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HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY, TECHNOLOGY, OBJECTS AROUND US
Calendar. History of invention and production
Directory / The history of technology, technology, objects around us Calendar - a number system for long periods of time, based on the periodicity of the movement of celestial bodies: the Sun - in solar calendars, the Moon - in lunar calendars, and at the same time the Sun and Moon in lunisolar calendars. Also called a calendar is a list of days of the year with a division into weeks and months and the designation of holidays and a periodical reference publication with a sequential list of days, weeks, months of a given year, as well as other information of a different nature.
The calendar has entered our lives so much that we sometimes do not realize how great its significance for humanity is. A calendar is a specific reference system for long periods of time, subdivided into separate, shorter periods (years, months, weeks, days). The word "calendar" itself comes from the Latin words caleo - proclaim and calendarium - debt book. The concept of time emerged from the observation of changes to which all the material bodies around us are subject. And it became possible to measure time intervals by comparing these changes with periodically repeating phenomena. There are several such phenomena in the world around us. This is the change of day and night, the change in the phases of the moon and the rotation of the earth around the sun. The problem is that a day (the period of rotation of the Earth around its axis), a month (the rotation of the Moon around the Earth) and a year (the rotation of the Earth around the Sun) are incommensurable with each other. That is, the larger cannot be divided by the smaller without a remainder. Therefore, it was necessary to come up with a system that would reconcile all these incommensurates and be simple and understandable for most people. The history of solving this problem is the history of the calendar. Attempts to harmonize the day, month and year led to the emergence of three types of calendars. Lunar calendars, coordinating the course of the day and the lunar month; solar, in which the day and year are approximately consistent, as well as lunisolar, coordinating all three units of time. A day is a unit of time equal to 24 hours. But not everyone knows that sidereal days differ, equal to the period of rotation of the Earth relative to the vernal equinox, and solar days - the period of rotation of the Earth relative to the Sun. The duration of a solar day varies from 24 hours 3 minutes 36 seconds in mid-September to 24 hours 4 minutes 27 seconds at the end of December. Therefore, the average solar day is taken equal to 24 hours 3 minutes 56,56 seconds of sidereal time. One minute of sidereal time is equal to 0,9972696 minutes of mean solar time. A month is a period of time close to the period of revolution of the Moon around the Earth. There are synodic, sidereal, tropical, anomalistic and draconian months. Synodic - the period of change of lunar phases. Sidereal - the period during which the Moon makes a complete revolution around the Earth and takes its original position relative to the stars. Tropical - this is the period of the return of the moon to the same longitude. Anomalistic - the time interval between successive passages of the Moon through perigee. Draconian - the interval between successive passages of the Moon through the same node of its orbit. A year is a period of time close in duration to the period of revolution of the Earth around the Sun. Determining its duration in ancient times was one of the most important tasks. A fairly accurate value of this value was known in ancient Egypt. The ancient Greek scientist Hipparchus determined the year to be 365 1/4 days minus 1/300 of the day, which is only 6,5 minutes different from the modern values of the year. Distinguish year stellar, tropical, anomalistic, draconian. In addition, there is a Julian and a Gregorian year. In lunar calendars, a year is equal to 12 or 13 synodic months. The lunar calendar is based on the time interval between two successive identical phases of the moon, that is, the synodic month. There are 29,5 days in a lunar month. In order for the beginning of each month to coincide with the new moon during the year, odd (empty) months contain 29, and even (full) - 30 days. The lunar year contains 354 days, which is 11,25 days shorter than the solar year. In order for the first month of each year to fall on the new moon, in certain years an extra day is added to the last month. Such years are called leap years. The lunar year is accepted among the peoples who are engaged in cattle breeding, since it is the physiological cycles in animals that are associated with the lunar phases that occur during the month. People saw the Moon in the sky for about 28 days, dividing this period into 4 phases. Hence the division of the month into 4 weeks. Although, for example, in Byzantium they counted the "eight days" of the so-called trading week, seven days of which were working, the eighth - market. Among the Babylonians, seven days of the week were associated with the planets: Sunday was associated with the Sun, then with the Moon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn. The day ruled by Saturn - Saturday - was considered unlucky. Therefore, on this day, they tried to refrain from any work. It became known as Shabbat - peace. This is where the Jewish custom of abstaining from work on the Sabbath comes from. The solar calendar was used by farmers, for whom it was important to correctly determine the start time of spring sowing. If they had used the lunar calendar, they would have found that the day of the spring equinox, on which sowing began, falls on different days of the lunar month. The solar calendar first appeared in ancient Egypt. The year in it consisted of 365 days, which was shorter than the actual one by 0,2422 days. Its beginning was associated with the first predawn sunrise of the star Sirius. The Egyptians had three annual seasons: flood, sowing, harvest. Each season consisted of four months. Each month was divided into three ten days (decades) or six five days (pentads), a total of 360 days. Another 5 days were added in honor of the gods Osiris, Horus, Set, Isis and Nephthys. Initially, the ancient Roman calendar, which consisted of 295 days, was divided into 10 months, named by their serial number: the first - Primidilis, the second - Duolilis, and so on until Desember. The duration of the year was associated with the beginning and completion of agricultural work. At the beginning of the 10th century BC. e. the ancient Roman king Numa Pompilius reformed the calendar, and 2 more months were added to 354 months. Now the length of the year was 11 days. In order for it to start in the same season, extra days were inserted. The first four and the newly added 12th and XNUMXth received their own names. Martius was named after Mars, the god of war. Aprilis - either from the word aperire - to open, or from the word apricus - warmed by the Sun. It was dedicated to Venus. Maius was dedicated to the goddess of the Earth Maya. Junius - sky goddess Juno. Januaris, the penultimate month of the calendar, was dedicated to the god Janus - the god of heaven, or, according to another version, the god of entrances and exits. It was believed that he opened the gates to the Sun in the morning and closed them in the evening. The last month was dedicated to the god of the underworld, Februs. Even in ancient Egypt, due to the discrepancy between the beginning of the calendar year and the beginning of the tropical year, the beginning of the calendar year lagged behind by about one day in four years. Attempts were made to correct. So, in 238 BC. e. King Everget issued a decree according to which every four years it was prescribed, after the end of additional days before the start of the new year, to celebrate the feast of the gods of Everget. But this reform was carried out in Egypt much later. It is associated with the name of Julius Caesar. He invited the Alexandrian astronomer and mathematician Sosigenes to Rome. The latter developed a calendar reform, which was approved in 46 BC. e. January 1 was taken as the beginning of the year. In the new calendar, the year had 365,25 days. Every fourth year had to contain 366 days. The augmented year was called annus bissextus, from where the word leap year comes from. The Julian calendar accumulates a difference equal to approximately 1 day in 128 years. Along with the calendar, the reference point of the chronology is of great importance. Different countries had their own calendar era. In ancient Greece, the countdown was from the first Olympiad - July 1, 776 BC. e.; in ancient Rome from the foundation of Rome - April 21, 753 BC. e.; the starting date of the Byzantine era was the creation of the world on September 1, 5508 BC. e. and etc. In the 325th century A.D. e. Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire. In 25, the Council of Nicaea adopted the Julian calendar and established common Christian holidays for the entire empire, primarily the feast of Easter. The so-called "Easter limit" was adopted, which begins on the first day following the day of the vernal equinox and ends on April 1700th. Due to the fact that Christianity became the dominant religion in Western Europe, it was decided to establish a new era, the beginning of which was associated with the date of the birth of Jesus Christ. The monk Dionysius the Small calculated this date. But the reckoning from the Nativity of Christ spread throughout the world very slowly. So, in Russia it was introduced by decree of Peter the Great only in 1 instead of the chronology from the creation of the world. The new year has moved from September 1st to January XNUMXst. In the Middle Ages, the definition of the equinox on March 21 became noticeably different from the real vernal equinox. In the 10th century, the difference was almost 1581 days. In 1576, a commission was established by decree of Pope Gregory XIII. She accepted for consideration a calendar developed in 24 by Luigi Lilio, a professor at the University of Perugia. On February 10, Gregory XIII issued a bull introducing a new calendar. The count of days moved forward 00 days. To avoid repeating mistakes, those years whose number ends in 4, and the number of centuries is not divisible by 1600 without a remainder, are not considered leap years. So 2000 and 1700 were leap years, and 1800, 1900 and 365 contained XNUMX days. In 1582, the Gregorian calendar was legalized in Italy, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, France, and also in Catholic Denmark. In Soviet Russia, the Gregorian calendar was introduced by decree of the Council of People's Commissars only in 1918. In countries whose state religion is Islam, lunar calendars are mainly used. In each 30-year period of this calendar, 19 years have 354 days and 11 leap years have 355 days. The chronology is from July 16, 622 - the date of the migration of the founder of Islam, the Prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina. This date is called Hijra (in Arabic - "resettlement"). Friday is considered a holiday for Muslims. The creators of the lunisolar calendars saw their task in coordinating the lunar and solar time readings. They are accepted, in particular, in Israel and Iran. The modern Israeli calendar replaced the Hebrew lunar calendar, which had 354 days. An additional 13th month was introduced in the new calendar, lasting 30 days. It is inserted seven times every 19 years. A year with 13 months is considered a leap year and is called an ibbur. The chronology of the Jewish calendar is from the date of the creation of the world - October 7, 3761 BC. e. Until the end of the III century. BC e. New Year began with the spring month of Nisan. Then the beginning of the year was moved to the autumn month of Tishri. The Jewish holiday is Saturday. In Iran, in addition to the lunar Hijri calendar adopted in other Muslim states, and the Gregorian calendar, the solar Hijri calendar is also common, also counting from July 16, 622. The year begins when the Sun is in the sign of Aries, which corresponds to March 20, 21 or 22. It contains 365 or 366 days. Leap years are arranged according to the following scheme: in each 33-year cycle there are 8 leap years, 7 of which are repeated every 4 years, and the eighth - after 5 years. The week starts on Saturday. The official non-working day is Friday. In the countries of East and Southeast Asia, in particular China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Thailand, a 60-year calendar cycle has been adopted. It is a chronological system based on the astronomical cycles of the Sun, Earth, Moon, Jupiter and Saturn. Observing the movements of the major planets - Jupiter and Saturn, the astronomers of the Ancient East found that Jupiter makes its circuit in about 12 years, Saturn - in about 30 years. The cycle was based on the time of two revolutions of Saturn and five revolutions of Jupiter. This corresponded to the worldview of Chinese natural philosophy: the number five was a symbol of the five elements of nature - wood, fire, metal, water, earth, which corresponded to the colors blue or green, red, yellow, white, black. Since a 12-year animal cycle is adopted in China and other countries of East Asia, each of the years corresponds to an animal: a mouse (rat), a cow (bull), a tiger, a hare (cat), a dragon, a snake, a horse, a sheep, a monkey, a rooster, a dog, boar. Thus, in a 60-year cycle, the same animals are repeated five times. To clarify the year within the cycle, color symbols are used. The year in this calendar begins on the new moon, when the Sun is in the sign of Aquarius, that is, in the period from January 21 to February 20. The length of the year can be 353, 354, 355 or 383, 384, 385 days. Author: Pristinsky V.L.
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