the first stage - defining the goals and objectives of the business operation - it is necessary to think over the meaning and significance of the operation for the business of the company, to outline the amount of profit desired to be received as a result of the operation.

If a businessman or entrepreneur has sufficient experience in doing business, he has some knowledge of consumer preferences for certain types of products and services. In accordance with consumer demand, a businessman chooses the product that is the most promising in selling it on the markets and making a profit.

In the process of forming the concept of a future operation, a businessman estimates how much of a product he is able to produce or purchase in order to further sell it in the markets. It is necessary to assume and consider all possible options, taking into account the capabilities of the company. Having chosen the most promising option, a businessman should consult with other businessmen and specialists (financiers, economists, accountants, technologists, experts) who will help to conduct a qualified analysis of the company's capabilities to perform this operation. After that, a decision is made to conduct a business operation.

2. Drawing up a business operation plan. Once a decision has been made to carry out a business transaction, a plan of action must be drawn up to be followed during the transaction. The operation plan must contain goals, objectives, financial analysis, comparison of the company's capabilities with the objectives, timing of the operation, expected profit volumes, cost analysis, identification of possible risks and ways to minimize them. The plan must be understandable, reliable, and show the advantages and benefits of its implementation. The plan should include cost estimates for all types of resources needed to carry out a business operation. As a result of the analysis of the company's capabilities, the degree of need for additional financing of the operation from external sources is determined, and possible sources of obtaining finance are outlined.

3. Definition of participants in a business transaction consists in choosing suppliers, attracting the necessary specialists and employees, participants in the market sale of products. Having outlined the participants in the business operation, the businessman brings them information about the planned operation, negotiates with them the conditions for their participation in the operation, and then concludes contracts and agreements. Contracts and agreements can be concluded with all participants in the operation, from investors to buyers. The contract with buyers is the most important and beneficial for the company, as it ensures the sale of products, which indicates a guaranteed profit.

Employment contracts are concluded with employees who are involved in the performance of a certain type of production work.

Contracts are most often concluded on paper, although verbal agreements are not ruled out, which in the conditions of honest business are equated to documented contracts. To avoid risky situations, it is better to enlist a written contract.

4. An important factor for the implementation of a business operation is its resource provision. Resource support includes production and financial resources.

Production resources include the provision of the necessary materials, equipment, raw materials, premises, transport. The production resources include the labor force - employees.

Financial resources are determined by the cash that the firm has. In the event of a lack of own funds, a businessman is forced to resort to finding sources of raising additional funds. In the course of a business operation, the need for new additional resources may arise. These options should be provided by the businessman.

5. Stage of production or receipt of products firm is a key stage of a business operation, during which the development of production activities takes place, the results of which are directly related to the achievement of goals.

Production activities are aimed at manufacturing products and services with their subsequent sale in the markets. A businessman may not be engaged in the production of goods, but in their resale. In this case, production activity will consist in obtaining a product by purchasing goods, transporting and storing it, delivering it to sales markets, creating conditions for its storage and sale at retail outlets, and providing advertising for goods.

Mediation should take into account consumer demand for the product, as well as the solvency of the buyer. In accordance with demand, the proposals of goods and services are considered.

6. Selling products and making a profit are the final step in a business transaction. The results of this stage depend on the quality of all previous stages. If the product is of high quality and in demand, its implementation should take place without any special difficulties. But it is necessary to provide for unforeseen situations that may arise in the process of selling the goods. These include various accidents, disasters, changes in economic policy, competition and other factors that can affect the effectiveness of a business operation.

In the process of selling goods, various changes may occur, which depend on the situation in the sales markets. Prices for goods, outlets, sales volumes can change. Periodic monitoring and regulation of supply channels and channels for the sale of goods should be carried out.

The business transaction ends when all goods are sold. In case of incomplete sale of goods, a balance is formed, which is added to the costs.

The main and main task as a result of a business operation is to make a profit, the volume of which should not only cover all the costs of the operation, but also remain a businessman in the form of net income.

2. Scheme of resource provision of a business operation

The provision of resources is an important condition for conducting a business operation. The resources required to carry out a business operation include natural, labor, production, information and financial resources.

The task of a businessman is to constantly monitor the availability and condition of resources. In the process of planning a business operation, it is necessary to determine the volumes and types of required resources, identify the sources of their receipt, making sure that the resource supply channels are timely and reliable.

The businessman and the buyers are the main participants in the operation. The businessman sells the goods to the buyer, who, in turn, pays for the purchase, provides the businessman with a monetary profit. Cash profit is the financial resources of the firm, with the help of which all costs for the production of goods are reimbursed.

The resource provision scheme includes the following components:

1) cash;

2) fixed assets;

3) labor resources;

4) material resources and working capital;

5) information resources.

The most important issue is to secure the operation with cash. The source of funds (in the first place) is the initial money capital available to a businessman or entrepreneur. If the amount of own funds available to the entrepreneur does not allow the business operation to be carried out properly, there is the possibility of taking a loan. With the help of the initial capital and the provided loan, the start-up capital is formed, which allows the planned operation to be carried out.

Fixed assets are large production equipment in the form of office premises, buildings, equipment, transport, furniture, equipment. These funds, unlike the rest, as a rule, are not used within a single business operation, but for a long time.

In the case when fixed assets are used for one operation, the businessman resorts to renting them. In addition, there is such a thing as leasing. It means a lease with a subsequent purchase.

Basic resources are funded and acquired in advance.

Human Resources are a prerequisite for conducting a business transaction. Labor resources are determined at the very beginning of the operation and have two main sources. One source is the businessman or entrepreneur himself; this means that he primarily takes part in the work of the company. Another source is employees, for whose wages the company's money is spent.

Labor resources are used throughout the entire business operation. A businessman has the ability to control the cost of money for wages.

Current assets are movable material resources that play an important role in the production activities of the company. These include semi-finished products, materials, raw materials. Working capital requires an investment of capital and is acquired from the moment the operation begins until its final stage.

Informational resources are an integral and important component of the resource support of a business operation. These include economic, financial, legal documents, accounting reports, projects. Information resources also require an investment of money throughout the duration of a business operation. Sources of information are both internal, in the form of specialists included in the staff of the company, and external informative information.

In addition to the listed means of resource support for a business operation, such important factors as services are used, which include: transport, legal, advisory, advertising and security agencies, etc. A businessman spends the company's money to pay for various services.

3. Cash settlement of the business transaction

Cash settlement is made in order to determine the amount of funds required to carry out the planned business operation.

The main subject for monetary calculation is the determination of the total amount of costs, which consists of various types of costs.

Expenses are divided into the following types:

1) material;

2) for wages;

3) to receive information;

4) for fixed assets;

5) for services;

6) to pay loans;

7) to pay taxes;

8) additional;

9) permanent;

10) variables.

For material expenses cash includes the cost of obtaining materials, semi-finished products, raw materials, energy. There is a formula by which material costs are calculated. It looks like this:

where Zm - material costs;

Ohm - the volume of materials used;

Cm - the price of a unit of material.

This formula is suitable for calculating one type of material. To calculate various material resources, the following formula is used:

where Ohm1, Ohm2, ... Ohmn is the volume of materials of one type;

Tsm1, Tsm2, ... Tsmn - price of units of various types of materials;

n is the number of different types of materials.

Labor costs include cash costs for remuneration of employees of an entrepreneurial firm, the administration of the firm, employees, support staff of the firm (couriers, security guards, service personnel).

The calculation of the money spent on wages is made taking into account the division of the participants in the operation into permanent employees of the company and temporary workers involved for the duration of the operation. The formula for calculating the cost of funds for the remuneration of a separate group of participants looks like this:

where Zt - labor costs;

Zch - the cost of hourly wages to employees;

Kr - the number of employees;

W - the total time of work of workers.

The total expenditure of funds for the remuneration of all groups of employees is calculated according to the following formula:

where Zt1, Zt2, ... Ztn are the costs of remuneration for various groups of workers.

Information costs are determined by the cost of this volume of information, which is paid from the company's funds.

Fixed asset expenses are calculated taking into account the division of fixed assets into permanent and temporary. Permanent fixed assets are acquired by a firm for long-term use, while temporary fixed assets are acquired for use within a single business transaction.

Permanent fixed assets are calculated as their expense for the period of the operation. To do this, you can use the following formula:

where Zos - the cost of fixed assets;

Tsos - the price of fixed assets;

Vdi - the time of use of fixed assets in the process of this operation;

Voi - the total time of use of fixed assets.

Service costs are calculated depending on the types of services and their cost.

Additional expenses include the cost of transport, training of company employees, staff travel, company promotions, repair of office premises, repair of equipment and machinery and other additional types of costs.

Loan payment costs differ in that costs are the difference between the amount of the loan granted and the amount returned to the lender, including interest.

The calculation formula is as follows:

where Zk - the cost of paying the loan;

Zkp - amount with interest;

M - monthly percentage of the loan;

Vk - loan repayment time.

Tax expenses include the payment of value added tax and income tax.

Fixed costs are expenses that do not depend on the conduct of this business operation. These include the cost of wages, the maintenance of office space, the maintenance and repair of equipment and machinery of the company.

Variable costs depend on the amount of material used. They are calculated by multiplying the volume of goods by the volume of variable costs that per unit of goods.

The total cost of conducting a business transaction is determined by summing up all types of expenses.

Profit volumesobtained as a result of the sale of goods can be determined by multiplying the volume of goods sold by their cost. Gross profit is determined by subtracting total costs from profits. When using this method of calculating gross profit, you need to remember to include income tax in the total costs, the amount of which depends on the volume of profit.

Income Taxes is calculated using the following formula:

where Npr - income tax;

n pr - the percentage rate of tax on profits;

Pv - gross profit.

Profit calculation, which remains with the businessman after paying income tax, is carried out according to the formula:

To determine profit, an indicator such as profitability is used.

Profitability is calculated using the following formula:

where R - profitability;

By - residual profit;

Zo - total costs.

When planning profit, you can use the analytical method of calculation.

The analytical method is based on the basic profitability, determined in several stages:

1) calculation of the basic profitability by dividing the profit by the cost of the goods;

2) calculation of the volume of goods at the cost of the reporting period and the calculation of profit from the sale of goods depending on the basic profitability, i.e. multiplying the cost of the goods by the basic profitability;

3) determination and accounting of factors affecting profit - improving the quality of goods, changes in prices for goods, changes in prices for materials and raw materials, changes in prices for services and other factors.

A business operation is considered to be successfully carried out upon receipt of such an amount of profit, which is 30-50% of the cost of the total costs of the operation.

LECTURE № 4. Business planning

1. The value of a business plan in entrepreneurial activity

Business planning is necessary to achieve financial success, for the long-term and efficient operation of a firm or enterprise. A modern entrepreneur should be able to determine the prospects for the development of his enterprise, justify the feasibility of obtaining bank loans and attracting investments, and also be prepared for structural changes within production.

Planning is an integral part of market economic activity. Both individual business operations and the entire business activity as a whole can be planned. If there are several operations connected with each other, it is necessary to carry out joint planning, taking into account their interaction.

When carrying out large and long-term operations, as a result of which significant profits are possible, planning becomes a necessary condition for the implementation of this project.

The program of action or plan for the implementation of entrepreneurial operations is called business plan.

The business plan is a permanent document in which the necessary changes and updates are made, depending on changes in the economic market, as well as changes taking place within the company. A business plan is written by every firm, regardless of its size, although a small firm may involve specialists from consulting organizations to draw up a business plan. When drawing up a business plan, it is necessary to take into account the concept of the company's development, its financial and economic aspect, its technical and technological capabilities. The presence of a business plan allows a businessman to justify the feasibility of a business operation, correctly calculate sales, profits and incomes, determine the source of financing for the operation, and select a team to implement the plan.

The main objective of the business plan is to concentrate finances to carry out strategic actions in the course of the operation. An equally important task of the plan is to attract partners, creditors, investors, who must be confident in the effectiveness of a thorough study of the project. Before investing their capital in a project, investors study a business plan, and in the absence of one, they may completely refuse to meet with a businessman. The business plan should be no more than 50 pages, its content should be simple and understandable, include information about the main controversial issues.

A business plan can be written by a consulting organization, an entrepreneur, a manager, a single firm, or a group of firms. If one of the employees of the company has an idea for the manufacture of a new product, or a new method of production management, he can offer his idea for the company's business plan or create his own business plan. Firms that manufacture products are constantly developing new types of products. With a lack of own finances to translate ideas into reality, the company offers a business plan outlining this topic to investors and creditors, which can ensure that their capital is attracted to the production of the company.

With the help of a business plan, the company's management is guided by the conditions of shareholder ownership, makes a decision on the distribution of profits among shareholders.

A business plan helps to organize joint activities with other firms that manufacture similar or complementary products that carry out common financing.

The business plan is most actively used in the process of finding and attracting investors (shareholders, sponsors, creditors). Firms that decide to expand their production or organize a new organizational and production structure draw up a business plan indicating the benefits and efficiency of the new production. Investors are usually offered a summary of the business plan, which is a difficult task to prepare. First, the entire plan is developed and the main measures for its implementation are determined. From this, the main important points are highlighted, which are included in the summary, which is provided to investors. According to this material, investors will draw conclusions about the effectiveness of the project.

To obtain the desired result in the course of the ongoing business operation, it is necessary to thoroughly think over, work out, justify and determine the main goals, objectives and main meaning of the upcoming operation.

If a businessman has certain experience and knowledge in entrepreneurial activity, he has formed ideas about the state of the economic market, his needs and demand for goods and services, as well as about possible income and profit after the sale of products.

When forming a business plan, a businessman will choose the product or service that represents the main purpose of the operation. After choosing the main product, the entrepreneur calculates the quantity of products that he has the opportunity to produce, and calculates the expected profit received after the sale of this product. In the process of forming a planned operation, a businessman comes to the decision of the main question: is it worth starting this business. After conducting their own analysis, the entrepreneur should discuss his ideas with other businessmen, and especially with specialists and experts in the field of entrepreneurial activity.

Having decided that the operation would be a worthwhile undertaking, the businessman must draw up a plan of action during the course of the business operation. The plan of operation should include all the necessary questions that will confirm the necessity, reliability and profitability of the planned operation.

There is no specific structure for the preparation and content of a business plan, there is no strict prescribed form for the design of this document, but the presence of generally accepted main sections is desirable.

A business plan may consist of the following sections:

1) company summary (contains information about the company);

2) types of goods, services, manufactured products that are the subject of business;

3) analysis of the market for goods and services;

4) marketing;

5) organizational and production plan of the company;

6) sources of financial support;

7) financial plan;

8) legal aspects of the business plan;

9) assessment of critical risk points;

10) the final section of the business plan.

2. Firm and its business

In the first section of the business plan, a description of the company is given, brief information about the company that may be of interest to investors. These include the following sections.

1. Company formation. This section contains the date of creation and registration of the company, its location. The name must indicate the legal form of the company. The capital structure is indicated in the form of the quantitative content of shares, their nominal and exchange value. The content indicates the bank where the company's open accounts are located. The management of the company is listed: general director, lawyer, accountant, managers.

2. Structural divisions of the company: organizational, production and management.

3. Idea about the image of the company: how it has established itself, its difference from other similar firms, with the help of what types of goods it has gained fame, what is the constancy of the consumer market, the commodity market.

4. Conditions of the company's activity: internal (technologies, equipment, production costs, quality characteristics of goods) and external (consumer demand, supply of raw materials and material resources, financial capabilities of the company in the economic market).

In drawing up a business plan, it is necessary to form the goals of the company's development and the possibility of achieving them. The goals for which the activity of the company is directed depend on what it is focused on. If this orientation is aimed at rapid growth, then the goals will be to increase sales by a certain number of times, increase the profits of the company in existing economic markets, and expand entrepreneurial activities in new markets. If the company's plans do not include a rapid growth in sales, then its goals will be aimed at improving the quality of products, improving the quality of services provided, and increasing the technical capabilities of production. If the company is focused on the production of new products, its goals will be to accelerate the development of these products or services, increase the volume of products, and promote the new product to the markets.

3. Entrepreneurial product: concept and essence

In entrepreneurial activity, the main factors aimed at achieving the desired results are the production and sale of goods produced by the company.

The entrepreneur should determine in advance the main characteristics of the product that he planned to produce. This factor gives confidence not only in the implementation of the planned plans, but is also able to convince investors of the efficiency of the production of this product (product, service). If it is possible to produce a ostentatious sample of the product and give it the main characteristics, this will give solidity and reliability to the company.

Regardless of whether there is a sample or not, the content of the business plan must contain a complete description of the product, its properties and characteristics. It is necessary to indicate the demand for this product in consumer markets, its ability to meet the needs of consumers, as well as its main and secondary use. Emphasis can be placed on the difference between this product and those already on the market. The plan provides general technological assessments of products, their competitiveness, product advantages and ways to use these advantages.

The product can be presented in the form of the following scheme:

1) the name of the product (service), its trademark, patent for the product;

2) the essence of the product (service): what it is intended for, its necessity;

3) characteristic features of the product (service): what needs can be satisfied with its help; demand for it

availability to buyers; ways of its implementation; what is the possibility of mastering the production of this product; costs in the process of its production; advantages of the product over others similar to it; how profitable is its acquisition by buyers; monetary opportunities for acquisition by the population;

4) forecast and analysis of goods: price forecast for the sale of goods, expected terms for maintaining competitiveness and stability of prices for goods, the need and possibility of updating it, intended sales markets;

5) a list of production conditions: increasing requirements for personnel, improving their qualifications, training and education of workers, supply of equipment and materials, development of instructors and technologists.

When planning business operations, it is important to take into account inflation, to predict all kinds of changes in the economic and industrial spheres.

4. Market analysis

The entrepreneur needs to be aware of his opportunities related to the sale of goods in consumer markets, since the market itself is an unpredictable factor in entrepreneurial activity. The state of the consumer market depends on the demand for the product. Market analysis has a huge impact on the volume of production and the ability to successfully place and sell it in the markets.

To conduct market analysis, it is necessary to collect information about customers and consumers of the future product.

The business plan has a section on the problem of market demand. It is advisable to prepare this section at the very beginning of the preparation of the plan, since the rest of the business plan depends on it.

Depending on the results of the market analysis, the firm chooses a marketing strategy. The strategy helps to develop a business plan correctly.

In order to choose the right strategy, it is necessary to determine factors such as:

1) production program;

2) competition of similar goods in the market;

3) determination of the market segment where the sale of goods is planned;

4) determination of needs for the proposed product;

5) assessment of possible costs;

6) determination of expected income;

7) assessment of purchasing opportunities and ways to attract buyers;

8) the assumption of possible consumer needs.

The section of the business plan devoted to this subject is the most difficult task in planning a business operation. If a business operation is planned for the short term, this task is much easier than when planning a long-term operation.

Market demand can be estimated and anticipated in several ways. One of them is that there is a practical study of demand, sales volumes of goods, the capacity of its individual parts. Another way is that customers and buyers are offered a product in advance, which they guarantee to purchase. For this, methods of preliminary preparation of applications and orders for goods, the conclusion of contracts and agreements on the supply of goods are used.

In addition, there is a way to predict the possible sales of products manufactured by the firm. To this end, there is a study of trends prevailing in the markets, a study of changes in consumer demand for certain goods and services. All this data is used in making forecasts about the possible sales of the company's products.

Important information for this section of the business plan is information about potential customers or buyers of the proposed product. Customers or buyers are subject to classification by age, gender, income level, belonging to a certain social class, professional affiliation, nationality, education, interests and lifestyle. If the customer is an independent company, they are characterized depending on their structure, production volumes, location, number of people working in the company, field of activity.

The market is to be divided into segments in order to single out the most promising and targeted ones. This is necessary for the purposeful conquest of the desired market segment, where the sale of products or services will be most effective. In addition, the most priority buyer in this segment is identified and the main reason for purchasing the product is determined (high quality, reasonable price, good service, recommendations from friends). It would be useful to provide a list of customers or customers who have shown interest in the product, as well as explain the reason for their interest.

Once the customer base has been identified, the ways in which you can expand your customer base, attract new customers, and help keep them interested in the product in the future should be identified.

If the firm has regular customers, it is necessary to list them, as well as indicate the intensity and quantitative volume of their purchases.

In the final part of this section of the business plan, it is necessary to record some data obtained as a result of market analysis. These include:

1) the presence of the alleged main customer or buyer of the goods;

2) the place of his location or residence;

3) places of constant demand for goods;

4) preferences of buyers to a certain source of sale of goods (regular or occasional seller);

5) preferences of buyers or customers for a certain type of packaging or packaging.

In the planning process, it is important to establish the total volume of goods sold, which will have a constant value. Conclusions about expected constant sales volumes can be drawn by analyzing information on sales volumes of similar products in individual market segments. It is necessary to highlight the sources of this information, ways to achieve constant sales volumes, and the possible growth in the consumer trend of the product every year. The plan of total sales is drawn up for three years, for each year separately. The need for the presence of specialists who promote the promotion of goods on the markets (distributors, sales agents) is explained and the requirements put forward for their work are given.

In relation to the competitiveness of the company, an assessment of the goods that make up the competition is carried out, during which it is necessary to highlight their strengths and weaknesses, determine the most competitive goods, compare their cost, quality characteristics. In order to correctly analyze a competing product, it is necessary to highlight the main advantages and disadvantages, explain their cause. After that, you need to present the found ways to eliminate the main shortcomings of the product, improve its quality features.

By analyzing the activities of competitors, you can get comprehensive answers to a number of questions. These include:

1) information on the number of firms that can compete in the markets;

2) determination of market sectors in which control is exercised over the implementation of a similar product by leading firms;

3) organizational and production differences from competing firms;

4) the main reasons for the persistence of competing firms in the market (reasonable prices, high quality, and others).

It is necessary to conduct a comparative analysis of competing firms, determine the areas of their activities, highlight the advantages and disadvantages, compare the prices and qualities of their products, determine the reasons for the persistence or inconstancy of the competitiveness of these firms in the market, familiarize themselves with the methods of their advertising.

By evaluating the merits of a product or service, you can identify the main customers of the company and outline the scope of sales of goods. The change in the dynamics of sales depends on the change in the position of the firm in the markets or changes in the competitiveness of the firm.

When evaluating the sales area and sales volumes, one must take into account their dynamics over the past two years, the results of this assessment are indicated in the business plan.

If the products were produced by the company earlier, when assessing sales volumes, the places of further distribution of the product are shown: either these are already existing market sectors, or the product will be sold to new markets.

Improving the quality of the product helps to oust competitors from certain market sectors.

All this determines the important role of choosing a marketing strategy.

5. Marketing

Marketing is a profitable process for a firm that aims to satisfy the needs of people through the production and offer of goods and services.

Since the needs of the population are diverse, marketing usually begins with the division of the market into segments. Marketers distinguish certain groups of buyers whose needs differ. Depending on these differences, different marketing strategies are used. The firm chooses the most suitable market segments, the needs of which it can satisfy to the maximum.

A market is a place where goods are exchanged between buyers and sellers. In a modern market economy, companies or manufacturing firms are united in such a thing as an industry, and buyers of manufactured goods are called the market. Sellers supply the market with goods in exchange for receiving money, as well as information about the effectiveness and need of goods.

In the modern world, there are two forms of market activity:

material (shops, trading houses) and spatial (Internet).

For each of the selected markets, the company must develop an offer, which is compiled depending on the needs of consumers. The firm is an active subject of the market, which is looking for its potential client. Both parties that seek to exchange goods are active market participants.

The needs of people take the form of certain needs that need to be satisfied. The need of people for certain types of goods for which they are able to pay is called demand. A tool that can satisfy the needs of people is called a product. A product that represents a certain value for the consumer and is able to satisfy his needs will be successfully sold on the market.

In marketing, there is the concept of exchange, the essence of which is to offer a product to another party in exchange for receiving the desired equivalent. To complete the exchange process, it is necessary to have two parties, the presence of a mutually acceptable product for these parties, readiness for cooperation, equality of both parties, deriving mutual benefit from the exchange.

Deal (transaction) - this is the exchange of values ​​between a certain number of parties, which occurs in concert with respect to conditions, place and time.

There is a special form of exchange, which differs from a transaction in that some value is transferred without receiving another material object in return. This form is called a transfer and can mean the transfer of a gift or charitable contribution. In return, the donor receives only verbal gratitude.

The basis for the transaction (or exchange) is the coincidence of the needs of the buyer and the seller (represented by the firm).

In the process of negotiations, three types of marketing channels are used: communicative (exchange of information through advertising, television, radio, Internet); distribution channels (wholesale warehouses, transport); trade channels (distributors, retailers and wholesalers).

The consumer makes his choice of product based on whether the value of the product corresponds to its expected value.

The overall value for the consumer is to obtain the maximum amount of benefits when purchasing a product or receiving a service.

Price - is an element of marketing, which is the main producer of profit. Price, unlike product characteristics, is a flexible element that is subject to rapid change. The pricing process contains six main stages: setting the task, demand, cost assessment, analysis of the pricing policy of competitors, determining the pricing method, final price setting.

The price of goods or services of the company is set depending on the prices of competitors. The pricing process takes into account the cost of transporting goods and storing them.

The price of a product is directly dependent on demand, i.e. the lower the price, the higher the demand. In relation to prestigious goods, an inverse relationship can be observed, since high prices for a certain category of buyers are an indicator of the high quality of the goods. In marketing, there is such a thing as the demand curve. The demand curve reflects the behavior of different categories of buyers, which differ in their attitudes towards price. With the help of the demand curve, you can estimate how much sales are expected in the market at various prices.

Demand curves can be determined in three ways:

1) analyze the achieved sales volumes at current prices;

2) conduct an experiment with changing prices for the same type of product;

3) draw conclusions about the dependence of sales volumes on prices based on the results of a survey of buyers.

Demand determines the highest cost of goods, the lowest cost is determined by the costs of the firm. Ideally, profit should cover all production costs. Costs are divided into variable and fixed. Variable costs are related to their change depending on the quantity of goods produced by the firm. Fixed costs are determined by the fixed costs of maintaining production (heating, rent, staff salaries). Variable and fixed costs are combined into total costs.

In addition to the dependence of pricing on demand and costs, prices, costs and the behavior of competing firms are taken into account. If the characteristics of a product differ little from those of a competing product, the price should be about the same. If the quality of the product is higher than the quality of the competing product, it is possible to set a higher price.

Based on the above, we can conclude that pricing depends on three factors: consumer demand, cost analysis and competitor price analysis.

The final price is set after studying such additional factors as the buyer's psychological perception of prices, the impact of prices on other market participants, and the firm's pricing policy.

The psychology of price perception by the buyer lies in their attitude to the quality of the goods. A high price is perceived as a confirmation of high quality. Many firms use prices that end in odd numbers. For example, a TV costs 4999 rubles. The buyer perceives this figure as exceeding 4000 rubles, but not reaching 5000 rubles. Another explanation for this is that the odd last digits may indicate to customers that there is a discount or lower prices. When changing prices for goods, it is very important to take into account the reaction of buyers, competitors and other market participants. The most noticeable reaction of consumers to changes in prices for expensive goods.

The reasons for setting the price higher than those of competitors must be justified (better quality, service, product features). If the price is too high, it may reduce sales.

The business plan should contain the methods used to deliver the goods (mode of transport, delivery times), methods of selling goods (wholesale, retail), elements of the distribution network (shops, distributors, sales agents).

In the content of the business plan, it should be noted the quantitative ratio of sales to various structural units of the distribution network.

Of great importance is the service and warranty service of the goods. The business plan should contain measures for the current maintenance and warranty repair of the goods, for the replacement of goods and the conditions for the return of money for defective goods. In addition, you need to specify the terms of service for the goods: paid or free.

A special issue in the promotion of goods in the markets is the issue of attracting attention to the product through advertising. This may be advertising on TV, radio, newspapers, billboards, catalogs, using the services of distributors, sales representatives.

The cost of advertising must be specified in the business plan.

6. Organization of production management

This section of the business plan should contain information on the production support for the release of products, the performance of work, the provision of services.

Production planning includes provision of the necessary equipment, logistics, management of production activities, control of products, procurement management.

Each enterprise is engaged in a certain type of activity, produces certain types of products. It is necessary to have a clear idea of ​​what mission the company intends to carry out. This makes it possible to determine specific tasks and goals, to assess the possibilities of their achievement. If the mission of the company has a clear statement, it is possible to define the main goals and directions of production activity. These include:

1) productive field: direction of activity of manufactured products and its range;

2) industry field: the industry in which the firm operates. Some firms are engaged in the production of consumer goods and services, others produce industrial products, others have the opportunity to contact and conduct business in any industry;

3) field of competencies: the scope of the company's technological capabilities;

4) market field: type of market segment, category of customers and consumers of the company's products;

5) vertical field: a system for organizing the production of products from the supply of raw materials to their final distribution on the markets;

6) geographic field: area of ​​activity of the company, its location, the advantages of these places.

If a firm is well located, this is an important success factor. The business plan should indicate the address of the enterprise or firm, the types of activities of the company in this region, the features of production facilities, the ownership of land or the lease agreement, and possible restrictions on the activities of the company in this region.

The operating company is obliged to describe the existing conditions of its activities. The description includes all premises (offices, industrial premises, warehouses), plots of land, machinery, equipment, a list of tools. It should be noted the possibilities of the current production, planning the expansion of the company. In addition, it is necessary to indicate the amount of costs for the purchase of new equipment, machinery; explain the need for these acquisitions, as well as the need for additional acquisitions in the future.

The business plan may contain a three-year production planning period.

It is advisable to list production process components... These include:

1) planning of production purchases;

2) attracting finance;

3) improving the working conditions of employees and improving their qualifications;

4) issues of expanding production.

The management of the firm must have a concrete idea of ​​the activities of its firm. This may be only the production of goods, or only the purchase and distribution of products of other firms.

The financing project should include indicators of the cost of material and labor resources, the cost of materials, the amount of possible attraction of additional finance.

Due to the occurrence of a large number of surprises in entrepreneurial activity, an important factor is the control over the activities of the company. The purpose of control is to confirm that the company is acting strictly according to the planned plan.

The main type of control is control over management by objectives, which includes four types of control:

1) control of annual plans: control of market analysis, sales analysis, comparative analysis of sales and costs, financial analysis, marketing analysis;

2) control over production efficiency (advertising, sales, distribution of goods, elements of the trading market);

3) profit control: assessment of various sources of profit (customers, market segments, volumes of orders and purchases, distribution channels);

4) control of the firm's strategies (marketing).

A necessary factor for the successful existence of the company is the management team.

When forming a management team, it is necessary to take into account the professional qualities of people, which include: business, managerial, commercial, technical, economic.

The formed management team earns the respect of investors and attracts their attention and interest in financing the proposed projects of the company.

The business plan should include information about management, the extent to which they have made a decision and the impact on the process of implementing the plan. This is a paramount issue that is of interest to investors. You should indicate a list of people who are part of the management team, indicate their positions, note the successful combination of skills of team members, which contributes to the achievement of the goal. If substitutions are expected, this must be indicated in the plan.

This section of the business plan describes the qualitative characteristics of each member of the management, including their education, experience, professional success, ability to perform specific functions in the production process. You should indicate the initial distribution of wages among team members, indicate their salaries, the amount of incentives in the form of shares and bonuses.

Pointing out the strengths and weaknesses of the administration, it is necessary to train the staff, as well as to consult with specialists.

Specialists who provide the necessary professional support and help establish external contacts and attract investors should also be included in the business plan.

An important component of the business plan is the business schedule, which indicates the time of the main activities aimed at the implementation of the project and the implementation of the project goals. The calendar plan can have a big impact on getting finance from investors. In the process of drawing up a calendar plan, a monthly schedule is established indicating important events:

1) the beginning of project planning;

2) approval of the plan;

3) date of commencement of activities for the implementation of the plan;

4) commencement of trading activities;

5) determination of the commercial type of products;

6) the beginning of the activities of sales representatives (distributors, advertising agents);

7) start of work with suppliers of materials;

8) the beginning of the release of goods;

9) the beginning of measures for the sale of goods (first sales);

10) receiving the first profit.

The calendar plan should contain realistic dates.

The business plan should include information on entrepreneurial risk. A preliminary discussion of possible points of critical risk increases the confidence of investors in the professional abilities of the firm's management. The project describes the dangerous moments in the process of its implementation: financing, the behavior of competitors, production problems, increasing costs. Among these problems, the most dangerous ones are singled out, after which ways to minimize them are proposed.

Dangerous situations can be the following situations:

1) price reduction for competing goods;

2) changing industrial trends;

3) increased production costs;

4) problems with the supply of raw materials and materials;

5) delay in the planned start of production of goods;

6) problems with investments or obtaining loans;

7) increase in the cost of activities for the sale of products;

8) increased costs for training and education of personnel;

9) increased costs for the purchase of new equipment and technology.

Of the possible dangerous situations, the most dangerous for the project should be identified and measures should be developed to prevent them and reduce business risk.

7. Financial resources and their sources

The financial resources are a set of sources of funds that are combined to carry out entrepreneurial activities. The activities of the company can be carried out at the expense of its own funds and income, as well as by attracting finance from outside.

At the time of the creation of a new project by the company, a new cost of goods is formed. The formation of financial resources occurs at the stage of distribution, when the goods are sold and certain elements of value can be distinguished from the profit received.

The sources of financial resources of the firm can be three groups of resources:

1) financial resources that come in the process of redistribution of government revenues: insurance, subsidies, and others;

2) financial resources that are formed by the enterprise's own funds (profit, income, reserve funds);

3) financial resources received in the course of the company's activities in the financial market (realization of shares, dividends, interest income, loans).

Financial resources are used to finance the production of goods and their sale in the markets, to make budgetary and extrabudgetary payments, to pay loans and borrowings, to make charitable contributions.

The financial plan should be prepared with the help of accountants. In this section of the business plan, you should indicate the available financial capital, sources of additional investment, and the expected level of profit.

A mandatory item in the preparation of a sales forecast is to determine the expected profitability of the project. The level of production depends on sales volumes; when forecasting, the costs of production elements are taken into account: transport, advertising, storage of goods, sale of goods.

The costs are divided into: trade, general and administrative, production and advertising.

Trading costs include the cost of transporting goods, their storage, warehousing.

General and administrative expenses include salaries of administration staff, payment to involved specialists (lawyers, accountants).

Production and advertising expenses are intended for payment of utilities, rent, insurance premiums, payment of telephone services.

The business plan should present ways to reduce production and sales costs. Issues that are controversial should be presented in a plan and have a detailed explanation. Disputable issues may include the amount of administrative costs, interest rates of costs, the amount of general costs.

Risk situations that may be an obstacle to the successful achievement of project objectives should be identified.

The main goal of the project is the profit received in the process of selling the goods, so the most important issue is the issue of forecasting sales and profits. At the beginning of the project, the level of profit usually does not exceed the costs. By forecasting the levels of sales and costs, it is possible to determine the need to attract additional investments in certain periods. The firm's management team determines ways to obtain additional funds and the timing of their receipt. Sources of additional funds may be short-term bank loans. Cash flow projections are important in a seasonal industry where payments may be required before sales occur. Cash flow projections should be made monthly during the first year and quarterly during the second and third years.

At the beginning of the project and at the end of each year, a balance sheet form is prepared. The balance sheet form is used to study in detail and calculate the investment of finances that are required to support the project and its implementation.

In addition to the above documents, a break-even schedule is drawn up, which includes the costs of production and non-production levels. If the level of sales covers all costs and expenses of the firm, it is the break-even level. In the process of carrying out the production activities of the company, it is necessary to strive to ensure that the level of sales is much higher than the break-even level.

The amount of financial resources depends on price control and pricing management. The contents of the financial plan should include ways to achieve and maintain the price level. These factors usually arouse the interest of investors.

The financial section of the business plan should include the amount of funds needed to finance the development of the project, as well as possible prospects for increasing the company's capital.

Often, in order to obtain funds, it is necessary to provide special guarantees to investors.

By combining all types of cash flows, it becomes possible to establish the total amount of project financing.

Guarantees provided to investors can be of various types and volumes. Guarantees may be limited to shares or provided in the form of private investments. Investors should be familiar with the limitation of guarantees.

The financial plan must include the number of shares issued and distributed among the staff, as well as the number of shares that are not in circulation.

Investors must be provided with information about the increase in their capital in the process of its use.

In the conditions of market relations, financial resources obtained through investments become a kind of commodity that takes a special part in the implementation of entrepreneurial activities in the market.

To receive investments, the firm must find a source of financing, negotiate and conclude agreements between the two parties to the financial transaction. In addition, the conditions for obtaining investments and the obligations of the company to return financial resources are stipulated.

Investors can participate in productive activities using one of the forms of participation: either as the provision of loans or as future participants in the firm's ownership. Given this provision, the management of the firm should be more serious about the use of investor assistance. If the firm's management does not have sufficient experience in working with investment resources, this can cause problems with payments on investments and investors.

A well-written business plan helps to avoid such problems with investment resources. In order to correctly evaluate investments, it is necessary to calculate their maximum correspondence to those estimates of profit, which are expected to be received after the completion of the sale of the company's products.

The founders of the project must be well aware of the intermediate and final results of the intended process. All possible options for the effective use of financial resources should be calculated, from which the most appropriate option for implementing the project is singled out. In the course of negotiations with investors, economic aspects can be reviewed, developed and formalized in the form of new decisions.

Investment efficiency has two main groups of criteria: absolute and relative.

Absolute criterion - this is a significant excess of profit over the amount of costs (net profit).

Relative criterion - these are various ratios of income to investment funds (profitability).

Investors, when deciding to invest in a company's project, are interested in the following issues: profit margins, loan repayment terms, ability to pay interest.

For the founders and participants of the project, the following performance parameters will be of interest: net profit, break-even rate, the cost of long-term current net profit to their share of the contribution, the ratio of net profit to sales volumes.

Taking into account all the indicators of interest, the project participants have the opportunity to make the most rational decision in choosing the method of financing, in choosing the form of organization of the company, as well as in choosing the marketing strategy.

The financial section of the business plan combines sales and cost forecasts, payment forecasts, and financial risk analysis.

Financial risks include:

1) associated with a change in foreign economic policy;

2) associated with adverse changes in the social and political spheres;

3) related to changes in economic legislation;

4) associated with poor orientation in new technologies and insufficient knowledge of new technology;

5) instability of prices in the markets;

6) the possibility of changing natural and climatic conditions;

7) associated with production and technical failures;

8) associated with the uncertain behavior of project participants;

9) instability and unreliability of the financial position of the company or firm.

Given the possibility of these risks, it can be concluded that the investment assessment should depend on taking into account all possible changes in various areas that relate to the implementation of the project. Evaluation of the effectiveness of investment resources should be based on a qualified expert opinion.

8. The final section of the business plan

The final section of the business plan combines in its content all the results of the entrepreneurial activity of a company or firm. Based on the study of all issues that relate to the organization of production and the final sale of goods, conclusions are drawn about the effectiveness and expediency of implementing the planned project of the company.

In this part of the business plan, a general analysis of the profitability and production costs of the goods is carried out; analysis of problems and risks, the possibility of which is provided for in the content of the project plan; possible ways to minimize the degree of risk and dangerous situations; analysis of the consequences of the conducted business operation.

The final section of the business plan should include a forecast about the future activities of the company, as well as the ability and strength of the proposed project to influence the future activities of the company or firm.

All this is necessary in order to show how far-sighted the company's strategic plans are.

The final section summarizes the results of all activities of the enterprise or firm. An analysis of possible profits, envisaged costs, production costs is carried out, an assessment of the possible risk is made. The final section contains a description of the expected dangers and ways to avoid them to reduce business risk, ways to manage business risk. It is equally important to consider the likelihood of an unfavorable outcome of business transactions. When planning a large business project, it is necessary to analyze the consequences of the operation.

In the final part of the business plan, it is customary to indicate its impact on the future activities of the enterprise or firm.

LECTURE No. 5. Forms of business organization

1. Forms of business organization

Forms of business organization These are the ways entrepreneurs organize their business, the ways they interact with each other.

Forms of business organization are subject to legal formalization and are called organizational and legal.

Forms of business organization depend on the form of ownership.

Property - this is a certain form of appropriation of material values, services and means of production. The property has legal and economic aspects.

Legal aspect expressed in property relations, which are determined by the Constitution of the Russian Federation and other laws. To property relations include: right of possession, right of disposal and right of use.

Ownership is entry into the rights of inheritance, purchase, donation of property. The entry into the right of possession must be supported by documents: a will, a bill of sale, a deed of gift.

Right of disposal means the disposal of property at the discretion of its owner. The owner has the right to sell, lease or use the property himself. If the property is to be sold, the right of disposal is exercised by the owner once. The buyer becomes the full owner. When transferring property for rent, the ownership passes to its temporary owner.

Right of Use gives the owner of the property the opportunity to use it at their own discretion, depending on the purpose. For example, parcels of land can be used for growing crops, for mining, and for various types of buildings.

Otherwise, the land may be leased. In the case of transfer of property for rent, the terms of the lease and the rent are negotiated. Money capital can be used as investment resources (investment in production), as financial transactions in the stock markets. If the property is leased, the temporary owner has the right to receive income from this property, but does not have the right to change the form of its use (rebuild, start).

The economic aspect of ownership consists of three types of economic relations: appropriation, economic realization and economic use of material values.

Assignment is an economic form of relations, which consists in the use of the right to own property. Simultaneously with appropriation, the process of alienation takes place.

The objects of alienation are land, capital, natural resources, means of production. The documentary basis for confirming the alienation may be a contract for the purchase of products or an employment contract in the case of using the labor of employees. As a result of the assignment, a legal entity, called the owner, appears.

Economic realization is the ability to make a profit when using property. In this case, the property is a source of income. The amount of income depends on how the property is used. This may be the use of capital for the production and further sale of goods, resulting in income. In the case of leasing property, the owner receives rent, and in the case of capital investment in financial transactions, the owner receives interest income. The sale of property is a one-time sale. In this case, the income is the selling price of the property.

There are several types, types and forms of ownership.

Depending on the degree of belonging property is divided into private and public.

Depending on the form of alienation and appropriation, property is divided into two types: working and non-working.

Private property is the appropriation of property by individuals.

Private property includes:

1) private property and personal savings;

2) private enterprises and firms;

3) households that are used for personal consumption.

Private property can be labor and non-labor.

Labor private property is founded on the appropriation of income received as a result of the production and sale of products obtained by one's own labor. The subject of labor private entrepreneurship is an individual who uses his funds to generate income. This type of private enterprise is successful due to the direct interest of a person in labor for the sake of maintaining and improving personal well-being.

Unearned private property represents the appropriation of the results of the work of employees. Unearned property contributes to the emergence of economic dependence of workers on the owners of the means of production. The form of non-labour property gives rise to exploitative, feudal and capitalist forms of property. The inefficiency of these forms lies in the fact that the workers are not interested in preserving and increasing this property.

In the process of development of society private property has taken on new forms: individual, partnership and corporate private property. These types of property are the basis for the formation of special types of economy.

Individual private property is a form of ownership that belongs to one owner. It can be a small individual farm, which is served by family members, or it can be a large one, owned by several individuals.

Partner property presented in the form of property owned by business partnerships or firms based on partnerships on shares. People who have contributed shares of their property to the total capital of the firm are co-owners of the firm and receive a profit depending on the size of their contribution.

Corporate property belongs to a group of persons who are founders of corporations. Corporations include joint-stock companies, the founders of which combine their investments in start-up capital and are the owners of the company's shares.

There is another form of ownership - intellectual property. This form has a special feature - individualism. Owners of intellectual property have the right to own and dispose of their inventions, knowledge, scientific information, and outstanding achievements in the field of culture and art. In the case where the author of an invention is not one, but several people, intellectual property becomes collective.

Public property is jointly owned by the collective or society as a whole. Depending on the level of its socialization, property is divided into state (national) and collective.

Labor type of public property can represent such forms of ownership as: family, corporate, joint-stock, property of economic partnerships.

Unearned type of public property represents state property, which is based on the appropriation by the state of the results of the labor of employees or the property of joint-stock companies, concerns and other companies that use the labor of employees.

State property is a form of ownership that belongs to enterprises and unitary organizations. The state bears property responsibility for state-owned enterprises, but is released from responsibility for unitary enterprises (SUEs), which are under the full economic control of the labor collective. Unitary enterprises are responsible for their actions with their property.

State property is divided into federal property, property of subjects of the federation and municipal property.

К federal property include objects that ensure the security of the country, are the basis of the economy, as well as objects of federal government and authorities.

municipal property belongs to rural and urban settlements.

Ownership is divided into common shared and joint.

Shared ownership - this is the property that has arisen as a result of the combination of shares of individual participants in the property. The profit received as a result of the use of shared ownership is distributed among the participants depending on the share contributed by them. Common shared ownership is represented in production cooperatives, business partnerships, joint ventures. Joint property is the common property of the collective. There are no property shares in joint ownership, and the profit received is distributed either in equal shares or in accordance with the labor contribution of the participants.

There is another form of ownership - personal property. This form provides the right to own personal items.

Personal property is not a source of income, its function is the ability to satisfy the personal needs of people. Items of personal property may be household items, clothing, shoes, furniture and others.

In Russian legislation, the following forms of business organization are distinguished:

1) business partnerships: full and limited;

2) companies: limited liability and joint-stock companies;

3) state and municipal enterprises.

2. Business partnerships

Business partnerships called associations of entrepreneurs for joint business.

The participants in the partnership unite their shares of property, which form the common capital. Contributions to business partnerships can be cash, securities, property assets. The profit received in the process of selling industrial goods is distributed among the participants depending on the size of their share contribution. Participants take part in decision-making on issues related to the activities of the partnership in accordance with the amount of the equity contribution. The share of the deposit has its nominal and book value. The nominal value is equal to the value of the share at the time of its contribution to the common capital of the partnership, and the book value is equal to the amount of capital that falls on shared ownership.

Such collective entrepreneurship has more opportunities than individual entrepreneurial activity.

The partnership in most cases is formalized as an enterprise. According to the Civil Code of the Russian Federation, business partnerships are the main form of creating legal entities - commercial organizations. Commercial organizations differ in that their main goal is to make a profit.

Organizers of business partnerships make a certain contribution and are called founders. Their first contribution to the partnership is called statutory.

Members of the partnership have the right to manage affairs, keep records, have access to information about the activities of the partnership (enterprise), participate in the distribution of profits between the founders. If the partnership breaks up, its participants have the right to divide the remaining property among themselves.

In addition to the rights, the participants also have obligations, according to which they are obliged to follow the requirements of the constituent documents, not to distribute confidential information, keep commercial secrets, make deposits and contributions in a timely manner, as provided for by the rules.

The property of the partnership is the fixed assets that are in use and at the disposal of the partnership. It can be structures, buildings, equipment. In addition, assets are current assets, which include stocks of materials, raw materials, as well as products, money capital and other valuables.

Business partnerships that do not have a legal status are partnerships based only on an agreement of equal persons, each of which is a participant in a common cause and is responsible for the results with its property. Such a partnership is not legally registered and is not a single enterprise, it does not have its own name and charter.

There is a property liability of the participants in the partnership, depending on which partnerships are divided into two types: limited (based on trust) and full partnership.

3. General partnership

A general partnership is created on a voluntary basis. Participants of a general partnership enter into an agreement and conduct business activities on a joint basis.

A characteristic feature of a general partnership is property responsibility of its participants for how they fulfill their obligations. If debts arise in the process of entrepreneurial activity, the participants in the partnership are liable for this not only with the property contributed to the formation of a general partnership, but also with their personal property.

The property united to create a partnership is a common shared property, which belongs equally to all participants in the partnership. This means that each participant is entitled to a share, which is expressed in the monetary or property value invested by him in the partnership.

A general partnership has certain rights, as it is a legal entity. This is an independent company that acts as a subject of economic activity. As a legal entity, a partnership may be brought to court as a defendant, as well as file a lawsuit as a plaintiff.

A general partnership has its own name, which is registered in the register of owners, is in interaction with authorities and other partnerships engaged in economic activities.

Members of a general partnership assume obligations that consist in managing the activities of the company. Members of a partnership are allowed to be members of only one partnership.

All members of the partnership have the right to be jointly and severally liable. Each participant has the right to independently manage the affairs of the company, interact with other partnerships or government organizations. Given these circumstances, it can be assumed that the partnership should include people who fully trust each other. Each participant must be sure of the honesty of his partners and the correctness of their actions.

When organizing a general partnership, the agreement concluded between its participants must be carefully thought out, worked out, and approved by all members of the partnership. When negotiating the contract, the abilities of each participant are taken into account in order to avoid independent actions of people who are incompetent in certain matters. The correct drafting of the contract ensures the protection of the interests of all participants in the partnership and prevents the danger of possible damage. In drawing up the contract, the participation of lawyers, economists and other specialists who can be useful in the course of the partnership's activities is very important.

General partnerships have become widespread in Russia, despite the fact that they are a rather risky form of entrepreneurial activity.

When deciding to organize a general partnership, its participants must assess the degree of entrepreneurial risk and correctly calculate their chances for the success of the planned enterprise. If all employees fully trust each other and have a high level of responsibility, this makes it possible to obtain a loan from a bank secured by the personal property of the participants. If members of a future partnership take such a bank loan, they need to legally resolve the issue of dividing their property and the property of other members of their family in order to avoid losing all the property and money of the family in the event of bankruptcy of the general partnership.

4. Individual entrepreneurship

Individual Entrepreneurship is the simplest form of business organization, which is formed with the help of family and individual property.

Individual entrepreneurship is divided into two forms: family private enterprise and individual labor activity.

Family run private enterprise in the course of its activities, it uses not only the labor force of family members, but also resorts to the use of hired workers.

Self-employment limited to the work of the entrepreneur and his family members.

In individual entrepreneurship, the businessman acts independently, and the forms of organization are established by him.

In 1994, the state registration of individual entrepreneurship was put into effect, provided for by the new Civil Code of the Russian Federation.

There is registration of entrepreneurship and its registration as a legal entity in the form of a company.

The firm acts as an independent business entity.

A firm or enterprise is organized in accordance with the current legislation, produces products, and also performs various services to meet the needs of the population.

Firms can be diverse in their organizational structure, scale, scope and profile of activity.

For all types of firms, there are legislative norms, according to which their activities are regulated.

5. Limited Liability Company (LLC)

Limited Liability Company is a commercial organization established by one or more persons, having its own charter and memorandum of association.

A limited liability company combines persons who form authorized capital through contributions from members.

Contributions of participants can be of various nature. This may be personal property, land, transport and other individual property. The charter of the company determines the property that cannot be a contribution to the authorized capital.

The authorized capital is divided into shares, their size is determined in the founding document. Members of the company are liable only within the limits of their contributions to the authorized capital, therefore, liability is considered limited. In this case, the entrepreneurial risk for the company's participants is limited to the amount of their contribution. In the event of the ruin of a society, its members lose only their share invested in the common capital. This is an important advantage in the unstable situation of the Russian economy. The disadvantage of this form of ownership is that when leaving the company, the participant has the right to take his share from the total capital. The authorized capital of a limited liability company consists of equity contributions that have a nominal value. The size of the share contribution can be determined in percentage terms. According to the Law "On Limited Liability Companies", the size of the authorized capital is established. The size of the authorized capital must be at least 100 minimum wages established by law at the time of registration of the company.

By the time of registration of a limited liability company, the founders are required to pay at least half of the authorized capital. The founders are obliged to pay the remaining part of the authorized capital during the first year of the existence of the company. The volume of the authorized capital may be increased at the expense of additional contributions of the company's participants or at the expense of public property. The property that is transferred to the authorized capital of the company becomes the property of the company. Members of the company have rights that allow them to participate in the management of the company's activities, receiving a share of the profits received as a result of the activities of the limited liability company. Participants have the right to transfer their share of the property to another person. In the event of the collapse of the society, the participants have the right to receive part of the property remaining after the payment of loans and tax deductions.

Being a legal entity, a limited liability company is obliged to act in accordance with its charter and memorandum of association accepted by the participants of the company. The name of the company must indicate the organizational and legal form (LLC).

Legal entities that are part of the company retain their rights and independence.

The authorized capital may have a minimum allowable size, which makes it possible for novice entrepreneurs to start their own business with a small starting capital. Limited liability companies can be organized as family firms, enterprises that bring together business partners who are in constant business contact and mutually interested in the success of a common cause.

The Civil Code of the Russian Federation establishes a law on the maximum number of participants in a limited liability company, which they are not entitled to exceed. If the number of participants exceeds the limit, the company will be subject to transformation into a joint-stock company.

Limited liability companies consist of a small and constant number of participants who have rights, the amount of which depends on the amount of funds invested by them. Members of the company have the right to receive their share of the profit, which can be distributed among them once a year, once every six months or once a quarter.

The participants of the company have the right to transfer their share in the common capital to other legal entities or individuals, having informed other members of the company in advance and having received their consent. The charter of the company fixes the procedure for the transfer of deposits from one owner to another. Each member of a limited liability company may freely leave the company.

The established limited liability company is designed to bring profit to its participants. It is necessary to control that the value of monetary and property resources is not lower than the value of the authorized capital. If this happens, i.e., the value of net assets falls below the value of the authorized capital, the company is liquidated.

6. Joint stock companies

The most common form of business organization are joint-stock companies.

Joint-stock company - this is a business company, which is an association of participants (shareholders) who have invested their shares in the form of a certain number of shares.

The authorized capital of a joint-stock company consists of the nominal value of the shares, which must be the same. The size of the authorized capital must be at least 1000 minimum wages in an open joint stock company and at least 100 minimum wages in a closed joint stock company. The shares of the company must be paid by the participants within a year from the date of registration of the joint-stock company. Shares can be sold, transferred to another person, but they cannot leave the company together with their owner.

The capital collected in cash in the form of shares is called share capital. It is not a separate property of its members, but the property of the joint-stock company as a whole.

Promotion - this is a security that indicates that its owner has contributed his share in the capital of a joint-stock company. The share gives its owner the right to receive profit (dividends), as well as to participate in the management of the company. Shares are divided into preferred and ordinary.

Ordinary shares provide an opportunity to receive profit remaining after the payment of dividends on preferred shares, the opportunity to vote at shareholder meetings, to participate in the election of the board.

Preference shares give the right to a fixed, fixed dividend, the right to priority dividends, but do not give the right to vote at shareholders' meetings. Shares can be sold, bought, donated, given in the form of a pledge. Only a shareholder with a controlling stake can have a significant influence on the management of the company. Joint-stock companies are divided into open and closed. Open joint stock companies may be formed from limited liability companies in which the number of participants exceeded the number established by the law on companies of this type. Shares owned by an open joint stock company have the right to free sale. They can be distributed both among individuals and among enterprises and banks. Shares of a closed joint stock company do not have the right to free sale. They can be distributed only among the employees of the joint-stock company.

The company has the right to distribute shares only after full payment of the authorized capital. The value of the issued shares must not exceed the value of the authorized capital.

The payment of dividends on shares can be carried out based on the results of a quarter, half a year or a year. The source of payments is the net profit of the final period, reserve funds for payments on preferred shares in case of a lack of profit. If the company has not made a full payment of the authorized capital, it does not have the right to make decisions on the payment of dividends on shares. This is fixed in the Law "On Joint Stock Companies".

The meeting of voting shareholders is the supreme governing body of the joint-stock company, it elects the governing bodies: the board of directors, the audit commission, the board. The management of a joint-stock company is actually carried out by hired specialists (lawyers, managers, economists, etc.).

The joint-stock company is the owner of the property belonging to it, which includes material, property, intellectual values. Shareholders are owners only of their securities - shares, not being owners of the property of the joint-stock company. Property can only be disposed of by the company represented by its governing bodies.

The number of members of a joint-stock company is not a constant value, it may vary depending on the sale and purchase of shares.

When creating a joint-stock company, potential shareholders should be provided with information about the scope and goals of the future company, the amount of expected income. Attracting funds from individual investors is facilitated by advertising campaigns that provide the necessary information about the proposed activities of the joint-stock company.

In the modern world of business, such organizational forms of joint-stock companies as holding companies, investment funds and others have been formed. The holding company is the holder of a controlling stake in several joint-stock companies and has the ability to control the capital owned by these companies. Investment funds also concentrate the funds of individual investors and buy shares in other companies, while acquiring the ability to manage these companies in accordance with their interests.

An important role is played by the legislative regulation of the state, which takes into account the interests of society when establishing the rules for the behavior of market entities.

7. Companies with additional liability

An additional liability company is a company founded by one or more participants who have pooled their contributions to a common authorized capital.

The authorized capital is formed from the shares of the company's participants. Members' shares have a nominal value. The authorized capital of an additional liability company has an equity division, the size of the shares is determined by the constituent documents.

The members of this society are liable with their own property in accordance with the amount of their contribution. When organizing a company with additional liability, constituent documents are created in the form of an agreement and a charter, which fix the obligations and rights of participants.

According to the founding documents of the company, in the event of the bankruptcy of one of its members, its responsibility is redistributed among the remaining members of the company, depending on the value of the funds invested by them.

8. Limited partnerships

Limited partnership is an intermediate form between a general partnership and a limited liability company. A limited partnership is called a limited partnership.

In a limited partnership, entrepreneurial activity is carried out by participants who are liable with their property for the obligations of the charter of the partnership.

Limited partnerships may include several legal or civil entities that conclude an agreement with each other for the purpose of jointly conducting economic activities. Participants in limited partnerships are divided into contributor members (limited partners) and general partners (complementary partners).

Members-contributors (limited partners) bear limited liability, responding only to their share invested in the common capital. They do not take part in the management of the company's business activities. Full members bear full responsibility with all their property.

Each participant in a limited partnership is obliged to contribute to the common capital. Members-contributors are only entitled to receive profits, not being able to take part in the management of the partnership. General partners have the right to manage the partnership.

A limited partnership as an organizational and legal form was formed in 1991 and is not yet widespread.

The partnership may include a minimum number of participants, starting from two people, one of whom must be a contributing member and the other a general partner. This form of business organization can be convenient for bringing together rich people who are ready to invest in a profitable business, and people who are poor but have promising ideas.

9. Cooperatives

Cooperatives - this is a form of business organization, which is created on the basis of combining the shares of cooperative members into the authorized capital.

Cooperatives are created to carry out joint production or economic activities.

The work of the cooperative uses the personal labor participation of its members. At the time of the organization of the cooperative, a charter is created and approved.

During the years of Perestroika, production cooperatives were organized, which were created on the basis of property shares and labor participation of members of the cooperative.

In their organizational and legal form, cooperatives are similar to a limited liability company in that they are organized on a shared basis of their members and the sources of their income are income received from the sale of products or other activities. The governing body of both forms is the general meeting, and the executive body is the board. The mechanism of creation, their registration and the content of the statutes are also similar.

The differences between cooperatives and limited liability companies are casting votes in voting at a general meeting. Members of a cooperative have only one vote, regardless of the size of the share they contributed, and in a limited liability company, casting votes are distributed depending on the size of the contribution of the participants in the partnership. The second difference is that the amount of income of members of the cooperative does not depend on the amount of their contribution, and the income of participants in the partnership directly depends on the amount of their share contribution. The next difference is the different composition of their founding documents.

In Russian business, there is such an economic structure as small enterprises. Small enterprises are independent organizations with a simple structure and a small number of production participants. Despite this, they are capable of high development, participate in the creation of new jobs, and create healthy competition in the market.

Small enterprises can be created in various forms of business organization: partnerships, joint-stock companies, limited liability companies, as well as on the basis of other forms.

Small businesses are an unsustainable form of business and have existed for about five years. After this period, a small business can be transformed into a more sustainable form of business organization.

10. Municipal and unitary enterprises

Municipal and unitary enterprises are state-owned enterprises in which a controlling stake is owned by the state and are on its balance sheet.

Unitary enterprises (SUEs) are transferred by the state to the full economic ownership of the labor collective. At the same time, the state does not bear any responsibility for the activities of the enterprise created by it. The enterprise itself bears property responsibility for the actions performed by it in the course of economic activity.

municipal enterprises belong on the property rights to rural or urban settlements, or other municipalities. Management and responsibility for property objects is assumed by the administration of the city or village.

Unitary and municipal enterprises are classified as state budget enterprises. They are part of a specific ministry, body or department of local government. The heads of enterprises are appointed by state bodies, and the personnel are classified as civil servants. The state provides them with subsidies and subsidies, guarantees the supply of semi-finished products and raw materials from other state-owned enterprises. State enterprises are large and are created in industries that require a large investment of capital, as well as the most significant for the state economy. These include railway transport enterprises, aerospace complex, energy enterprises and others.

11. Public and religious organizations

Public and religious organizations refer to non-profit organizations whose members are only individuals. Being members of public and religious organizations, citizens do not receive any material income or profit. Such organizations are created to meet the spiritual needs of their members. Donating any material resources in favor of the organization, its participants cannot claim them back in case of withdrawal from it, and also do not have the right to distribute the balance of property upon liquidation of the organization. Members of public and religious organizations are relieved of liability for the debts of these organizations, just as organizations are not liable for the debts of their members. Incomes received in the course of the activities of public and religious organizations go to the needs of their founders.

Public and religious organizations have their own statutes and laws, in which property issues must be clearly resolved in accordance with the goals facing these organizations.

Community organizations - these are associations created by individuals with a number of at least ten people on the basis of common interests. The goals for the creation of public organizations may be: protection of the rights of citizens (social, civil, political, cultural and others), participation in charitable events, sports competitions, management of public affairs, cultural development, health programs, nature conservation and other socially useful activities.

When creating public organizations, a general meeting is convened, at which the leaders are elected by the participants of the future organization, and constituent documents (charter or regulations) are adopted.

Incomes received in the course of the organization's activities are used to achieve its goals.

Public organizations can be various political, children's, youth, sports, cultural and educational organizations, creative associations, disabled people's organizations, charitable organizations and other associations.

Religious organizations - these are voluntary associations of individuals who have reached the age of majority for the purpose of confessing, performing various religious rites, worship, conducting sermons, religious education and religious enlightenment.

Religious organizations have their constituent documents in the form of statutes and regulations.

Religious organizations include religious institutions, centers, theological seminaries, religious associations (local, central, regional).

12. Associations of entrepreneurs. Associative forms of business organization

Associative forms of business organization are the association of enterprises or firms into aggregate structures.

Associative forms include the following types of associative structures:

1) corporations;

2) business associations;

3) concerns;

4) consortia;

5) holding companies;

6) cartels;

7) syndicates;

8) trusts.

1. Corporation is a joint-stock company that combines several companies with common business goals.

A corporation is a legal entity that is responsible for all the enterprises that are part of it. Among corporations, there are both large-scale and small-scale public corporations.

2. Business associations is an association of organizations and enterprises, which is created on the basis of an agreement in order to coordinate common activities and perform similar functions. Members of business associations have the right to be members of other associations.

3. Concerns are an organizational form of association of enterprises, which is in the nature of monopolies and allows you to use the possibilities of large-scale production.

4. Consortium is an association of organizations, enterprises, which is created on a voluntary basis and is temporary. The consortium is organized to carry out major projects in ecology, science, technology, and the social sphere. The consortium uses financial and material resources, personnel and capacities of the organizations that are its members. The consortium may include organizations of various sizes, which conclude an agreement with each other. Consortium participants have the right to be members of other consortiums at the same time.

5. Holding companies have their own difference from other associative forms, which lies in the fact that they control other companies by appointing their directors, as well as by owning their money and shares. Despite the fact that the enterprises included in the holding associations are independent, the holding is able to exert a great influence on their economic and commercial decisions. If necessary, the holding has the right to redistribute funds belonging to the company's participants, as well as perform certain functions related to the company's activities.

6. Cartel is an association of legally independent enterprises on a contractual basis, which is engaged in the marketing of products manufactured by these enterprises.

7. Syndicate is a form of association of enterprises to organize the procurement and supply of raw materials to these enterprises, and the marketing of their products. The syndicate may include trusts, concerns, enterprises that are legally independent organizations. From the moment of joining the syndicate, the commercial independence of its participants is lost, while the production independence is partially preserved.

8. Trusts - this is a form of association of enterprises in which the participants in this association completely lose their commercial, industrial and legal independence, while being subject to a single management. In Russian entrepreneurship, this form is used in the construction business.

There are structural specific forms of business organization that have not yet become widespread in the Russian economy, but are actively used in the practice of developed capitalist countries. These include: offshore companies, trust companies, franchisors.

In Russian practice, the creation of branches and subsidiaries of large firms and enterprises has become widespread. These enterprises are legally independent, but are in close financial, industrial and technological connection with the main enterprise.

International business companies are engaged in business transactions such as imports, exports and placement of capital abroad. Companies that have foreign branches, registration in several countries and are engaged in the distribution of their shares on the stock exchanges of the world are called transnational.

LECTURE No. 6. Finance and business

1. The importance of finance in the activities of an entrepreneur

Finance represent funds, their distribution, their use, cash income, the scope of monetary relations between participants in business and entrepreneurial activity.

An entrepreneur or businessman must have a good idea and plan the amount of financial resources that is necessary for a business operation, determine possible sources of financing, control cash receipts and their expenditure.

With incorrect and poor-quality management of financial resources in the process of entrepreneurial activity, the business may end in failure or bankruptcy.

An entrepreneur must master the art of financial analysis, knowledge of accounting and control. This knowledge helps to determine the right strategy, which makes it possible to provide the company with financial stability and get more profit.

In order to start a business, an entrepreneur must have start-up capital. Funds are needed to purchase a company office, production premises, warehouses, production equipment, purchase material resources and raw materials. The firm or company must be registered and formalized. This also requires money. A lot of time passes from the start of production of a product to its sale, during which the entrepreneur is obliged to pay for the labor of workers and personnel, their training and business trips.

If the firm already exists and operates, it needs working capital, which is used to pay for current expenses: energy, services, materials, raw materials, storage and transportation of goods, promotions. After making a profit, the funds are used to pay taxes, pay for loans and investments.

Depending on the timing of the needs of entrepreneurs in financial resources, there are two types of needs: short-term and long-term. Short-term financial resources are intended for current expenses, while long-term financial resources are needed for the acquisition of funds necessary for production.

2. Sources of business financing

Financing It is a way to provide business with money.

After defining the goals and direction of business activities, the main issue becomes the issue of financing operations. It is necessary to estimate the amount of funds and identify possible sources of their receipt.

There are internal and external sources of cash flow.

Internal sources - these are the sources of cash receipts, which are formed at the expense of the results of entrepreneurial activity. This may be income from the sale of products, the sale of property. Gross profit is divided into two types of financing:

1) reimbursement of production costs;

2) residual (net) profit.

Reimbursement of production costs is related financing, since the funds are allocated to certain areas of expenditure.

Residual profit is the profit that remains in the firm after taxes are paid. Net income is used by the entrepreneur to pay for various expenses in the firm, except for expenses. Cash from the residual income is used to develop the business, to pay dividends, and to reward employees of the company.

To internal sources financing includes investments of the founders of the company in the authorized capital, as well as funds received after the sale of the company's shares, the sale of the company's property, and the receipt of rent for the lease of property.

External sources are divided into two groups:

1) debt financing;

2) gratuitous financing.

Grant financing is the representation of funds in the form of gratuitous charitable donations, assistance, subsidies.

Debt financing is borrowed capital. Borrowed capital includes:

1) short-term credits and loans;

2) long-term credits and loans;

3) accounts payable.

Short-term loans and borrowings are intended to finance current assets.

Long-term loans serve as a source of financing for a part of current and non-current assets.

Accounts payable may arise in the process of settlements in purchase and sale transactions, settlements on promissory notes, in the distribution of finances between employees of the company. Accounts payable means the need to attract funds from other organizations or individuals into the turnover of the company.

Credit has a close connection with such a form of economic relations as loan capital. Loan capital is an independent part of economic capital, which functions in the form of cash in the field of entrepreneurial activity.

A loan is temporary money received on credit with the obligation to repay it.

If the lender has property guarantees for the repayment of the loan, then the loan is called secured. A loan is unsecured if it is issued against a written commitment or verbal assurance that is not supported by property guarantees.

Exist mortgage loan - mortgage loan. This loan is the most common form of secured loan. Its essence is that the firm, upon receipt of debt funds, guarantees the creditor to repay the debt, taking into account interest. In the event that the company cannot repay the debt, the creditor has the right to recover the property of the company in his favor.

In the process of developing credit relations, new economic structures have emerged, among which banks play a special role. A bank loan is the most convenient form of financial services. This form has the ability to flexibly meet the needs of the borrower and, unlike the securities market with their standardized terms, is able to adapt the conditions and terms of obtaining a loan to the circumstances of the borrower.

The classification of bank loans is divided by: purpose, terms, methods of repayment, security, types of interest rates.

By purpose, bank loans are divided into several groups:

1) industrial loans: provided for the purchase of material and production resources at the beginning of the development of the production of a firm or company;

2) consumer loans: provided to individual individuals to meet the emerging needs for the purchase of housing, apartment renovation and other needs;

3) agricultural loans: provided to various economic organizations engaged in agricultural activities (tillage, harvesting, etc.);

4) mortgage loans: are provided to organizations or individuals on the security of their real estate for the acquisition, reconstruction or construction of housing.

According to the terms of use, bank loans are divided into urgent and on-call (on demand).

According to the methods of repayment, bank loans are divided into loans repaid in installments and loans repaid at a time.

According to the security, bank loans are divided into secured and unsecured. A secured loan is collateral that must meet certain requirements. These include: the value of the collateral must be sufficient to compensate the bank for the amount under the agreement, including interest and possible costs; registration of documents for obtaining a pledge should not exceed 150 days from the moment of realization of pledge rights necessary for the bank. An unsecured loan is unsecured or the collateral received does not meet the required requirements.

According to the types of interest rates, bank loans are divided into loans with a floating interest rate and a fixed interest rate. A floating interest rate is an interest rate that has a variable amount. A fixed interest rate implies a certain rate, which does not imply the right to change its value.

Trade Credit is a commercial loan, which consists in the fact that an entrepreneur buys a product, postponing its payment. By purchasing goods, the entrepreneur enters into an agreement with the seller, according to which he undertakes to return to him the cost of the purchased goods, including interest on the loan, within the specified time. Most often, trade credit is used by wholesale buyers of goods.

Such a transaction as a trade credit is mutually beneficial for the merchant and the buyer, since the buyer has the opportunity to purchase goods with a lack of necessary funds, and the merchant has the opportunity to sell a larger amount of goods, while receiving interest on loans.

Interest income has two forms: interest rate and discount rate. The interest rate is the rate of interest that the borrower pays to the lender. The discount rate is the rate of interest that the bank pays to its depositors. The difference between the interest rate and the discount rate is the bank's profit.

Firms and enterprises issue debt instruments, which are in the form of bonds. Bonds are a source of debt financing in the form of a fixed term with their subsequent redemption and payment of certain interest. Buyers of bonds become creditors. A necessary condition for the distribution of bonds is the trust in the firms of their potential buyers.

shares are a common form of fundraising. By issuing and selling shares, an entrepreneurial firm receives a debt loan from the buyer, as a result of which the shareholder acquires the right to the property of the company, as well as to receive dividends. Dividends in this case are interest on a loan, which is presented in the form of money paid for shares. Through this type of loan, the company has the opportunity to receive significant financial capital. The next form of financial support for the company is the provision of government subsidies. State subsidies come from the budget in the order of redistribution for the purpose of additional financing of business organizations in which the state is interested. Subsidies can be in the form of cash or grants.

There is an indirect form of state financing, which is carried out in the form of granting tax incentives to entrepreneurial firms.

3. Accounting and balance sheet

Бухгалтерский учет is a process that consists of obtaining information about financial transactions, processing data and documenting all the results of financial transactions.

The main activity of the company is the turnover of industrial goods and cash. In the course of business, a firm engages in many functions such as buying and selling goods, paying various bills, and earning money through various channels. All these operations require strict accounting, so accounting is an integral part of doing business. In every firm, the management team should include a specialist such as an accountant. The accounting department assists the head of the company in managing finances.

Accounting documentation contains a huge number of digital indicators that characterize the work of the company. The accountant collects report data, processes and analyzes it, systematizes it, and then brings it to management in the form of easily perceived information about the financial condition of the company.

The functions of accounting include conducting financial analysis in the process of entrepreneurial activity of the company. Financial analysis is used in the course of drawing up a business plan for a firm's upcoming operation. As a result of the compiled financial analysis, possible financial problems of the company are determined and ways to solve them are outlined.

Accounting calculates the costs and volumes of the company's costs for the production of products, the amount of profit as a result of the sale of products, monitors the cost-effective value. In addition, accounting is designed to monitor the budget of the company, the volume of expenses and income, the amount of tax payments. The main form of accounting is balance sheet.

All data on the financial condition of the company are entered in the balance sheet book. Data on the financial activities of the company for a certain period (month, quarter, year) are entered in the final balance sheet. This document contains all the information about the financial activities of the company: its income and expenses, costs and debts, property status.

In the process of entrepreneurial activity, there is an interchange of goods and money. Buying materials for the production of goods or finished products, the entrepreneur gives money. After the sale of the goods, an adequate amount of money is returned to the entrepreneur. In the process of making barter transactions, entrepreneurs exchange goods. During the interchange of funds, they are also balanced, i.e., a balance is maintained. All these data should be recorded in the balance sheet tables.

The balance sheet must comply with the formula in which the income must be equal to the sum of the expense and the balance. All components of this formula have a monetary equivalent, which is convenient when calculating the financial resources of the company.

The balance sheet depends on two interrelated types of capital of the firm: active and passive capital.

Active capital represents the property of the company, which is expressed in the asset of its balance sheet in the form of fixed and working capital.

Passive Capital consists of the sources of funds from which the firm's assets were formed. They, in turn, are divided into equity firms and borrowed capital.

In the balance sheet formula, the difference between the amounts of assets and liabilities should form the amount of equity.

list of Assets represent all the incoming income of the company, which are converted into inventories, cash reserves, fixed and current assets of the company.

Liabilities firms represent its obligations in the form of financial or material resources that are received from internal or external sources and are subject to reimbursement. In other words, liabilities are the company's debts that must be repaid in accordance with the obligations assumed. Assets show the direction of cash that is used by the firm in the course of its activities. Liabilities characterize the direction of receipts of financial resources presented in the form of cash loans. Equity capital is formed by the company's own financial resources, which, in turn, are obtained from the investments of the company's founders. The company's own funds together with liabilities form the company's assets.

Assets and liabilities must be presented in a balance sheet, each line of which is called a balance sheet item. The table consists of a list of all types of assets and liabilities, a comparison of the sum of their balance sheets and the company's own capital. In the final balance sheet, the values ​​of assets and liabilities must be balanced.

In order to have a concrete idea of ​​changes in the financial condition of the company, it is necessary to have a balance sheet drawn up at the beginning and at the end of the reporting period. This allows you to keep under control all changes in the assets, liabilities and equity of the company.

For each balance sheet item, a special document is created, which is called account. An account compiled according to data from asset accounts is called active, and an account compiled according to data from liability accounts is called passive. Each type of active and passive account has its own standard number. Thanks to this circumstance, an accountant or financier has the opportunity to obtain the necessary information from the accounting report of any company.

The billing process uses the double entry rule. This rule means that any amount of money used in the process of financing the activities of the company must be entered into two types of accounts: debit and credit. This allows you to track the direction of receipt and expenditure of funds. In addition, by comparing the debit and credit data, you can check the compliance of all accounting records. The results of the debit and credit amounts should be equal, this indicates the correct balance.

Accounting reflects the income and expenses of the company. This information relates to a specific reporting period in which there were receipts and payments of funds that are related to these incomes and expenses.

Profits firms are taxed in accordance with Article 248 of the Russian Tax Code. The income of the organization is: income from the sale of goods and services, income from the sale of property rights, income not related to the sale. When calculating the tax, the reporting (tax) period is taken in which the receipts of funds, property funds or property rights are recorded.

The company's income is classified according to the direction of its activities:

1) from the main activity: income received in the process of selling the company's products or services;

2) from the sale of the company's investments: income received as a result of the sale of securities or non-current assets of the company;

3) from the financial activities of the company: income received in the process of placing shares and bonds of the company among investors.

expenses firms are considered to be a decrease in property, cash, commitments that lead to a decrease in the total capital of the firm. Expenses are not considered those expenses that do not affect the value of the company's capital. These include: the creation of non-current assets, contracts in favor of a commission or agents, contributions to the authorized capital of other firms or companies, the acquisition of shares in other organizations, payment for stocks of materials and work, repayment of loans or credits, payment of advances and deposits.

Expenses in accounting, like income, are classified depending on the direction of the company.

Expenses that are associated with the ordinary activities of the company include:

1) expenses that are associated with the production and sale of the company's products or the provision of services;

2) expenses associated with the provision of leased assets;

3) expenses associated with the participation of the company in the authorized capital of other organizations;

4) expenses on deductions in the form of depreciable assets in order to recover the cost of fixed assets;

5) expenses associated with payment for granting rights under patents for inventions.

Expenses for ordinary activities pass through the account in the amount that was accrued in cash, equal to the amount of the loan or other debt.

The cost of a firm's ordinary activities determines the cost of goods or services sold. Depending on the cost of goods, the financial results of the company's activities are formed. The cost price represents the current costs of the company for the production of goods, which are expressed in monetary terms. The cost price consists of the cost of material resources, labor resources, energy, natural resources and other costs.

There are a number of conditions that are necessary for the recognition of expenses in accounting. These include the following conditions:

1) the expense must be made in accordance with the requirements of legislative acts and regulations;

2) the presence of confidence in the reduction of the economic benefits of the firm;

3) determination of the amount of expense.

If there is a non-compliance with at least one condition, a receivable is formed in accounting.

Taxation of expenses also requires compliance with certain conditions:

1) expenses must be economically justified, i.e., aimed at the implementation of activities, the purpose of which is to generate income;

2) expenses must have documentary evidence, i.e., be drawn up in accordance with legislative acts;

3) these expenses should not be included in the list of expenses not subject to taxation;

4) expenses should not be compiled on the basis of the depreciation of fixed production assets for the period falling on January 1, 2002 and later.

Expenses that meet the listed requirements are divided into expenses of the current period and expenses of future reporting periods.

Expenses of the current period are subdivided depending on the conditions, direction and nature of the company's activities. There are costs associated with production activities and the sale of goods and services (labor costs, material costs, accrued depreciation, and others) and costs not related to the sale of products.

Tax calculations are determined on an accrual basis.

4. Financial analysis of the company's activities

The most important factor for the successful existence of the company and the implementation of entrepreneurial activities is the financial condition of the company. Comparisons with the states of competing firms are necessary to assess the financial condition of a firm. This is done through financial analysis.

Financial analysis is based on the study of financial indicators of entrepreneurial activity of firms. Indicators can reflect general ideas about the state of the company and can highlight the most significant values ​​that have a great impact on the performance of the company.

Indicators that help form a specific idea of ​​the state of the company for a certain period of time are called economic criteria.

There are many criteria that are used in the process of financial analysis of a firm. The most commonly used economic criteria are: asset liquidity, which includes the coverage ratio and maturity ratio; profitability, profitability, payback, capital turnover rate, stability criterion.

Liquidity of assets provides the firm with confidence in its solvency by regulating the rapid conversion of the firm's assets into cash. If a firm is short of cash, it can sell its liquid assets to pay off debts. Thus, the company's accounts must contain a certain amount of money, which is a liquid asset. This amount should not be very large, since the main financial assets of the company must take an active part in the turnover.

The level of liquidity is assessed using two ratios: the coverage ratio and the maturity ratio.

Coverage ratio is the ratio of the firm's current assets to the firm's short-term liabilities. In this ratio, the quantitative indicator of current assets should not be less than the volume of short-term liabilities. Otherwise, if a situation arises when there is a shortage of profits to cover debt obligations, the company loses the ability to cover debts at the expense of current assets.

Urgency factor is the ratio of highly liquid assets subject to quick sale and short-term liabilities of the firm. Ideally, indicators of marketable liquid assets and short-term liabilities should be equal. Then the firm has the ability to quickly convert assets into cash and cover debts. The urgency coefficient in this case will be close to unity. If the urgency coefficient is much greater than one, this is an unfavorable circumstance for the company's activities, since a certain amount of money arises that does not have the opportunity to participate in the turnover.

One of the main factors for the success of the company, as well as an important criterion for the financial condition of the company is profitability. This criterion indicates that the firm's income not only covers its costs in the process of obtaining this income, but also constitutes net profit. The profitability ratio should not be zero or negative. These indicators may indicate that the company is unprofitable and even its possible bankruptcy. To assess the relative level of profitability of a firm, it is necessary to use certain indicators. These include: profitability and payback.

Profitability characterizes the ratio of the amount of profit of the company, which is received for a certain period of time, and the cost of production and other types of funds used by the company in order to obtain this profit.

The profitability formula, according to the definition, will look like this:

Profitability \uXNUMXd net profit (gross profit) / cost of fixed and working capital.

The profitability indicator calculated in this way should be equal to 0,2 + 0,4 or 20 + 40%.

The Russian economy uses several specific indicators of profitability. These include:

1) return on assets (company property). This indicator determines the degree of efficiency in the use of the firm's assets. It is determined using the formula of the ratio of net and gross profits to the value of the company's assets for a certain period of time;

2) return on equity of the company. This indicator characterizes the degree of efficiency in the company's use of its own capital. It is defined as the ratio of net profit and the cost of capital of the company;

3) profitability of sales. Characterizes the amount of profit that falls on a unit of sales volume value. It is defined as the ratio of net profit and the amount of total income after the sale of goods and services;

4) profitability of current costs. This indicator characterizes the efficiency of costs used in the production and sale of the company's products. Determined by dividing profit from sales by the total cost of goods sold;

5) return on invested capital. Characterizes the efficiency of using the company's own capital and invested funds. Determined by dividing net profit by the average value of the company's capital and invested funds for a certain period of time;

6) profitability of production. Characterizes the efficiency of use of production resources. To calculate this indicator, the company's profit before taxes is divided by the cost of the company's fixed and working assets;

7) profitability of the company's fund. Shows the efficiency of using the company's production assets. It is determined by the ratio of net and gross profit to the average value of the company's fixed assets.

The successful operation of the company depends on the observance of the conditions under which profits must exceed the volume of sales of products, which indicates a decrease in the volume of costs as part of the cost of goods. This pattern is called leverage effect and is determined using operational analysis or break-even analysis.

Operating lever is used to determine the degree of change in profit depending on the change in the volume of products sold. The dependence lies in the fact that a change in sales volumes leads to a change in profit volumes. The indicator of operating leverage is determined by the ratio of marginal profit to the total profit of the company before tax.

One of the profitability planning methods is to use the method using profitability threshold. Using this method, the minimum volume of products sold (Qmin) is calculated, which covers the volume of production costs in the process of manufacturing and selling products. This ratio is called the break-even point. It is calculated using the following formula:

where Qmin - the minimum volume of sales of the company's products;

F - current costs of funds used in the course of the company's activities;

P is the cost of a unit of goods;

a - the value of variable costs per unit of goods;

b is the share of variable costs in total income.

Stock of financial strength firm characterizes the value that reflects the firm's ability to reduce its production without the risk of incurring losses. This value is calculated by calculating the difference between the planned sales volume and the break-even point.

Margin of financial strength = planned volume - breakeven point.

The relative value is determined by determining the share of the planned volume of sales.

The financial safety margin is calculated in order to assess the production risk. The strength of the operating leverage directly depends on the size of the financial safety margin. The higher the margin of financial safety, the lower the strength of operating leverage.

Sensitivity analysis of critical ratios is carried out in order to assess the degree of change in any parameter of the analysis, while others remain constant. Operating profit depends on the cost of sales volume, on the total volume of sales, on the ratio of fixed and variable costs associated with the cost.

An important criterion for profitability is payback. This indicator characterizes the time frame for the return of financial resources invested in the production and sale of the company's products. This value is called the payback period of investments and is determined by dividing the volume of capital investments by the volume of annual profit. The payback period of capital invested in a business is measured in number of years.

Capital turnover rate is an indicator of the rate of use of funds invested in the business of the company. To determine the value of the indicator of the rate of capital turnover, the ratio of the volume of profit from the sale of goods and the value of the firm's assets in monetary terms is used. This value reflects the possible amount of profit from each monetary unit used from the firm's asset. The result of the turnover rate indicator must be greater than one.

Stability criterion or reliability of the company shows how reliably the company is provided with its own resources and what is its dependence on external sources of financing. The value of this indicator is determined using the ratio of external investment to the firm's own cash resources. The indicator must have a value less than one. If the stability index is much less than one, this indicates that the company has a high level of financial independence and uses external sources of financing.

5. Business and prices

An integral and important component in the business activities of the company is the price of goods and services.

Price serves as the only element in the activities of the firm, which is the producer of profit. The price, in contrast to the quality and properties of the goods, is a very flexible element that can be subject to rapid change.

The price reflects the quality characteristics of the product, which affects the pricing policy.

The pricing policy is to solve one of the five tasks, which include:

1) "Skim cream" policy: This policy is used by firms that charge high prices for their goods. Using this method, they must be sure that their product is in high demand among a large number of buyers, that it is superior to its competitors, that a high price corresponds to a high quality product, and that profit is ensured by low prices. production costs;

2 survival: the task is short-term and is set in the event of a problem of fierce competition, in the event of a change in consumer needs. Due to high prices, the firm has the opportunity to cover production costs in order to continue the activities of the firm;

3) increase in current profit: to apply this method, the firm conducts an evaluation analysis of the activities of firms that use alternative policies. After that, a price is set that can provide a higher level of profit. However, this method is not suitable for the firm's long-term outlook due to the unpredictable reactions of competitors and legislative restrictions;

4) the desire to become leaders manufacturers of high quality products. This task can be set when products meet the highest quality standards and are offered at the highest prices;

5) increase in market share. This goal is set in order to reduce costs per unit of production by increasing sales volumes, which contributes to a long-term increase in profits in the future of the company. Low prices are set when low prices help stimulate market share growth; when production costs are reduced due to the acquired experience of the company; when setting a low price is a strategy to combat competitors.

The price of goods depends on the level of consumer demand. An indicator that reflects the dependence of price levels on current demand is called the demand curve. In a normal social environment, price and demand are inversely proportional. This means that an increase in the price of a good reduces the demand for it. The opposite dynamics is observed in relation to prestigious goods. Some categories of buyers prefer to purchase high quality goods at high prices.

Demand curve characterizes the reaction of buyers who belong to different categories, i.e., determines their sensitivity to price. A firm can use one of three methods to analyze demand curves:

1) statistical analysis of factors affecting the relationship between prices and sales volumes. This method is quite complicated and requires qualified assistance from specialists;

2) conducting experiments with prices. This method consists in changing prices for the same product and conducting a comparative assessment of the results of sales volumes;

3) a method of surveying buyers, during which the degree of dependence of the quantity of purchased products on the level of prices for it is clarified.

In addition to the demand curve, to determine the sensitivity of demand to the prices of goods, there is a concept elasticity of demand. If the demand for goods changes even with a slight change in prices, this indicates elasticity of demand. If demand remains almost unchanged when prices change, we can talk about its inelasticity.

The elasticity of demand can decrease when:

1) there is no pronounced competition of similar products;

2) the increase in prices is not particularly noticeable to buyers;

3) buyers are in no hurry to change their preferences;

4) buyers associate the increase in prices with an increase in the quality of the goods;

5) the increase in prices is associated with inflation in the economic market.

When demand is elastic, it makes sense for a firm to consider options for lowering prices, which can help increase profits.

The elasticity of demand can have a different value for different sizes and directions of price changes, as well as for different time periods (short-term and long-term elasticity).

If the maximum price of a good is determined by the demand of consumers, then the minimum price of a good is determined by the costs of the firm. In order for the company to be able to conduct successful activities, the price of goods must be set to cover all the costs of production and sale of goods, and also provide the company with a good share of profits.

There are two types of costs: fixed and variable.

fixed costs are those costs that do not depend on production volumes and volumes of products sold (payment for energy, heating, rent, salaries to company employees, and others).

variable costs reflect the costs that are associated with the production level of the firm.

Complete Costs are the sum of the fixed and variable costs of a firm.

average costs are costs per unit of output. Average costs are determined by dividing the total cost by the volume of output.

In order to correctly set the prices of goods, it is necessary to study the effect of production volumes on the value of costs.

Having studied the influence of costs and consumer demand on pricing policies, it is also necessary to consider prices, costs and possible reactions of competing firms. With similar trade offers of the company with its main competitors, prices are set at approximately the same level. In the event that a company's product is of higher quality than a competing product, the price is set at a higher level. You should not forget about the possible reaction of competitors in response to the company’s actions and be in a state of readiness to change prices at any time.

When choosing a pricing method, three main factors must be taken into account, which include: consumer demand, cost indicators, and the pricing policy of competitors. According to these factors, three price cap levels are determined. The lower level of the price cap is made up of costs, the middle level is determined by the prices of competitors, and the high level of the price cap is the opinion of buyers about the product. In order to choose the right pricing method, at least one of the factors must be considered.

The simplest pricing method is the method of charging a premium to production costs per unit of output. This method is used for the following reasons: it is much easier to calculate the cost than to estimate consumer demand; firms using this method will set approximately the same price level, which will reduce competition; the application of this method is mutually beneficial for buyers and sellers.

A common method of price formation is the method of price calculation, which is based on compliance with the level of profitability of capital invested in the business. The purpose of this method is to set a goal at which profit volumes provide an opportunity for a return on investment.

Pricing methods include a method that uses the perception of the value of the goods by buyers. To form the idea of ​​buyers about the value of the product on the positive side, advertising campaigns, presentations and other promotional activities are used.

When using the method of setting the price based on the real value of the goods, a low price can be set for a high quality product. This method allows you to attract the attention of a larger number of buyers to the products, who will appreciate the affordable prices and good quality of the goods. In addition, the application of this method has a positive effect on the company's activities in the form of a reduction in production costs while maintaining product quality.

You can set the price of goods based on the use of the current price level of competitors. Firms that are engaged in the production and sale of similar products charge approximately the same prices for goods. In the future, firms can change the established prices depending on changes in the prices of competitors, assign surcharges or discounts.

The final price is set after consideration of additional factors, which include: the psychological factor of price perception, the pricing policy of the company, the attitude of other market participants to the price.

When buying a product, buyers evaluate its quality characteristics, their relationship with the price, the level of prestige of the product. The level of assigned prices should correspond to the pricing policy of the company.

The attitude to the prices of the company of other market participants is in the reaction to the prices of distributors, dealers, sales representatives.

Adaptation of prices in the market depends on various conditions, including: geographical characteristics, differences in the requirements of individual market segments, order volumes, the use of discounts and offsets, and others.

Having established the initial value of prices, in the process of selling goods, the company may find itself in a situation where it is necessary to raise or lower them.

Price cuts can be accepted by the firm in situations such as low capacity utilization, a reduction in the firm's market share, and the desire for a dominant position in the market.

The increase in prices can be used by the firm in the event of cost inflation, with an increase in consumer demand.

Any change in prices in the market causes a reaction from consumers, market participants (distributors, dealers), suppliers and competitors.

More sensitive to price changes are consumers who are interested in the motives for price changes. The most sensitive for consumers is the increase in prices for expensive and more demanded goods.

The reaction of competitors to changes in firm prices can be varied. Competitors react most often when their product is similar to the firm's.

If a competitive firm takes action to change prices, the firm can use ways to respond to these actions. These include:

1) maintaining the price and profit level;

2) increase in the value of the goods while maintaining the price;

3) increase in price while improving the quality of the goods;

4) price reduction;

5) creation of a new product capable of making a worthy competition;

6) situational reaction of the firm.

In the process of entrepreneurial activity, a businessman is obliged to acquire the skills of conducting a pricing policy. The success of the company depends on this.

LECTURE No. 7. Entrepreneurial risk

1. Risk: concept and types

In business, entrepreneurial activity, risk means the possible loss of invested capital. An entrepreneur or businessman, starting his activity, must be ready for the necessary risk, since the market will be his habitat. In the conditions of market relations, uncertain situations constantly arise in which it is necessary to conclude risky transactions, as a result of which you can both win and lose. Of course, you can not put your business at risk, but in this case, the business may soon come to naught.

A successful entrepreneur must learn to predict, evaluate possible risky situations, and also have in reserve ways to resolve it.

Entrepreneur and risk are inseparable concepts. But, having studied the basic laws and rules of entrepreneurial risk, a businessman will be ready for extreme situations in the course of his activities.

Concept entrepreneurial risk includes the possible loss of money, property, goods, i.e. unforeseen expenditure of resources and a decrease in income. In other words, as a result of a risky situation, there is a loss of possible income with an unforeseen increase in additional costs.

For example, an entrepreneur is engaged in the manufacture of umbrellas. Having set the selling price of one umbrella at 300 rubles, he is counting on a certain profit. Unfavorable circumstances for the sale of his goods was sunny weather with no rain. As a result of these circumstances, the price had to be reduced to 200 rubles per umbrella. As a result, the entrepreneur loses 100 rubles of income for each umbrella.

There are differences in concepts in terms of "losses", "losses" and "expenditure". In entrepreneurial activity, in the process of production of goods, certain resources are consumed. Losses represent unforeseen expenses, as well as expenses that do not bring profit. Losses can be determined by additional costs not provided for by the entrepreneur's action plan. Losses can be associated with moral damage, as a result of which the social status or image of the entrepreneur is lost. In legal practice, moral damage is compensated in cash.

Since entrepreneurial risk is determined by the magnitude of possible losses, we can assume its level, which is measured either in monetary terms or in material terms. Losses in entrepreneurial activity are determined by an unforeseen decrease in the profits of the entrepreneur. Accordingly, the study of risk is closely related to the study of losses.

When an entrepreneur predicts possible losses at the beginning of his activity, he can obtain a quantitative risk assessment. Often possible losses are random. It is impossible to foresee in advance the change in weather conditions, the instability of prices, the demand for goods, random events in the process of performing a business operation. A random event can have both a favorable and an unfavorable effect on the final results of a business operation.

For example, a businessman is engaged in breeding chickens. In the process of rearing, some of the birds may die from any diseases. This will result in losses. The entrepreneur must take into account the possible percentage of such losses. On the other hand, reducing the number of chickens reduces the cost of keeping them. There is also a favorable moment in this situation.

Types of business risk depend on the types of possible losses. Dividing losses into types helps to find ways to reduce risk in each specific case.

There are several types of losses:

1) material;

2) financial;

3) labor;

4) loss of time;

5) special types of losses.

Material losses expressed in unplanned costs, as well as losses of equipment, goods, material resources, energy, building materials, property, products, etc.

Each of these types of losses has its own unit of measurement (kg, weight, area, volume, etc.). It is impossible to combine different units of measurement into one common measure, so material losses are measured in monetary terms. By analyzing the probable losses of certain types of resources, it is possible to determine their total value.

Financial losses are determined by the monetary loss that may be associated with additional spending of money on fines, unforeseen payments and taxes. It can also be finance that the entrepreneur was counting on, but for some reason they were not received, or were not received in full. In addition, financial losses may be associated with inflation, delay or delay in payments.

Labor losses may be represented by loss of working time resulting from unforeseen circumstances. The measurement of such losses can be expressed in labor hours and days.

Lost time occurs when the process of a business transaction is not going as fast as planned, i.e. late. Such losses are estimated in certain periods of time (hours, days, weeks, months).

Special types of losses include damage to the health, reputation of the entrepreneur. These types of losses are difficult to assess and determine their value.

2. Classification of risks

Based on the analysis of possible losses, three risk groups can be distinguished:

1) acceptable risk;

2) critical risk;

3) catastrophic risk.

Tolerable risk arises at such level of losses when their size does not exceed the expected profit. This means that the entrepreneur receives only a part of the profit, or does not receive it at all. In this case, the risk is that the business operation has failed.

Critical Risk occurs when the loss exceeds the desired profit. In this situation, the entrepreneur loses not only profit, but also incurs costs in the form of funds invested in this project.

For example, a businessman invested 6 million rubles in production, expecting to make a profit of 10 million rubles, the gross profit would be 4 million rubles. By coincidence, half of the goods were damaged. The revenue amounted to only 5 million rubles. As a result, the entrepreneur not only does not make a profit, but loses 1 million rubles invested in production.

catastrophic risk It is dangerous because an entrepreneur can lose more than his money and even the state of his property cover.

Such losses lead to collapse, ruin, as the entrepreneur is simply not able to compensate for them. The probability of catastrophic losses should be practically zero, otherwise it simply does not make sense for a businessman to start an entrepreneurial activity.

3. ​​Risk factors, their structure

In the process of entrepreneurial activity, it is necessary to monitor the main factors of the macro-environment and the micro-environment.

Macro-environment factors include:

1) demographic;

2) economic;

3) political;

4) technological;

5) legal;

6) social;

7) cultural.

Microenvironmental factors include:

1) consumers;

2) suppliers;

3) distribution channels of goods;

4) competitors.

Unfavorable situations and the presence of dangerous moments in the external business environment lead to a decrease in sales and a decrease in the income of a firm or company. Minor threats can be ignored, but serious threats need to be controlled and ways to minimize them should be sought.

Demographic environment is an important factor in the macro environment. She represents the people of the country. The number and growth rate of the population of various regions, cities and countries are a constantly changing value. In addition, variables include such indicators as ethnic composition, age structure, educational level, level of economic organizations.

A large population growth leads to an increase in the need for resources necessary for the life of people (energy, food, building materials, etc.). In the field of entrepreneurial activity, population growth is reflected in an increase in demand for consumer goods and services.

Differences in the age structures of the population pose to entrepreneurs the question of the diversity of manufactured goods in accordance with the age interests and needs of the population.

In the modern world, there are many processes of population migration. In this regard, entrepreneurs face the question of the emergence of new groups of buyers in the trading markets. Businessmen need to use this information to create new market opportunities.

Economic environment represents the purchasing power of the population. The level of income of entrepreneurs depends on the level of solvency of the population. In turn, the solvency of buyers depends on their current income, savings, creditworthiness, pricing level.

Entrepreneurs who have the ability to correctly navigate purchasing opportunities avoid the threat of entrepreneurial risk in the economic environment by choosing the main segment of the population, which is the most solvent when purchasing goods in the middle price range.

One of the most important problems of modern business is the deterioration of the natural environment. Environmental pollution negatively affects the activities of many enterprises and firms that are forced to incur additional costs for the purchase of treatment facilities, exhaust gas catalysts, and other equipment that contributes to the production of environmentally friendly products. Entrepreneurs must be prepared for the emergence of new dangerous situations that can lead to an increase in the price of energy carriers, a reduction in natural resources and other consequences of the current situation.

Natural resources are divided into several types: limited renewable, limited non-renewable and inexhaustible. Limited renewable resources require increased attention, these include: agricultural plants, forest plantations. In a state of limited non-renewable resources, there is a threat of their depletion. This situation is a major problem for firms as they face rising commodity prices. Sources of limited non-renewable resources include: coal, oil, zinc, silver, platinum and other resources.

The most serious economic problem is the rise in oil prices. This leads to the need to search for new sources of energy. Developments and research are being carried out on the use of alternative energy sources: nuclear and solar. In this regard, oil companies are forced to reduce oil prices, which worsens the position of oil companies.

Technological environment presented in the form of the need to create new technologies. However, this is a direct threat to the old industries. For example, television has damaged newspaper production, the advent of mobile phones has stopped the production of pagers, the production of digital technology has eclipsed simpler technical products. It is not possible to predict such technological breakthroughs, so the entrepreneur must have the ability to quickly transition in the creation of new technologies and the production of new types of goods.

The emergence of new technologies is also a major challenge for today's entrepreneurs. The period that passes from the moment a product is produced to the moment it enters the market is getting shorter and shorter. These changes are having a huge impact on consumer markets. There is a need to produce new and affordable goods.

There are government agencies set up to identify and impose bans on the production of products that do not meet the conditions for the safety of their use. In the development and production of such products, it is necessary to take into account the restrictions imposed on the release of these products.

Political and legal spheres are presented in the form of events taking place in them, which occur in the field of politics and legislation, have a significant impact on entrepreneurial activity. The political sphere includes state institutions and laws that affect the activities of business organizations and individual entrepreneurial activities.

There are three main tasks facing the legislation, which ensures the regulation of entrepreneurial activity. These include:

1) protection of consumers from dishonest methods of entrepreneurs;

2) protection of entrepreneurs from unfair competition;

3) protection of society from uncontrolled behavior of market participants.

Business laws make entrepreneurs liable for the social costs that may arise from the use of products produced by entrepreneurial firms.

The adoption of new laws may lead to a slowdown in the economic growth of companies and firms due to the weakening of the initiative of entrepreneurs.

It is the responsibility of marketers to have a thorough knowledge of consumer protection, public protection and competition law.

Sociocultural environment is formed from the formation of public beliefs in matters of values ​​and norms of each person individually. The characteristics of the sociocultural environment include:

1) people’s views on society. There are many different views of society, depending on the individual needs of people. Among the population, there are several categories of people who have a special relationship to society:

a) consumers strive to get as much out of life as possible;

b) guardians are the defenders of society;

c) actors strive to manage society;

d) seekers all their lives want and search for something more;

e) escapists try to hide, to escape from the bustle of life;

f) reformers seek to change the world in accordance with their convictions;

2) a person’s view of himself. A person’s opinion of himself depends on the level of his needs and the possibility of satisfying them. Many people, before making any purchase, compare it with their actual income and try not to make unjustified purchases;

3) a person’s view of other people. In modern society, there is an increasing demand for social goods and services that satisfy people’s need for communication. These include various technical means (telephones, Internet), television, public clubs, religious organizations and others;

4) relationships between people and organizations. To establish strong connections with consumers of goods and services, firms need to find new ways to gain the trust of the population. Firms and enterprises must create a reputation for themselves as decent organizations, then their goods and services will enjoy trust and constant demand among consumers;

5) relationships between people and nature. Humanity has always sought to subjugate nature. In this regard, natural resources were mercilessly destroyed and environmental conditions worsened. Recently, society has begun to understand the danger of what is happening. The need of people to communicate with nature has increased. Companies involved in providing tourist trips, cruises, and travel have gained popularity. People began to show more interest in hiking, fishing, and relaxing in a tent on the river bank. Entrepreneurs need to take into account the modern needs of the population and produce products that could satisfy all emerging needs.

Microenvironment factors include: consumers, suppliers, distribution channels for products and services, competition.

Consumer behavior is influenced by social factors, which include reference groups, family, statuses and roles of people. Reference groups are groups of people that influence a person's attitude towards something. These may include peer groups, family members, neighbors, trade unions, and other organizations. Reference groups can strongly influence the choice and purchase of certain types of goods. When an entrepreneur encounters the influence of reference groups, it is necessary to determine possible ways of influencing them. To do this, marketers are required to study the demographic and psychological characteristics of consumers. The consumer's opinion about the product is also influenced by his family, in which certain values, positions in society, life goals, and economic positions are formed. The position of a person in society is determined by his social status and role. A person strives to buy products that correspond to his status and image. In the process of entrepreneurial activity, manufacturers need to take into account the characteristics of consumers, the motives of their behavior and the reaction to the product. The further success or lack of success of the company depends on this. If the needs of consumers are fully satisfied, they will continue to use the services and products of these companies in the future, as well as give positive recommendations about the product to their relatives and friends. In the case of unsatisfactory consumer reviews about the product, its purchasing power will decrease due to dissatisfied buyers conducting anti-advertising of this product among their acquaintances.

A serious factor in entrepreneurial risk is the problem of competition. If there are already strong competitors in the market segment, the feasibility of a business operation decreases. In addition, the decrease in the expediency of the operation is facilitated by the stabilization of profits or its decrease, an increase in the level of fixed costs, and the need to increase production investments. In such markets, price competitions, advertising competitions, and the struggle for the release of new products are constantly taking place.

The threat is the emergence of new participating firms in the markets. In market segments, there is the concept of barriers to entry. Barriers have entrances and exits. If entry barriers are high, the firm has the opportunity to make high profits, but the level of risk will be very high due to the constant market struggle with competitors. With low barriers, the firm's earnings will be stable, but low. The throughput at low barriers is high, as firms can easily enter this market and just as easily leave it. The most convenient option is a market segment with a high entry and low exit barrier. In this case, it is very difficult for new companies to enter the market, but under adverse circumstances they can easily leave this market segment.

A threatening factor is the appearance on the market of products that can replace an existing product. In this case, there is a change in prices and, as a result, a decrease in the company's profit.

Buyers may have strong bargaining power that allows them to control the price of a product, the quality of goods and services, and even influence the attitudes of competitors. The bargaining power of buyers has its strength when it is well organized and few in number. It can increase in order to protect the rights of consumers in the event of an increase in the sensitivity of buyers to prices, an increase in their costs for the purchase of a product, with significant overpricing, and a long-term monotony of goods. To compete successfully, a company needs to choose buyers that do not have significant power to influence the company's activities in the markets.

The next important threat to entrepreneurial activity is the threat to the bargaining power of suppliers. The power of suppliers may increase when the buyer does not have the opportunity to refuse to purchase the goods offered by suppliers by reducing its quantity on the market. Suppliers can reduce the supply of goods, raise prices for it. The necessary actions of an entrepreneur are actions aimed at building mutually beneficial relationships with suppliers.

After identifying market competitors, the firm needs to determine their goals, strategies, strengths and weaknesses, and possible reactions to the firm's actions.

Distribution channels are designed to ensure the delivery of goods and services from producers to target consumers. Distribution channels perform several important functions in the process of moving goods from the initial channel to its final destination. The threat of entrepreneurial risk is the possibility of conflict situations.

The causes of conflicts are:

1) incompatibility of the goals of manufacturers and dealers. At a time when the manufacturer is trying to quickly penetrate the market segment by setting low prices, dealers intend to make more profit by setting high prices for goods;

2) incorrect distribution of roles and rights of participants;

3) incompatibility of the perception of the reality of the manufacturer and his partners. The manufacturer may misjudge the prospects of a business operation and incur large losses due to increased procurement costs;

4) dependence of intermediaries on manufacturers. Supplier companies can dictate their terms in matters of setting prices for goods, which can lead to conflict situations.

Risk factors include a huge number of reasons that affect the occurrence of business losses. It is impossible to list them all, but some groups of reasons can be formed, which are main risk factors... These include:

1) natural disasters;

2) illness or death of the entrepreneur or members of his group;

3) increased material costs;

4) dishonesty, irresponsibility of project participants;

5) discrepancy between factors of production;

6) unfavorable change in market conditions;

7) unforeseen political events;

8) developers' mistakes, their incompetence;

9) unforeseen increase in taxes;

10) unfair competition;

11) insolvency of participants in a business transaction;

12) increase in the level of remuneration of employees.

These risk factors are the main causes of entrepreneurial losses. Some of these reasons do not depend on the actions of entrepreneurs, while others are due precisely to the wrong actions of the participants in the business operation.

Risk factors that are independent of the actions of the entrepreneur include:

1) natural disasters (earthquakes, fires, floods, robberies, accidents, epidemics) that cannot be foreseen;

2) unforeseen political events, as a result of which the rules and regulations of business management, laws, and property relations may change. These events are also impossible to foresee;

3) illness or death directly relate to unforeseen situations;

4) unforeseen tax increase or the imposition of new taxes increases the risk of business losses due to higher costs. Such a risk can become critical.

The factors due to the wrong actions of the entrepreneur include:

1) unfavorable change in market conditions. This factor is expressed in the form of a decrease in demand for a product and, as a consequence, a drop in prices for it. The reason may be poor quality of the product. Such losses are unacceptable for an entrepreneur and can become critical. If a businessman has invested all his funds in a business operation, the risk can become catastrophic;

2) dishonesty and irresponsibility of the entrepreneur or a participant in his business operation is a great threat of risk;

3) mistakes and incompetence of developers business plan and business operations may lead to an incorrect calculation of the ratio of expected income and costs. In this case, the costs may be higher and the income lower than expected. In this case, instead of profit, you can get losses;

4) mismatch of production factors manifests itself in the absence of raw materials, equipment breakdown, loss of working time, increase in marriage. In this case, a decrease in income may occur, which threatens with a partial or complete loss of profit. If the businessman does not take the right action, the risk can become critical;

5) excess resource consumption is the overspending of raw materials, energy, material resources, funds for wages. This leads to increased costs and reduced or lost profits;

6) unfair competition in the form of the use of illegal methods by competitors (bribery of officials, slander, harm to health, material damage) can lead to a high level of business losses.

4. Risk assessment

Only a highly qualified and experienced businessman can assess the expected risk in entrepreneurial activity. Rich experience in conducting business operations allows the entrepreneur to feel the degree of risk at the level of intuition.

The scientific calculation of entrepreneurial risk should be carried out by a specialist in the field of economics, but an approximate assessment of possible losses is available to an entrepreneur without a special economic education. To do this, it is necessary to study the types and factors of possible risk, as well as the main causes that can lead to catastrophic and critical risk.

Before embarking on any entrepreneurial activity, a self-respecting businessman should analyze such operations, study the statistics of losses that occurred during such operations. Having studied the statistics of losses, it is possible to conduct a comparative analysis of previous operations, from which one can assume their outcome depending on the level of losses. For example, if the number of risk cases is large enough, then the probability of repeating risk situations in the future will be high. On the contrary, if the probability of avoiding a loss is slightly higher than the probability of a critical level of risk, the entrepreneur can go for this business operation.

With a correct assessment of the possible risk, the entrepreneur always has a choice: to start a planned operation or to refrain from this risk. In the event that a businessman is not able to assess the degree of possible risk, he can lead his business to catastrophic losses and, as a result, end his entrepreneurial activity. In order to avoid possible risks when carrying out large business projects, it makes sense to seek the help of experts in the field of business and entrepreneurial risk.

Entrepreneurial risk assessment begins with an assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of the company, which depends on the analysis of the external and internal business environment.

An analysis of the external business environment allows you to determine the opportunities and threats of the company when deciding to realize its entrepreneurial ideas. The capabilities of the company are the ability to meet the needs of consumers. Threats of the external business environment consist in the unfavorable influence of macro-environment factors (demographic, technological, economic, legal, political, social, cultural) and micro-environment (consumers, competitors, suppliers, distribution channels). Threats and dangers that can cause a company or firm to take a critical and catastrophic risk must be strictly controlled. It is necessary to prepare a strategic plan of action for the company in case of risky situations.

Analysis of the internal business environment includes assessing the strengths and weaknesses of the company's business capabilities, identifying weaknesses in the work of its various departments and finding means and ways to eliminate them.

A general assessment of the strengths and weaknesses of a company or firm is called a strategic analysis, as a result of which a strategic business plan is drawn up.

The first stage of a strategic plan is to formulate goals. Goals must be clearly and structurally organized, quantifiable, realistic and consistent. There is a choice between two alternative ways to achieve the company's ultimate goal: searching for new market segments or penetrating existing ones; shortened time to profit when prices are high or long-term prospects for profit growth when prices are low; accelerating growth rates with a high level of business risk or minimizing risks.

When assessing business risk, it is necessary to analyze previous similar events of a company or firm. The general analysis of the company's activities combines the analysis of sales, market segment, comparative analysis of costs and sales volumes, financial analysis, analysis of the company's marketing.

Sales analysis is carried out using two methods: variance analysis and microsales analysis. In the process deviation analysis the influence of various factors on the level of planned and actual sales volumes is determined. Under analysis microsales factors are determined and highlighted, the influence of which adversely affects the achievement of planned targets (territorial features, low sales volumes, pricing features). The general sales analysis is carried out based on the results of a comparative analysis of the planned and actual sales volumes.

Segment analysis market is calculated based on the percentage of the company's sales relative to the total sales in the market. In the case of an increase in the relative share of the company in the market, we can conclude that it is approaching the main competitor in the market.

Analysis of the ratio of costs and sales is to strictly control the main annual indicators of costs and sales. Normally, this ratio may have slight fluctuations. But if the deviations exceed the allowable values, this should be taken into account, since this fact can become a serious problem.

Financial analysis necessary to establish the factors that affect the rate of return on net worth. The rate of return is determined depending on two indicators: financial leverage and profit from assets. The rate of return can increase in two cases: with an increase in the ratio of net profit to the value of assets, and also with an increase in the ratio of assets to net worth. The structure of assets depends on cash receipts, the use of equipment, and the volume of reserves.

Marketing Analysis companies are evaluated by consumers and shareholders. Customer evaluation includes the following purchasing criteria: the number of customers, their preferences, the number of regular customers, the number of dissatisfied customers, the availability of information about the product in the markets, the relative assessment of the quality of the product, the relative assessment of service. The system of such market assessments helps to prevent possible dangers in this area.

One of the factors of entrepreneurial risk is the presence of competing firms. To determine the level of entrepreneurial risk in this area, it is necessary to identify competitors and study their strengths and weaknesses. In the market, a company can occupy one of several positions:

1) dominant. A company occupying this position has the right to control the market behavior of other firms or companies, and also uses various strategies in its activities;

2) reliable. This position allows the company or firm to conduct long-term activities in the market. But improving the firm's position is not possible due to constant pressure from the dominant firm;

3) strong. The company has the ability to maintain its position in the market for a long time, and is also able to carry out independent trading activities;

4) favorable. The company has good prospects and confidently maintains its position in the market due to its advantages over other firms and companies;

5) weak. A company occupying this position does not have a confident position in the market, but can improve it by changing its strategy. Otherwise, this firm will have to leave the market;

6) not viable. The company is unable to improve its position in the market due to unsatisfactory business management.

To determine the correct assessment of the position of competing firms, three components must be examined: market shares, buyer preferences, and associations with the firm. Firms or companies that have large market shares and generate large amounts of profits are leaders in terms of buyer preference. The firm must determine the prerequisites of competitors, which adversely affected their position in the process of changing the situation in the market. Accordingly, a strategy for further action can be developed.

There are several categories of competing firms:

1) picky competitor. This type of competitor responds with action only to certain moments of the behavior of rivals, while simultaneously ignoring their other activities. Having studied this feature, you can develop a strategy for dealing with this company;

2) leisurely competitor. The reaction of these competing firms to the behavior of their rivals is belated. In this case, you should study the reasons for such slowness, while simultaneously developing a strategy for dealing with this company;

3) fast competitor. This rival is characterized by its rapid reaction to the actions of other firms. It is difficult to compete with him, since he always strives to take a dominant position;

4) unpredictable competitor. The actions of this competitor cannot be calculated. Only a few companies can dare to compete with him.

With the right analysis of the actions of competing firms, you can make the most accurate forecast of the possible behavior and reactions of competing firms. In accordance with this forecast, the firm can develop strategies for behavior in the markets, which will minimize the influence of competitors as much as possible.

Reducing the influence of competitors is also facilitated by a comparative assessment of consumer attitudes towards the firm and the competing company. In order to correctly evaluate consumers, it is necessary to analyze consumer values. Information about the preferences and attitudes of consumers is collected using the method of surveying buyers and customers. Having formed an idea of ​​consumer preferences and wishes, the firm evaluates its chances of competing for the greatest amount of profit and improving the firm's position in the market.

5. Ways to reduce risk

For reducing the level of probable risk There are several ways that a successful entrepreneur needs to know. Let's name the main ones:

1) before starting a business operation, it is necessary to assess possible losses in the course of this operation, determine their magnitude and frequency of occurrence;

2) do not avoid risk, but try to reduce its level;

3) if a businessman has decided to take the risk of probable losses, it is necessary to use insurance for the operation.

This method leads to a reduction in risk. Insurance covers property, health, life, commercial operations, safety of transported goods. In the case of insuring a business transaction, the entrepreneur is obliged to make insurance premiums, which in its own way is a certain loss of funds. If the level of risk is acceptable, i.e. the amount of losses does not exceed the expected profit, a businessman can decide to conduct a business operation:

1) if the probability of a critical risk is sufficiently high, there is a need to conclude an operation agreement, according to which the possible risk is divided among all participants so that later losses can be compensated by joint efforts;

2) with a high level of probability of occurrence of a critical risk, it is necessary to organize a reserve fund, having determined in advance the sources of compensation for losses;

3) it is impossible to start a business operation with a high level of probability of a catastrophic risk, as a result of which the business activity may end in failure.

After analyzing the competitiveness of the company, it is necessary to choose the right strategy for further actions. Some firms undertake a strategy of attacking a competitor. In order to maintain its position in the markets, it is necessary to fight against strong rivals. If competitors are a similar company, do not seek to eliminate them. These actions can only attract a stronger competing firm to the vacant seat. Positive competitors who follow certain rules should be contacted, as they contribute to the development of a healthy economy in the markets. Their activities are usually limited to a certain market segment and contribute to the separation of market sectors and overall cost reduction. Negative competitors contribute to the imbalance of the state of market industries, deliberately take risks.

If a firm has a dominant position in the market, it needs to use a strategy such as market expansion. To do this, the company must engage in the search and attraction of new consumers, new ways of using products, increasing the intensity of use of the company's products.

One of the ways to reduce the level of entrepreneurial risk is to protect market share from the attacking actions of competitors. An effective way to protect is the constant introduction of new products and services. There are defensive strategies that reduce the likelihood of attack by competitors.

Defensive strategies include:

1) flank protection. The firm concentrates its strongest bases on weak areas of the market;

2) positional defense. This strategy calls for the introduction of new types of products, which will allow long-term maintenance of dominant positions in markets;

3) proactive defensive actions. This strategy allows the company to get ahead of its rival without giving the competitor a chance to analyze the situation and quickly respond to it;

4) counterattack. The strategy involves tactics of counter actions in response to the behavior of a competitor;

5) mobile protection. The company is trying to expand the market and its influence into new territories;

6) reduction. If a company comes to the conclusion that it is not possible to protect the territorial integrity of its part of the market, it chooses the only correct way out of this situation - to concentrate resources in the most promising areas.

Strategic measures aimed at protecting the company from entrepreneurial risk are price struggle, cost reduction, expansion of the product range, development and production of new types of goods, work to improve distribution channels, advertising campaigns, and improving the level of service.

LECTURE No. 8. Ethics and morality of entrepreneurship

1. Business and Morality

Этика - translated from Greek means the philosophical doctrine of morality, its principles, norms and role in society (E. Hegel).

Morality - this is a set of principles and norms of people's behavior in relation to each other and to society (Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language. M., 2004).

In entrepreneurial activity, ethics and morality are expressed in the highly moral behavior of businessmen in the process of conducting various business operations.

An entrepreneur should create an image of a decent and honest person, following the principles of high morality. Most often, many aspiring entrepreneurs are not sufficiently aware that the observance of the principles of morality and ethics and the creation of the image of a decent person are the key to successful entrepreneurial activity.

Moral norms, first of all, are based on the honor and conscience of a person. You cannot force a businessman to be a highly moral person. He must feel these qualities in himself, have his own convictions in this regard.

Business It is an entrepreneurial activity that generates income. In the process of entrepreneurial activity, there is an exchange between people of money, goods, resources, services, various results of activity. For both parties involved in the exchange, the first imperative principle of fair business must be the rules of equivalence and equivalence.

As a result of compliance with these rules, there is a fair exchange between participants in a business transaction, as a result of which each participant remains in a winning position.

In business, there should be no deceit, dishonest behavior, non-compliance with the principles of human morality and ethics, since the activity of an entrepreneur is associated with risk.

Many entrepreneurs enter into transactions not documented, but only in words, having secured the word of honor of the participant in the operation. Guaranteeing each other the observance of the rules of honesty and decency in the process of conducting an operation, entrepreneurs have the opportunity to receive not only good profits, but also create an image of decent people and partners for themselves.

Unfortunately, there are people in business for whom there are no rules of respectable relations. They do not observe any civil, religious or human laws of morality. Theft, deceit, bribery and extortion are not vices, but virtues.

Most often, novice entrepreneurs who need to acquire initial capital in order to start entrepreneurial activities resort to deception and theft. People without morals resort to immoral ways of doing business, justifying this by saying that any means are good to achieve goals. Immoral business is an acute problem in the social society.

The difficulty in solving this problem lies in the fact that it is difficult to hold dishonest and immoral entrepreneurs accountable for non-compliance with the norms of morality and ethics in business. Bringing to criminal or civil liability is possible only in cases where there is a violation of legal laws.

In the modern world, in the conditions of strict competition in entrepreneurial activity, it is necessary to develop high morality and morality in a businessman, otherwise his business will not have a future.

Considering that business often passes from father to son, the qualities of an honest, highly moral person with high moral principles should be instilled in a person from childhood.

In order to become a successful businessman, a person must have such qualities as:

1) activity, initiative, activity;

2) the ability to take advantage of failure and use it for further success;

3) the ability, in case of loss of everything, to start all over again;

4) straightness;

5) creativity;

6) persistence;

7) the ability to manage the situation;

8) flexibility;

9) analytical mindset;

10) optimism.

An entrepreneur or businessman must be able to take risks. But the risk should not be reckless, but precisely calculated.

Ability to take risks - this is the ability to calculate all possible options, as well as the ability to explain all the circumstances to the employees of your organization.

An entrepreneur or businessman must have high spiritual and physical qualities. Physical qualities are expressed in the fact that the leader must work more than others and at the same time quite calmly endure such physical exertion. An important quality of a good leader is the ability to keep his word and keep his promises.

An essential quality of an entrepreneur is the ability to be attentive to all the details of the business, including technical, financial and marketing issues.

If a businessman treats business not only as a source of profit, but also as an interesting business, the meaning of life, life values, striving for his own improvement, this can help him achieve high results in the process of entrepreneurial activity.

A businessman should appreciate and not forget his mentors, be able to conclude honest and mutually beneficial deals, and have the ability to negotiate.

2. Moral and ethical code of a civilized entrepreneur

Moral and ethical code of a civilized businessman includes principles that should guide every entrepreneur who strives to maintain a successful business and mutual respect with other entrepreneurs.

Every self-respecting businessman should feel the limit of permissible behavior, which cannot be transgressed. Illiterate and ill-bred people violate the laws of the moral and ethical code due to their ignorance in this matter. They have a chance to change their behavior by learning the elementary norms of entrepreneurial behavior. But there are businessmen who are well aware of their immoral behavior and act so deliberately, for their own benefit.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Russian entrepreneurs identified the basic principles of behavior in the process of entrepreneurial activity.

1. Be honest and truthful. The basis of successful entrepreneurship, as well as the key to stable and harmonious relationships in business, are honesty and truthfulness.

2. Love and respect the person. By respecting his subordinates, an entrepreneur provides himself with reciprocal respect and authority. People feel trusted by their leader and try to use all their abilities and knowledge to achieve excellent results.

3. Respect authority. Respect for authority disciplines the businessman and ensures order and compliance with legal and administrative laws.

4. Be true to your word. The word of a business person is valued very highly if it never diverges from the deed. Often transactions are made orally, without drawing up documents. In such cases, the success of the enterprise directly depends on the mutual trust of the parties to the transaction.

5. Respect private property rights. Confidence in respect of private property rights provides a free entrepreneur with the opportunity to work successfully and beneficially for the benefit of his state.

6. Be purposeful. When starting a business, an entrepreneur must set a clear goal to achieve. On the way to achieving this goal, you cannot be distracted by other, secondary goals.

7. Live within your means. Before starting any business operation, an entrepreneur must correctly assess his capabilities and the amount of his funds.

By following these simple rules of doing business, a businessman provides himself with confidence not only in the successful future of his business, but also creates a strong reputation as a decent person.

Unfortunately, most often one has to observe disrespect for the authorities, tax evasion, non-compliance with the laws of ethics and morality in business activities.

Businessmen, distinguished by ignorance in matters of morality, see in their clients not full-fledged participants in the exchange of goods, but only a source of profit.

Modern entrepreneurs are condemning dishonest business conduct and violation of the rules of the moral and ethical code, therefore, most often businessmen who are short-sighted in matters of the laws of doing business and the rules of communication in the process of business operations complete their business with a complete collapse.

The textbook entitled "Noble Business" describes the moral and ethical makeup of the modern entrepreneur as follows: A modern entrepreneur should have such a set of qualities as:

1) humanism;

2) trust and respect for other people, respect for their professionalism and competence;

3) the desire to see and appreciate personal qualities not only in oneself, but also in the people around;

4) be convinced that the results of his work will benefit not only the businessman himself, but also the state;

5) perceive business as a creative process;

believe in the abilities of the surrounding people and in their desire to develop in the name of business promotion;

6) strive for self-improvement, increasing their knowledge, learning new technologies;

7) be a true connoisseur of science, culture, education;

8) observe laws, social order, respect state power, any form of ownership;

9) not harm the environment;

10) recognize competition as a necessary component in entrepreneurial activity, strive for honest cooperation with other businessmen.

After analyzing the historically developed principles of morality, one can note the desire to single out in modern representatives of entrepreneurship both the necessary business qualities and the qualities of a highly moral and highly intelligent person.

3. Entrepreneurial culture

culture - this is a high level of development of any sphere of human activity or the conditions of his life.

Entrepreneurial culture represents the behavior of entrepreneurs and the idea of ​​their values. Culture characterizes the level of upbringing, education, communication of people, their spiritual world.

The culture of entrepreneurship includes interaction and communication between business participants, faith in one's business, and observance of the high quality of the products of one's activity.

Entrepreneurial culture consists of the internal and external culture of entrepreneurial firms.

internal culture reflects the relationship of business participants within the company.

External culture embodies the observance of the rules of cultural behavior of entrepreneurs in relation to their suppliers, consumers, buyers and other participants in a business operation with whom the entrepreneur contacts in the course of his activities.

There are open and closed cultures of entrepreneurial behavior.

An open culture is one that is exposed to the public. A closed - is the true, unspoken image of the behavior of the entrepreneur.

The culture of entrepreneurship, like morality, is an important rule of doing business, despite the fact that these rules do not have official written confirmation.

There are two components to an entrepreneurial culture.

1. Entrepreneur's idea of ​​business values. Each entrepreneur has his own scale of values, his own goals, his own point of view on consumers, the demand for goods, the quality of goods, methods of calculating costs and profits.

2. Rules and norms of conduct during business transactions. Each entrepreneur establishes for himself certain rules and norms of behavior necessary for successful cooperation with participants in operations.

Specific Behavior - the behavior of an entrepreneur in the process of conducting any business operation, where he implements the rules and norms of cultural behavior he has learned.

The culture of entrepreneurship includes several sectors in which it is most often manifested: service culture, trade culture, administrative and managerial culture.

The culture of entrepreneurship is not an independent process, it combines both the culture of the entrepreneur and the culture of other participants in the business operation, the culture of employees, the culture of consumers and buyers.

The lack of an entrepreneurial culture among modern businessmen leads to the formation of intermediary entrepreneurship, in which making small but quick profits is valued by businessmen more than planning and conducting large business operations.

In the process of entrepreneurial activity, a businessman has to enter into such a form of communication with partners as business meeting. In order to properly conduct this business meeting, it is necessary to acquire communication skills during negotiations.

Before you go to an important business meeting, you need to think about what and how to say to your negotiating partners. The next important factor is to create the right atmosphere during negotiations. The meeting begins with a greeting, introduction of business partners to each other. The next stage of the meeting is a statement of the problem, introduction to the course of the matter, determination of the nature of the problem.

Next, the businessman must state his position on this issue, after which a discussion of the topic begins with a partner. The discussion ends with the conclusion of an agreement on ways to solve the problem. After the main options for solving the problem under discussion are outlined in the process of dialogue, negotiations can be completed.

You need to start negotiations with important aspects that need to be discussed. If during the discussion the partners come to an agreement, the next stage of communication will be a discussion of the details.

In the negotiation process, it is very important for a businessman to remember the manner of your speech. You need to speak not very loudly, but clearly; speech should be unhurried, clear and understandable. To achieve a positive impact on a business partner, you can show samples or photographs that will serve as confirmation to partners of the effectiveness of their participation in the proposed project.

Do not start negotiations immediately with the most important issues that require active discussion. It is better to move on to them later, after a general introduction to the course of the matter.

A businessman should be able to accurately and concisely argue his statements, without giving empty promises. If negotiations reach an impasse, it is necessary to try to consider the problem from the other side. If a businessman does not agree with a partner, he must express his disagreement constructively, without harsh statements. You need to be able to give in to your partner in small things, winning in the main.

You need to complete the transaction at the time when the partner is ready for this. If a businessman appears as a buyer, do not rush to agree with the seller's offer. Time is always on the buyer's side. If the buyer does not agree with the proposed terms, the seller may offer more favorable terms for the buyer, which will suit him.

When negotiating with foreigners, it is necessary to pay attention to their style of behavior, their traditions, which must be taken into account.

The Americans have a mood to discuss not only general issues, but also prefer to discuss details in detail. Usually they treat partners well, they are distinguished by friendliness, while at the same time demanding the same attitude towards themselves.

Chinese prefer to negotiate in stages.

At the first stage, they clarify the positions, are very attentive to the appearance of the partners, by which they determine their status, to the manner of their behavior. In the process of communication, the Chinese try to highlight people who show sympathy for them. This helps them in the future to influence with their help the position of partners.

At the second stage of negotiations, the problem is discussed. During the discussion, the Chinese are attentive to the mistakes made by partners, which they try to use to assess the capabilities of a partner company.

The third stage of the negotiations is the final one. At this stage, the partners make a decision. The Chinese prefer to make decisions not at the table in a restaurant, but at home.

French people usually avoid discussing the problem, being with a partner face to face. They are distinguished by independence, courtesy, courtesy and courtesy. Attention is paid to preliminary discussion and agreements. They prefer not to confront partners. Negotiations are conducted in their native language.

Japanese they try to avoid discussion, do not like clashes with the positions of partners, pay great attention to establishing personal relationships, show increased attention to the interlocutor. Very sensitive to public opinion. Differ in accuracy and punctuality.

Germans prefer to work out their position in partnerships in advance. During the negotiation process, all issues are consistently discussed.

English differ in that they always try to avoid clashes on the issues under discussion, have flexibility in communication, and always meet partners halfway. They prefer a minimum of preparation for negotiations.

Hungarians prefer to negotiate in a formal setting, rather than at a restaurant table. They do not like to bargain, they quickly give way to partners.

Arabs consider the establishment of trust between partners to be the main condition. They are distinguished by the observance of the traditions of Islam, according to which they constantly turn to their roots, to their past. All the details of the negotiations are worked out in advance.

After the negotiations are held, it is necessary to certify their content in writing.

The results of the negotiations are subject to mandatory discussion in the firm, regardless of the positive or negative result of the negotiations.

Business correspondence is also an important component in the process of business communication between a businessman and partners. A businessman must be able to write letters and respond to inquiries.

A business letter has the following structure:

1) justification of the relevance of the request;

2) the content of the request;

3) the expected result with the wording of guarantees.

The cover letter consists of the following items:

1) a message about the sent material;

2) clarifying information.

A letter containing a request must state the reasons for the request, the essence of the request, and the expected result. The letter of request must begin with the word "please".

The response letter consists of the following parts:

1) repetition of the request;

2) the reason for the refusal;

3) statement of refusal.

The refusal should be softened with certain phrases, for example: “Unfortunately, your request cannot be granted...”.

If the author of the letter is an organization, the letter is written from a third party.

Written documents such as orders, official letters, statements, reports and explanatory notes are written in the first person.

The content of the letter should be short and concise in content.

In the process of entrepreneurial activity, various exhibitions, presentations, press conferences are held. The purpose of these events is to attract new partners and customers to the company's products.

Exhibition carried out according to the following scheme:

1) determination of the purpose of the exhibition;

2) drawing up a plan for the exhibition;

3) placement of exhibits;

4) planning the direction of movement of visitors.

The success of the exhibition depends on the professional work of stand attendants. They must be highly qualified, appropriate clothing, have an excellent command of the rules of interpersonal communication, and have tact. An important requirement for stand attendants is their ability to keep official secrets.

Press conference held in the morning. It is attended by journalists, radio and television correspondents. The list of invitees is compiled and sent out a month before the planned event, and then the mailing is repeated one to two weeks before the event.

Presentations are held to provide consumers with information about the capabilities of the company, its novelties and additional qualities of goods. The presentation is an advertising action. Preparing for a presentation is similar to preparing for an exhibition.

The text of the advertisement should contain short pieces of information about the merits and achievements of the company, the results should be expressed in numbers and percentages in relation to competing firms.

4. Service etiquette

Service etiquette call the norms and rules of conduct in the process of communication with colleagues, the order and forms of relations in the process of official contacts.

The concept of office etiquette includes the rules of greeting, acquaintance, introduction, communication with managers, colleagues, subordinates, rules for conducting business negotiations, rules for correspondence, as well as requirements for appearance, demeanor, style of dress, speech communication.

In international business, the developed rules of the international protocol are applied, according to which businessmen are obliged to comply with the norms of official conduct.

Books are judged by their covers, people by their clothes. Therefore, the image of a businessman is of great importance. The clothes of an entrepreneur should emphasize his taste, be fashionable, but rather strict. The image created with the help of clothing plays an important role in how a person is perceived by the people around him. The work clothes of a businessman should correspond to the internal culture of the company, emphasize its solidity.

According to etiquette, when meeting a woman, a man should say hello first. A young man, when meeting with a person older than him, should also be the first to greet. When meeting with the leader, the subordinate does not have to greet him first, it is also allowed that the leader can greet him first.

In Russian society, it is customary to address leaders, colleagues and partners by their first and middle names. If the appeal is written, the word "respected" may be added to the name and patronymic.

In business situations, you should refer to partners as "You". You can switch to addressing "you" only in an informal setting by mutual agreement.

At the first meeting, which is of a business nature, a man must introduce himself to a woman first. Participants of the business meeting are introduced to each other by the organizers of the meeting.

In the process of business relations, it is necessary to observe subordination, which characterizes the behavior of people corresponding to their position.

Compliance with the rules of business etiquette includes the ability to listen to the interlocutor, not to interrupt him. If it becomes necessary to interrupt the interlocutor, you must first apologize for the interrupted conversation.

In the process of business communication, it is necessary to show courtesy and respect to partners.

During negotiations or a business conversation, you should not openly show your emotions. Even in the most acute situations, it is necessary to maintain restraint and calmness.

In a written appeal to business partners, it is important to observe the culture of writing, to be able to express your thoughts in a concise and intelligible form.

A typical standard of behavior in a business setting is based on the ability to anticipate the behavior of both parties to a business meeting.

Due to disrespect for the forms of communication, mutual understanding between partners may be damaged, as a result of which the transaction may not take place. If a feeling of mutual respect arises between partners, a positive emotional background of communication is created, which favorably affects the results of business contact.

Before entering into any business contact, a businessman needs to get to know the interlocutor. As a rule, acquaintance is organized by the more active side of the business meeting. There are certain phrases with which you can address your interlocutor, for example, “My name is..., how can I contact you?”, or “Let’s get to know each other, what’s your name?” The second phrase is used when there is a desire to “equalize” the positions of the interlocutors initially.

To clarify your goals, you should start the conversation with the phrase: “You might be interested in knowing that...”, or: “It’s important for me to talk to you about...”.

In the case when the interlocutor should speak first, you need to turn to him with the words: "I am listening to you carefully." In the process of conducting a business conversation, it is important to carefully look at the interlocutor and speak in a calm and trusting tone.

During a business conversation, you should not put a lot of pressure on the interlocutor. This may cause him to take a defensive stance to protect his authority. If the interlocutor does not want to reach an agreement on some issue, you should not seek it immediately. It is necessary to retreat for a while, and later return to this issue again. It is necessary to give the opportunity to the interlocutor to maintain their sense of self-respect. If it was possible to come to a mutual agreement, it is necessary to discuss further actions in detail.

You need to end the conversation with a brief and objective summing up of its results. In the process of communication, it is unacceptable to use insults to the interlocutor, as well as the use of an orderly tone and categorical statements.

With any result of a business conversation, you must politely say goodbye, while maintaining self-esteem. It is important to remember that a good attitude towards people is the basis of any communication, otherwise no techniques and tactics of negotiating and business conversations will help.

A businessman must have the right skills communication by phone. You need to speak in a low voice, not very loudly. The conversation should begin with the words: “I am listening to you,” followed by a greeting to the interlocutor. During a conversation, it is necessary to maintain politeness, goodwill and attention towards the interlocutor. The woman who finishes the conversation first (when talking to a man), the eldest in age, the eldest in official position.

Arriving at the workplace, the businessman must make a list of people who need to be called, indicating their contact phone number opposite the names.

Maintaining business and personal contacts is facilitated by distributing company business cards among clients and partners. The size of the business card must correspond to the accepted parameters: 9 x 5 cm. The contents indicate the full name, address of the institution, telephone numbers.

Strengthening the authority of the company and its reputation contributes to the correct social policy of its management.

An entrepreneur or businessman must be able to communicate and work with people. It must be remembered that each person is a person who has strengths and weaknesses. You need to praise employees in public, but it is better to criticize in private. Attention to people should be a mandatory quality of any leader.

The tone of the leader's order must be polite. If the manager gives instructions to employees that are not part of their duties, they must be expressed in the form of a request. The manager needs to maintain self-control when communicating with staff in any production situations. Rewards affect people more than punishments.

If it is necessary to subject an employee to criticism, the manager must be tactful and fair, taking into account the employee's gender, age and temperament.

With an elderly person, you need to be polite, and with a young and lazy person, you can afford firmness and exactingness.

In order to maintain authority in the right positions, the leader should follow some rules of communication:

1) be self-critical;

2) not to humiliate the dignity of employees by unfair actions and words;

3) not to persecute employees' criticism of the manager, but to take it into account in order to determine a behavior strategy that will ensure the strengthening of authority and change the attitude of employees for the better.

Creating comfortable moral and mental conditions for subordinates and a favorable atmosphere of mutual understanding contributes to the successful existence and production development of the company. It is important for a manager to be able to manage his behavior: to be polite, friendly, smile and maintain a good mood in himself and his employees.

In the field of entrepreneurship, it is customary to hold formal and informal receptions. Business breakfasts and lunches are considered informal receptions.

Breakfasts It is accepted to appoint from 8 o'clock in the morning. They last approximately one or one and a half hours. A table in a cafe or restaurant is ordered in advance and is usually served with fruits, sausages, dairy products, bread, butter; from drinks juices, tea and coffee are used.

Lunch, or second breakfast takes place between 12.00 and 14.00 pm. At lunch, it is customary to consume various snacks and drinks, which may include an aperitif or other low-alcohol drinks.

If an event such as the signing of a contract or the opening of an exhibition is scheduled during the daytime hours, it is customary to serve snacks and drinks such as champagne, dry wine, as well as tea and coffee during the event. The duration of the event is about an hour.

Lunch refers to the evening types of business reception. It can be official or unofficial.

Official lunch It is customary to start at 20 pm. Lunch time is approximately two and a half hours. Guest lists are prepared in advance. At the table, places are allocated using cards with the names of guests. The guests are at the table during the first hour, and during the rest of the time they communicate in the living room. Appropriate attire is required for a formal dinner: men must wear a tuxedo or formal suit, and women must wear evening dress.

In addition to lunch, evening meals include buffet lunch, dinner and tea.

lunch buffet is less formal than lunch and dinner. It can be done at home or outdoors. Tables are served with snacks, hot dishes and spirits. The table has the character of a buffet table, i.e. guests themselves fill their plates with snacks and sit down at tables of 4 or 6 people. Such activities can be organized after attending cultural events.

Dinner usually starts at 21:XNUMX or later. This event is organized and takes place in a similar way to a dinner.

Tea organized at 17 pm. It is customary to serve sandwiches, canapes, cookies, sweets, drinks and fruits for tea. No special clothing is required for this event, and it lasts up to an hour and a half.

During the autumn-winter season, an event such as a literary or musical evening may be arranged. Invitations to guests of such events are sent out in advance, at the beginning of the season. They are valid until the end of the season. The dress code is free.

For any reception, you need to prepare in advance, depending on the type of reception and its purpose. It is necessary to determine the venue for the reception, draw up lists of invitees, send out invitations to them, outline their places at the table, draw up a menu, prepare a program of events at the reception, consider table setting and guest service.

Invitations are first made verbally, and if accepted, they are printed and sent to guests 1-2 weeks before the planned event.

The seating of guests is of great importance, since at the table it is necessary to take into account their official position and social status. In accordance with this, places at the table are distributed. The most honorable places are considered to be next to the owner and hostess. The farther away from the reception hosts the places are located, the less honorable they are considered.

In order of arrangement at the table, guests are seated so that men alternate with women. In the event that the table is round, the position of the guests behind it will be equal.

During the presence at the reception, you must follow the rules of conduct. Sitting at the table, a woman should not lift her dress, and a man should not pull up his pants so that his bare leg is visible. When landing in a low chair, the legs should be kept together, without throwing one over the other.

During the reception, it is undesirable to discuss business matters and related problems. Conversations should be on topics that are of interest to all guests. For example, about the news of the theater, cinema, art, literature.

It is customary to invite negotiating partners for lunch or dinner. You must arrive at your appointment exactly at the scheduled time. Being late or coming to an appointment earlier or later than the appointed hour is considered indecent. If there is a risk of being late for an event, it is necessary to find a way to warn about it.

It is customary for the hostess to bring flowers. Flowers must be in festive packaging or unfolded. When giving a present, you need to kiss the woman's hand. It is customary to greet the owner by shaking hands.

After the reception, the next day, you need to send a written thanks to the owners.

You need to not only arrive on time, but also leave. Leaving the company of the assembled guests, it is not necessary to say goodbye to everyone. You can only say goodbye to the hosts so as not to embarrass the guests with your departure and not distract them from communicating with those present. Managers and employees of senior rank should arrive later than those of lower rank, and, on the contrary, leave before them. It is not necessary to disperse all at once, but gradually.

In the field of business and entrepreneurship, it is customary to give gifts and souvenirs. At the same time, tact and a sense of proportion should be observed. You should not give very expensive gifts, so as not to make your colleague feel embarrassed. A gift should express an attitude towards a partner and carry a piece of the giver's warmth.

Gifts and souvenirs in the form of art products, sculptures, figurines, decorative utensils, art and scientific books may suit foreign partners. In addition, you can give confectionery, drinks, tobacco products, various national souvenirs.

When presenting a gift, you can say a few pleasant words with good wishes.

When accepting a gift, it is necessary to thank the giver for his attention and praise him for his good taste in choosing a gift.

In the event that the gift was transferred through a courier or a third party, it is necessary to send a written thanks to the donor or thank him by phone.

It is not customary to refuse a gift, but if you have to do this, you need to thank the giver for the attention paid and apologize, explaining the reasons for the refusal.

There are several rules, the implementation of which helps a businessman to make a favorable impression on the people around him. These include the following rules:

1) Always address people by their first names. Addressing a person by name sounds like a compliment, but if the name is called incorrectly, this circumstance can offend a person;

2) smile at people when interacting with them. A smile helps to immediately win over a person and quickly establish contact with him;

3) show interest in people. If you talk with a person only about your person, he may think that you are not interested in you as a person. Showing interest in people helps you make many friends. Talking with a person on topics of interest to him, we achieve his location;

4) listen carefully to people. The ability to listen carefully is an important quality in the process of interpersonal communication. Many people have a need to speak out to someone who can listen and sympathize with them. The manifestation of your participation in the problems and achievements of people helps them to see in you a like-minded person and a person who is close to them in spirit.

Instill in people the consciousness of their significance. In order to have many friends and like-minded people, you need to inspire people that they are very important in your life. In addition, people are pleased to know that they are superior to you in any matters. By accepting their help and expressing gratitude for it, you emphasize their importance.

By giving people what we would like to receive from them, we gain important experience in communicating with them and make many friends.

In addition to the rules that help win people over, a businessman should know a few basic tricks that help find like-minded people in people.

These include the following communication rules:

1) don’t try to prove a person wrong. By proving to a person that he is wrong, we risk making an enemy. In communication you need to strive for diplomatic relations. In most cases, people refuse to admit that they are wrong and, despite heated debates and presentation of evidence, usually remain unconvinced. You shouldn’t ruin your relationship with a person by trying to prove to him something that he doesn’t want to accept. You can prove that you are right not with words, but with well-thought-out actions. As a result, a person can independently understand that he was wrong, but in this case it will be his own conclusion, and not imposed by other people;

2) don't try to win an argument. As you know, there are no rights in a dispute. Regardless of the common sense and intelligence of people, in a dispute everyone remains unconvinced;

3) the ability to admit when you are wrong. Admitting yourself to be wrong is always more profitable than entering into confrontation with your interlocutors. A quick and decisive concession can help persuade the other person to your point of view;

4) the ability to listen more to your interlocutor than to speak yourself.

You need to give the interlocutor enough time to speak. Perhaps you will receive information that will help you establish a mutually beneficial relationship with him. The manifestation of one's own modesty is more powerful than the demonstration of one's achievements;

5) be friendly with people. Friendliness and gentleness help persuade people to your point of view. On the contrary, an unfriendly attitude and expression of your dissatisfaction when communicating with them will never force a person to agree with your opinion. A friendly tone can turn anyone into your ally;

6) the ability to find common ground with the interlocutor from the very first minute of communication. If in the first minutes of a conversation you come to a common opinion and agreement, in the future it will be difficult for the interlocutor to say “no” to you;

7) the ability to convince a person that the idea that arose in your head actually belongs to him. Forcibly imposing your thought on another person is almost impossible. It is better if a person believes that he is doing this of his own free will;

8) the ability to understand and accept the position of other people. In order to understand the thoughts of another person, you need to try to put yourself in his place. Having understood the motives of his thinking and behavior, you can find ways to possibly influence his opinion in your own interests. Even if you fail to persuade a person to your opinion, this experience will help you understand people better;

9) the ability to show empathy for people. People tend to seek sympathy and pity from others. By taking pity on the person and showing empathy for their situation, you ensure that they treat you well and appreciate you;

10) the ability to find positive motives in people's behavior. If you treat people with trust, they will strive to strengthen it with noble deeds and a conscientious attitude to the common cause;

11) don’t be afraid of competition. The desire for excellence gives a person the ability to self-realize and achieve more successful results in his activities.

A businessman must learn to influence his employees without offending their dignity.

To do this, you must follow a number of rules:

1) express gratitude to people, praise them for good work;

2) to criticize not only the mistakes of other people, but also their own mistakes and mistakes;

3) give orders in the form of a request;

4) celebrate even the smallest successes of employees with your approval;

5) to express confidence in people;

6) give people the opportunity to express their opinions and suggestions;

7) create such conditions for work and communication in which a person will feel comfortable.

Thus, in the process of entrepreneurial activity, a businessman or entrepreneur needs to acquire the skills of interpersonal communication and behavior in business circles. The successful existence of his company and the development of business contacts with business partners depend on this.

Authors: Egorova E.N., Loginova E.Yu.

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Latest news of science and technology, new electronics:

Artificial leather for touch emulation 15.04.2024

In a modern technology world where distance is becoming increasingly commonplace, maintaining connection and a sense of closeness is important. Recent developments in artificial skin by German scientists from Saarland University represent a new era in virtual interactions. German researchers from Saarland University have developed ultra-thin films that can transmit the sensation of touch over a distance. This cutting-edge technology provides new opportunities for virtual communication, especially for those who find themselves far from their loved ones. The ultra-thin films developed by the researchers, just 50 micrometers thick, can be integrated into textiles and worn like a second skin. These films act as sensors that recognize tactile signals from mom or dad, and as actuators that transmit these movements to the baby. Parents' touch to the fabric activates sensors that react to pressure and deform the ultra-thin film. This ... >>

Petgugu Global cat litter 15.04.2024

Taking care of pets can often be a challenge, especially when it comes to keeping your home clean. A new interesting solution from the Petgugu Global startup has been presented, which will make life easier for cat owners and help them keep their home perfectly clean and tidy. Startup Petgugu Global has unveiled a unique cat toilet that can automatically flush feces, keeping your home clean and fresh. This innovative device is equipped with various smart sensors that monitor your pet's toilet activity and activate to automatically clean after use. The device connects to the sewer system and ensures efficient waste removal without the need for intervention from the owner. Additionally, the toilet has a large flushable storage capacity, making it ideal for multi-cat households. The Petgugu cat litter bowl is designed for use with water-soluble litters and offers a range of additional ... >>

The attractiveness of caring men 14.04.2024

The stereotype that women prefer "bad boys" has long been widespread. However, recent research conducted by British scientists from Monash University offers a new perspective on this issue. They looked at how women responded to men's emotional responsibility and willingness to help others. The study's findings could change our understanding of what makes men attractive to women. A study conducted by scientists from Monash University leads to new findings about men's attractiveness to women. In the experiment, women were shown photographs of men with brief stories about their behavior in various situations, including their reaction to an encounter with a homeless person. Some of the men ignored the homeless man, while others helped him, such as buying him food. A study found that men who showed empathy and kindness were more attractive to women compared to men who showed empathy and kindness. ... >>

Random news from the Archive Wireless mouse building kit from TI and Cypress 21.03.2007 Texas Instruments and Cypress Semiconductor have unveiled an initial design for a wireless mouse with a dual-channel 27 MHz receiver and reduced power consumption. Using easy-to-use, highly integrated, low-power ICs, this kit will allow designers to quickly develop and bring to market a wireless mouse and receiver combination. This reduces the number of elements, system power consumption and cost. TI's new TRF7900 dual-channel receiver integrates more than 20 discrete elements in a small footprint, reducing cost and simplifying receiver design, while giving designers the ability to select different frequencies than previous single-channel receivers could. The receiver system, designed to receive information transmitted by the mouse, decode it, transmit mouse movements and button presses to a personal computer via USB, includes a two-channel TRF7900 receiver from TI and a CY7C63743 microcontroller with enCoRe (enhanced Component Reduction) technology from the company Cypress. The mouse design optimizes power consumption and maximizes battery life by utilizing Agilent Technologies' ADNS3040 optical mouse sensor and ultra-low power MS P43OF1222 microcontroller.

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