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HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY, TECHNOLOGY, OBJECTS AROUND US
Distaff and loom. History of invention and production
Directory / The history of technology, technology, objects around us Weaving radically changed the life and appearance of a person. Instead of animal skins, people dressed in clothes made from linen, woolen or cotton fabrics, which have since become our constant companions. However, before our ancestors learned to weave, they had to master the technique of weaving to perfection. Only having learned to weave mats from branches and reeds, people could begin to "weave" the threads.
The process of fabric production is divided into two main operations - obtaining yarn (spinning) and obtaining canvas (actually weaving). Observing the properties of plants, people noticed that many of them contain elastic and flexible fibers. These fibrous plants, used by man already in ancient times, include flax, hemp, nettle, xanthus, cotton and others. After the domestication of animals, our ancestors obtained, along with meat and milk, a large amount of wool, also used for the production of fabrics. Before starting spinning, it was necessary to prepare the raw materials.
Spinning fiber is the starting material for yarn. Without going into details, we note that the master needs to work hard before wool, linen or cotton turns into spinning fiber (this is most true for flax: the process of extracting fibers from the stem of plants is especially laborious here; but even wool, which, in fact, is already finished fiber, requires a number of preliminary operations for cleaning, degreasing, drying, etc.). But when the spinning fiber is obtained, it makes no difference to the master whether it is wool, linen or cotton - the process of spinning and weaving is the same for all types of fibers.
The oldest and simplest device for the production of yarn was a hand spinning wheel, which consisted of a spindle, a whorl and the actual spinning wheel. Before starting work, the spinning fiber was attached to some stuck branch or a stick with a fork (later this knot was replaced by a board, which was called the spinning wheel). Then the master pulled a bundle of fibers from the ball and attached it to a special device for twisting the thread. It consisted of a stick (spindle) and a whorl (which served as a round stone with a hole in the middle). The whorl was mounted on a spindle. The spindle, together with the beginning of the thread screwed to it, was brought into rapid rotation and immediately released. Hanging in the air, it continued to rotate, gradually stretching and twisting the thread. The whorl served to increase and maintain the rotation, which would otherwise stop after a few moments. When the thread became long enough, the craftswoman wound it around the spindle, and the whorl did not allow the growing ball to slip off. Then the whole operation was repeated. Despite its simplicity, the spinning wheel was an amazing conquest of the human mind. Three operations - stretching, twisting and winding of the thread were combined into a single production process. Man got the ability to quickly and easily turn the fiber into a thread. Note that in later times nothing fundamentally new was introduced into this process; it was just transferred to the machines. After receiving the yarn, the master proceeded to the fabric. The first looms were vertical. They consisted of two forked-shaped bars inserted into the ground, on the forked ends of which a wooden rod was laid transversely. To this crossbar, which was placed so high that it was possible to reach it while standing, they tied one thread next to the other, which formed the basis. The lower ends of these threads hung freely almost to the ground. So that they do not get tangled, they were pulled with suspensions.
Starting work, the weaver took the duck in her hand with a thread tied to it (a spindle could serve as a duck) and passed it through the warp in such a way that one hanging thread remained on one side of the duck, and the other on the other. A transverse thread, for example, could pass over the first, third, fifth, etc. and under the bottom of the second, fourth, sixth, etc. warp threads, or vice versa. This method of weaving literally repeated the technique of weaving and required a very long time to pass the weft thread either over or under the bottom of the corresponding warp thread. For each of these threads, a special movement was necessary. If there were one hundred threads in the warp, then one had to make one hundred movements to thread the weft in only one row. Soon, the ancient masters noticed that the weaving technique could be simplified. Indeed, if it were possible to immediately raise all the even or odd warp threads, the master would be spared the need to slip the ducks under each thread, but could immediately stretch it through the entire warp: a hundred movements would be replaced by one! A primitive device for separating threads - remez was invented already in antiquity. At first, a simple wooden rod served as a remez, to which the lower ends of the warp threads were attached through one (so, if the even ones were tied to the remez, then the odd ones continued to hang freely). Pulling the remez, the master immediately separated all the even threads from the odd ones and with one throw threw the ducks through the entire warp. True, during the reverse movement, the duck again had to go through all the even threads one by one. The work accelerated twice, but still remained laborious. However, it became clear in which direction to search: it was necessary to find a way to alternately separate either even or odd threads. At the same time, it was impossible to simply introduce a second Remez, because the first one would get in his way. Here a witty idea led to an important invention - laces began to be tied to weights at the lower ends of the threads. The second ends of the laces were attached to the remez boards (even to one, odd to the other). Now remez did not interfere with mutual work. Pulling first one remez, then another, the master successively separated either even or odd threads and threw the ducks over the warp. Work has accelerated tenfold. The manufacture of fabrics ceased to be weaving and became proper weaving. It is easy to see that with the method described above of attaching the ends of the warp threads to the tethers with the help of laces, not two, but more tethers can be used. For example, it was possible to tie every third or every fourth thread to a special plank. In this case, the methods of weaving the threads could be obtained in a variety of ways. On such a machine, it was possible to weave not only calico, but also twill or satin fabric. In subsequent centuries, various improvements were made to the loom (for example, they began to control the movement of the sheds with the help of a foot pedal, leaving the weaver's hands free), but the weaving technique did not fundamentally change until the XNUMXth century. An important drawback of the described machines was that, pulling the ducks either to the right or to the left, the master was limited by the length of his arm. Usually the width of the canvas did not exceed half a meter, and in order to get wider stripes, they had to be sewn together. A fundamental improvement in the loom was introduced in 1733 by the English mechanic and weaver John Kay, who created a design with an aircraft shuttle. The machine provided the threading of the shuttle between the warp threads. But the shuttle was not self-propelled: it was moved by a worker with the help of a handle connected to the blocks by a cord and setting them in motion. The blocks were constantly pulled by a spring from the middle of the machine to the edges. Moving along the guides, one or another block hit the shuttle. In the process of further development of these machines, an outstanding role was played by the Englishman Edmund Cartwright. In 1785, he created the first, and in 1792, the second design of a loom, which provides for the mechanization of all the main operations of hand weaving: hooking the shuttle, lifting the shaft, breaking the weft thread with a reed, winding the spare warp threads, removing the finished fabric and sizing the warp. A major achievement of Cartwright is the use of a steam engine to operate a loom.
Cartwright's predecessors solved the problem of mechanically driving a loom using a hydraulic motor. Later, the famous creator of automata, the French mechanic Vaucanson, designed one of the first mechanical looms with a hydraulic drive. These machines were very imperfect. By the beginning of the industrial revolution, in practice, mainly hand looms were used, which, naturally, could not meet the needs of the rapidly developing textile industry. In a handloom, the best weaver could throw the shuttle over the shed about 60 times per minute, in a steam loom - 140. A significant achievement in the development of textile production and a major event in the improvement of working machines was the invention by the Frenchman Jacquard in 1804 of a machine for patterned weaving. Jacquard invented a fundamentally new method of manufacturing fabrics with a complex large-pattern multi-color pattern, using a special device for this. Here, each of the warp threads passes through the eyes, made in the so-called faces. At the top, the faces are tied to vertical hooks, and weights are located below. A horizontal needle is connected to each hook, and they all pass through a special box that periodically reciprocates. On the other side of the device is a prism mounted on a rocking arm. A chain of perforated cardboard cards is put on the prism, the number of which is equal to the number of differently intertwined threads in the pattern and is sometimes measured in thousands. In accordance with the developed pattern, holes are made in the cards through which the needles pass during the next course of the box, as a result of which the hooks associated with them either take a vertical position or remain deflected.
The process of pharynx formation ends with the movement of the upper lattice, which drags along the vertically standing hooks, and with them the “faces” and those warp threads that correspond to the holes in the cards, after which the shuttle pulls the weft thread. Then the upper grate is lowered, the box of needles returns to its original position and the prism rotates, feeding the next card. The Jacquard machine provided weaving with multi-colored threads, automatically performing various patterns. When working on this loom, the weaver did not need virtuosity at all, and all his skill should have consisted only in changing the programming card when weaving a fabric with a new pattern. The loom worked at a speed that was completely inaccessible to a weaver working by hand. In addition to a complex and easily reconfigurable control system based on punched card programming, Jaccard's machine is remarkable for its use of the principle of servo action, embedded in the shedding mechanism, which was driven by massive linkage acting from a constant source of energy. In this case, only a tiny fraction of the power was expended in moving the hooked needles, and thus the high power was controlled by a small signal. The Jaccard mechanism provided automation of the work process, including pre-programmed actions of the working machine. A significant improvement in the loom, leading to its automation, belongs to the Englishman James Narthrop. In a short time, he managed to create a device that automatically replaces an empty shuttle with a full one when the machine stops and on the go. The Nartrop machine had a special shuttle magazine, similar to the magazine of cartridges in a rifle. The empty shuttle was automatically ejected and replaced with a new one. Interesting attempts to create a machine without a shuttle. Even in modern production, this direction is one of the most remarkable. Such an attempt was made by the German designer Johann Gebler. In his model, the warp thread was transmitted by means of anchors located on both sides of the loom. The movement of the anchors alternates and the thread is passed from one to the other. In the machine, almost all operations are automated, and one worker can serve up to twenty such machines. Without a shuttle, the entire design of the machine turned out to be much simpler and its operation much more reliable, since such parts as the shuttle, runner, etc., which were most susceptible to wear, disappeared. In addition, and this is perhaps of paramount importance, the exclusion of the shuttle ensured noiseless movement, which only the design of the machine tool from shock and shock, but also workers from significant noise. The technical revolution that began in the field of textile production quickly spread to other areas, where not only fundamental changes took place in the technological process and equipment, but new working machines were created: scutching machines - turning cotton bales into canvases, splitting and cleaning cotton, laying parallel to one to another fiber and pulling them out; carding - turning the canvas into a ribbon; tape - providing a more uniform composition of tapes, etc. At the beginning of the XIX century. Special machines for spinning silk, flax, and jute became widespread. Machines for knitting, for weaving lace are being created. The hosiery-knitting machine gained great popularity, performing up to 1500 loops per minute, while the most agile spinner made no more than a hundred loops before. In the 80-90s of the XVIII century. machines for basic knitting are being designed. Create tulle and sewing machines. Singer sewing machines are the most famous. The revolution in the method of manufacturing fabrics led to the development of such industries related to the textile industry as bleaching, calico printing and dyeing, which, in turn, forced attention to the creation of more advanced dyes and substances for bleaching fabrics. In 1785, K. L. Berthollet proposed a method for bleaching fabrics with chlorine. English chemist Smithson Tennant discovers a new method for making whitewash. Under the direct influence of textile processing technology, the production of soda, sulfuric and hydrochloric acid has developed. Thus, technology gave science a certain order and stimulated its development. However, regarding the interaction of science and technology during the period of the industrial revolution, it should be emphasized that a characteristic feature of the industrial revolution of the late XVIII - early XIX century. there was relatively little connection with science. It was a revolution in technology, a revolution based on practical research. Wyatt, Hargreaves, Crompton were artisans, so the main revolutionary events in the textile industry occurred without much influence from science. The most important consequence of the mechanization of textile production was the creation of a fundamentally new machine-factory system, which soon became the dominant form of labor organization, dramatically changing its nature, as well as the position of the workers. Author: Ryzhov K.V.
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