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HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY, TECHNOLOGY, OBJECTS AROUND US
A car. History of invention and production
Directory / The history of technology, technology, objects around us Passenger car - a car designed to carry passengers and luggage, with a capacity of 2 to 8 people. With more seats for passengers, the car is considered a bus (minibus). The first car was created in 1876. The official glory of the inventors of the car belongs to two German engineers - Benz and Daimler. Benz designed two-stroke gas engines and was the owner of a small plant for their production. The engines were in good demand and Benz's business flourished. Benz's dream was to create a self-propelled carriage with an internal combustion engine. Benz's own engine, like Otto's four-stroke engine, was not suitable for this, since they had a low speed.
Benz created and thought over the design of the car and the engine for it for twenty years. Finally, he managed to assemble a suitable four-stroke single-cylinder engine with 0,75 horsepower. Benz used gasoline as fuel, the ignition of the combustible mixture was carried out using an electric spark, and the battery served as a power source, from which current was supplied to the Rumkorff induction coil. To obtain a combustible mixture, Benz created one of the first carburetors in history. Made in the "bicycle era", this first car closely resembled a tricycle. It had a tubular frame, spoked tangent wheels and a chain drive and reached speeds of up to 13 kilometers per hour. At the same time as Benz, Daimler began producing cars. In 1883, he made his first gasoline engine, which he intended to use for transport. Just like Benz, Daimler considered a significant frequency of rotation of its shaft, provided by the intensive ignition of the combustible mixture, as an indicative feature of a "transport" engine. Already the first Daimler engines had a speed of up to 900 rpm, that is, 4-5 times more than that of Otto's stationary gas engines. They were designed exclusively for liquid fuel - gasoline or kerosene. Ignition, as in stationary engines, was carried out by an ignition tube. Due to the high rotational speed, the "transport" engines turned out to be much smaller and lighter than stationary ones. To protect the engines from dust and dirt, they were surrounded by special casings. A water cooling jacket and a plate radiator were provided. A crank was used to start the engine.
In 1885 Daimler put his gasoline engine on a bicycle, and in 1886 on a four-wheeled carriage. In 1889, this car was exhibited at an exhibition in Paris, where the French manufacturers Panhard, Levassor and Peugeot bought licenses for the Daimler engine. This deal proved to be very important for the history of the automotive industry. In 1890, Daimler teamed up with the wealthy businessman Dutten-Hofner to form the Daimler Motoren joint-stock company. In 1891, he produced the first four-cylinder automobile engine. The business of the company did not go well at first, but then quickly went uphill. A new era in the history of the automobile began in 1901, when the first Mercedes was produced by Daimler Motoren. The first Mercedes already had all the features of a modern car: a frame made of pressed steel profiles, a honeycomb bronze radiator, a real gearbox and a four-cylinder engine with a capacity of 35 horsepower, which allowed it to reach speeds of 70 kilometers per hour. This beautiful, elegant and reliable car was an incredible success. She won many races and spawned a lot of imitations. We can say that with the advent of the first "Mercedes" the childhood of the car ended and the rapid development of the automotive industry began. The Ford Model T, also known as the Tin Lizzie, was a car produced by the Ford Motor Company from 1908 to 1927. It was the first car in the world to be produced in millions of series. Henry Ford, in the opinion of many, "put America on wheels" by making a new passenger car relatively affordable for the middle class American. This was made possible thanks to such innovations as the use of a conveyor instead of individual manual assembly and a reasonable, without compromising quality, simplification of the design of the car, which made it possible to reduce the cost. The first copy of the "Model T" was built on September 27, 1908 at the Pickett factory in Detroit, Michigan.
Contrary to popular belief, the Model T, despite its maximally simplified design for the sake of mass production, was not inferior to most cars of its time in terms of technical characteristics, comfort and equipment, and in terms of overall dimensions and engine capacity it corresponded to modern middle-class models. A specific American school of car design originates from the Ford T: at that time in Europe, cars similar in size to the Ford T made up only a small part of the fleet, in the USA this size of cars is still the main one. Today there is a great variety of different cars, differing in purpose, nature of work, design. At the same time, they have a lot in common. According to the layout - this is the name of the relative position in the car of the most important units and components - there are four types of passenger models. With the classic layout, the engine is in front, and the drive wheels are in the back. In the case of a rear-engine layout, the engine is combined into a unit with a gearbox and final drive and is located in the tail section of the vehicle. And here the rear wheels are driving. Recently, passenger cars are more often produced with front-wheel drive. This makes the transfer easier. Front wheel drive design and cheaper to manufacture. In addition, it makes the car safer. With the rear drive wheels, the traction force (pushing force) in corners is directed tangentially to the trajectory of the car and tends to move the rear of the car outward relative to the turning arc. And the traction force of the front drive wheels is constantly directed along the course of the car and "drags" it along the chosen path. The all-wheel drive layout provides for the placement of the engine in the bow of the machine. All four wheels are driving. This layout is now used not only on off-road off-road vehicles, but also on conventional models. The basis of the car is the body, it accommodates passengers and luggage. Most modern passenger cars do not have a frame; their units, including wheel suspension, are attached to the body. In the right places, it is reinforced and takes all the loads. Therefore, the body is called the carrier. The most common body type "sedan" - closed, with two or four doors and a separate trunk. In the late 1960s, the hatchback body type came into use. With the rear seats folded down, the car can easily be turned into a cargo van. The station wagon is most often a five-door, but it is noticeably more spacious. The fifth door of the station wagon and hatchback is located in the rear wall of the body. Less common are cars with cabriolet bodies. At the request of the driver, their fabric awning with arcs is folded or raised by a hydraulic device. Sports models are often produced with cabriolet-type bodies. The limousine is still popular today. Behind the backs of the front seats there is always a lifting glass partition. Such bodies can be seen on representative models. In recent years, load-bearing bodies are made of steel coated on both sides with a layer of zinc. Such a body resists rust well and lasts ten years or more. It is in the body that everything that determines the comfort of a car is located: comfortable seats with mechanisms for adjusting them, power windows and door locks (often with electric drive), a complex heating and ventilation system, sometimes supplemented by air conditioning, not to mention various audio systems. On the instrument panel there are various buttons, toggle switches, switches, levers for controlling vehicle systems. Ingenious anti-theft devices, an opening sunroof, etc. are mounted in the body. The body structure must provide maximum protection to passengers. Therefore, multiple tests are carried out on the stands in order to minimize the possibility of injury in case of an accident from impacts on interior parts, steering column, body pillars, fly out through open doors or broken windows. Seat belts keep the driver and passengers in their places, and airbags protect the head, shoulders, body from impacts. The locks in the doors are designed in such a way as to prevent them from swinging open upon impact. The bars built into the doors protect against a side impact. The engine is the heart of the car. Gasoline-powered internal combustion engines continue to be the most common. Gasoline in them is sprayed by a carburetor or fuel injection system. Then it mixes with air in a certain proportion and enters the engine cylinders. There, the mixture instantly burns out, and the chemical energy is converted into mechanical energy. Mostly four-stroke engines are used. Here, the full working cycle in the cylinder is carried out in four strokes (cycles) of the piston up and down. First, the cylinder is filled with a combustible mixture through the valves in it, then the mixture is compressed, then it explodes, and finally, the cylinder is freed from combustion products.
Normally, the fuel is atomized in the carburetor due to vacuum in the intake ports of the cylinders. But now, more and more often, fuel is sprayed under pressure to form a working mixture. The turbocharging system is also increasingly used. Air is pumped into the cylinders by a centrifugal pump, the operation of which consumes part of the engine power. In a turbocharging system, these costs are eliminated by using the energy of the exhaust gases. They spin a miniature gas turbine that powers the pump. Car engines are often adapted to run on natural gas, a cleaner fuel. But while gasoline remains the main type of fuel. Along with gasoline internal combustion engines, diesel engines are widely used. In them, the fuel injected into the cylinders is ignited by air that is very hot up to eight hundred degrees when compressed. Diesel fuel - solar oil, gas oil - is cheaper than gasoline. But the cars themselves are more expensive, since diesel is much more complex and more metal-intensive. The cost of it pays off when the annual mileage is very high. This is why diesels are more commonly used on trucks and buses. The fuel pump is an important and fairly reliable part of the automotive fuel supply system, which includes a fuel tank, fuel lines, a fine filter, the fuel pump itself, a carburetor, an air filter, gauges and fuel level sensors. The fuel pump is used to pump the refined gasoline into the carburetor, from where it enters the cylinder block. The diaphragm-type gasoline pump is driven by an eccentric of the oil pump drive shaft. In the late 1930s, gearboxes appeared that shifted automatically in response to changes in engine performance. In such gearboxes there are no usual gears. Their basis is a torque converter, or hydromechanical transmission. The car motor rotates the pump that supplies oil to the turbine, and it is connected to the wheels. When the car is driving fast on a flat road, the oil flows at low pressure at high speed. If the car slowly climbs a hill or overcomes an obstacle, then the oil flows under high pressure at low speed.
Often the steering of the car is equipped with hydraulic, less often - electric power steering. However, at high speeds, assistance to the driver from the amplifier can be harmful. After all, the driver needs to quickly, without delay, drive the car. Therefore, progressive power steering appeared - the higher the speed, the less their help. In a modern car, there are almost no components and systems that would do without electronics. So, a special device - cruise control - allows the car, like an airliner operating on autopilot, to move at a given speed without the participation of the driver. The rain sensor, having recognized its first signs, turns on the wiper itself. The brushes work faster the harder it rains. You will not be surprised now with an on-board computer. The numbers and words on the display will tell the driver what the current fuel consumption is and how many kilometers it will last in the gas tank. The computer will help you choose the shortest path to your destination. The same on-board computer informs about problems in the car, about the approaching maintenance period. The car is powered by a battery. According to modern technologies, the battery is mounted in a plastic case. The battery cover is hermetically glued to the body, which is a guarantee against electrolyte leakage during operation. Both the battery case and the overall welded cap with caps are made of high quality and acid resistant polypropylene. Dry-charged batteries can have a high degree of dry battery charging due to the special impregnation of the charged plates. This guarantees the use of the battery within 30-40 minutes after the electrolyte is filled. Each lead plate of a modern rechargeable battery is enclosed in a special "envelope". During the operation of the car, and hence the battery, under harsh conditions, the destruction of charged plates begins. When using an "envelope", the sediment will not fall to the bottom of the case and will not cause a short circuit and battery failure. The use of new technologies has made it possible to increase the capacity and discharge current of the battery, which, in turn, improves the quality of car operation, especially in our climatic conditions. At the same time, the dimensions of the batteries remained the same. Of course, there is no car without brakes. A schematic diagram of a working brake system of a passenger car includes two subsystems - front and rear brake mechanisms and a brake drive. Any car has these units, but structurally they can be solved in different ways, that is, with the inclusion of additional units that improve the braking dynamics of the car.
They are drum and disc type. Most cars have disc brakes in the front and drum brakes in the back. On luxury cars and sports disc brakes are placed front and rear. A drum-type brake mechanism is a pair of brake shoes mounted inside a brake drum that rotates with the hub. The pads are fixed on a fixed brake shield, rest on the fingers and are pulled together by a spring. Friction linings are glued to the surface of the speakers facing the drum. When braking, the pads are moved apart by the pistons of the brake cylinder (or the brake fist, or the lever, with a mechanical brake drive, which is now found only in the parking brake system) until they come into contact with the drum, and the fastening of the pads ensures their free self-alignment relative to the drum. After stopping braking, the pads return to their original position by a spring. The disc type brake mechanism is a cast-iron brake disc mounted on the wheel hub. On both sides of this disc, flat brake pads with friction linings are placed, which are pressed against the disc by one or more brake cylinders. The design of disc brakes can be floating caliper or fixed caliper. The cylinders are fixed on the caliper, rigidly connected to the base of the hub. When braking, the pistons press the pads against the disc from both sides. After stopping braking, the pistons return to their original position due to the elasticity of the elastic rubber sealing rings located between the piston and the cylinder. The overlays are unclenched due to microbeating of the disc. The gap between the disc and lining is maintained automatically. Since a large amount of heat is released during braking due to friction, many machines use ventilated brake discs, that is, improved cooling of the discs by the oncoming air flow is structurally provided. Strict requirements are placed on the brake fluid, as it works in difficult conditions. When braking, the temperature of the brake pads can reach 600 degrees, and the brake fluid in the working cylinders heats up to 150 degrees. At these temperatures, there should be no change in the chemical composition of the liquid and it should never boil, since the presence of gas bubbles leads to brake failure. Thus, the boiling point of the brake fluid used in passenger cars must be at least 205 degrees when used under normal conditions and not lower than 230 degrees when used in conditions of frequent braking (for example, when driving in the mountains). During operation, the boiling point of the brake fluid decreases due to its high hygroscopicity and that is why it must be changed at least once every two years.
The hydraulic brake drive includes a brake pedal in the car, a vacuum booster. The vacuum booster reduces the force applied to the brake pedal when braking and makes driving easier. The reinforcing effect of the vacuum booster is based on the use of vacuum in the intake manifold of a running engine. The entire system is filled with brake fluid and sealed. For safety reasons, the hydraulic drive, as a rule, is made double-circuit, which makes it possible to maintain the operability of one pair of wheels in case of failure of the components of the circuit serving the second pair. Diagonal separation of circuits is considered safer, when one circuit serves one front and one rear wheel located diagonally. There are other circuit distribution schemes. On many modern vehicles, the brake actuation system includes an anti-lock braking system. The purpose of this system is to prevent the wheels from locking up during braking, since when the wheels are "skid", the braking distance increases significantly. The essence of its work is to regulate the magnitude of the force transmitted by the brake actuator to the brake mechanisms. Special sensors record the moment of blocking any wheel, transmit information about this to the anti-lock system, and it reduces the force transmitted to it by the drive. The wheel is unlocked and the braking performance is not reduced. The wheels are attached to the body or frame using a special mechanism - suspension. The latter must have an elastic element. Usually a spring is used as an elastic element. Other spring alternatives are air suspension or hydropneumatic suspension, which run on compressed gas. All shock absorbers work according to this principle: inside the shock absorber cylinder there is a rod with a piston that "walks" in oil. During operation of the shock absorber, oil flows through special holes in the piston. This creates the necessary resistance to the movement of the rod. Also, the shock absorber must have a container (compensation chamber) with a compressible gas (air or nitrogen). A piston moves inside the shock absorber and displaces excess fluid, causing the gas to compress. When air is used as gas, this shock absorber is called hydraulic. The disadvantage of air is that it “foams oil” with constant shaking, and with stronger shaking, low pressure bubbles can occur, which significantly reduces the efficiency of the shock absorber. Nitrogen is often used instead of air. Sometimes it is pumped under low pressure of several atmospheres. Such shock absorbers are called gas-filled low pressure. But nitrogen under low pressure did not fundamentally solve the problem of "foaming oil" and cavitation (that is, the formation of low pressure bubbles). The solution was found when the French engineer De Carbone pumped nitrogen into the expansion chamber at a pressure of more than 20 atmospheres and separated the nitrogen from the oil with a piston gasket that does not allow nitrogen and oil to come into contact with each other. This removed the problem of oil foaming and cavitation. The high-pressure nitrogen allows the piston valves to operate silently and quickly, and creates additional force on the stem. These shock absorbers work efficiently and accurately.
Gas-charged shock absorbers are not recommended for use on small cars, as the additional reinforcement on the body provided by such shock absorbers is harmful to the "crumbs". Recently, new developments have appeared. For example, the company "Kosh" produces shock absorbers with adjustable stiffness. The most "fancy" allows you to do this directly from the cabin. Such "steepness" is put on cars "Ferrari", "Maserati" and "Porsche". Firm "Sachs" has developed a system of automatic control of ride height (system Nivomat). Its meaning is that when the car is loaded, it "sags" and its ground clearance (clearance) changes. As soon as the car is loaded, the vibrations of the wheels during movement actuate a pump built into the shock absorber structure. This pump already after several hundred meters of driving restores the necessary ground clearance. After unloading the machine, the pump automatically adjusts to the old ride height. The wheels on the car are getting lighter. In their manufacture, aluminum alloys are being used instead of steel, which also remove heat well from the brakes. Hydraulic tires on car wheels in most cases consist of an annular rubber chamber filled with compressed air and the tire itself, or tire. Recently, tubeless tires have been widely used. At the junction of the tire and wheel, tightness is ensured, which prevents leakage of compressed air.
In the conditions of the Russian winter it is necessary to use winter tires. It provides much better grip, the braking distance decreases, the car breaks into a skid at high speed, etc. There are two types of it - simple with a winter tire and studded. Winter tires have an anti-slip rubber compound. The tire should have wide and deep grooves between the blocks, which provide good grip on snow. Well-placed studs do not follow the marks of other studs, which provides better traction on ice and packed snow. Traditionally spikes are made of aluminum with a carbide core. Typically, the core protrudes 0,6-1,2 mm above the surface. In new developments, the carbide stud is placed in a high-strength plastic bushing. This allows the spikes to sit more firmly in the sockets. Car manufacturers are constantly improving their products. All plants have their own winter ranges or rent them. Usually these polygons are located in the North or in the Alps. It is there that tests of new products are carried out, it is there that they are looking for a compromise between the various characteristics of tires. After all, usually if one of the properties improves, then this leads to a deterioration in others. Therefore, it is very important for an enterprise to find a "golden mean". Today, there are more and more environmental requirements for the car. Catalytic converters help keep the air clean, decomposing harmful impurities in the exhaust gases into harmless substances. To speed up the decomposition reaction, a thin layer of platinum or rhodium is applied to the inner surface of the converter, which serve as catalysts. Author: Musskiy S.A.
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