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HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY, TECHNOLOGY, OBJECTS AROUND US
Spaceships. History of invention and production
Directory / The history of technology, technology, objects around us Spacecraft "Soyuz" In 1960, at the dawn of the practical exploration of space, the Design Bureau under the leadership of Sergei Pavlovich Korolev formulated proposals for the creation of means for orbital assembly. It was emphasized, in particular, that one of the most important tasks is the rendezvous and assembly of spacecraft in the orbits of artificial earth satellites. It was noted that the maintenance of permanently operating manned satellites (crew change, delivery of food, special equipment, etc.) is associated with regular rendezvous and dockings in orbit, the experience gained in this matter will allow, if necessary, to successfully rescue the crews of manned satellites and spacecraft. The ships "Vostok" and "Voskhod" performed a limited range of scientific and technical tasks, mainly experimental research. The new spacecraft of the Soyuz series were designed for relatively long flights, maneuvering, rendezvous and docking in near-Earth orbits.
On March 10, 1962, Korolev approves a technical prospectus entitled "Complex for assembling spacecraft in orbit of an Earth satellite (subject "Soyuz")". For the first time, this document substantiates the possibility of using a modification of the Vostok-7 spacecraft with an assembler cosmonaut on board to practice docking and assembly in orbit. To do this, the ship was supposed to be equipped with rendezvous and docking systems, as well as a sustainer remote control of multiple inclusion and a system of mooring and orientation micromotors. "Vostok-7" could be used to assemble a space rocket in orbit of an artificial Earth satellite, consisting of three identical rocket blocks. With the help of such a space rocket, it was proposed to fly around the Moon by a special L1 spacecraft with a crew of one to three people. After some time, a second prospectus appeared, entitled "Assembly of Spacecraft in Earth Satellite Orbit", approved by S.P. Korolev on May 10, 1963. In it, the theme "Union" already sounds clearly and convincingly. The main object of the document is a complex consisting of booster blocks of tanker spacecraft for refueling and Soyuz, which are sequentially launched and docked in orbit. In the prospectus, two main tasks were set: to work out docking and assembly in orbit and to fly around the Moon with a manned vehicle. According to Korolev, linking the solutions to these two tasks ensured the priority of the USSR in space exploration. In connection with the development of a variant of direct flight around the Moon by the L1 spacecraft, the Soyuz program was aimed at testing the rendezvous and docking of the spacecraft, followed by the transfer of crew members from ship to ship. The draft design of the Soyuz, signed in 1965, already reflected the new tactical and technical requirements for the ship. Development of the unmanned Soyuz began on November 28, 1966 with the launch of the Cosmos-133 satellite. After an unsuccessful attempt to launch an unmanned Soyuz in December 1966, which ended in a launch vehicle failure and an emergency rescue system at the start, on February 7, 1967, the second unmanned Soyuz (Cosmos-140) made an orbital flight with a landing in the Aral Sea. . The first manned flight on Soyuz-1 was made on April 23-24, 1967 by cosmonaut V.M. Komarov, however, due to the failure of the parachute systems during the descent, the flight ended in disaster. The first automatic docking was performed on September 30, 1967 by the unmanned satellites Kosmos-186 and -187 and repeated on April 15, 1968 by the satellites Kosmos-212 and Kosmos-213. After the unmanned flight of the Soyuz spacecraft (satellite Kosmos-238), launched on August 28, 1968, regular Soyuz flights began. In fact, the task of the Soyuz program - the docking of manned spacecraft with the passage of cosmonauts through space - was completed on January 16, 1969 during the flight of the Soyuz-4 and -5 spacecraft with cosmonauts V.A. Shatalov, B.V. Volynov, A.S. Eliseev and E.V. Khrunov. The remaining Soyuz spacecraft were redirected to perform technological experiments in formation flight and long flight. In October 1969, under the Soyuz program, a group flight of three spacecraft took place - Soyuz-6, Soyuz-7 and Soyuz-8 with seven cosmonauts on board. The mere fact of launching three spacecraft in a row from the same spaceport at minimum intervals was a significant technical achievement. The experience gained in this experiment in controlling formation flight was of great importance. The whole system, which consisted of three spacecraft, a ground-based command and measurement complex, a group of research vessels and the Molniya-1 communications satellite, operated smoothly. A unique experiment was carried out aboard the Soyuz-6 - welding in space. It was produced on a specially designed Vulcan welding machine. The Vulcan's welding unit was mounted in the orbital compartment, and the remote control was in the ship's cabin. The orbital compartment was depressurized and welding was performed in three ways: compressed arc, electron beam, and consumable electrode. During the experiment, welding of thin-sheet stainless steel and titanium, cutting of stainless steel, titanium and aluminum, and processing of non-metallic materials were carried out. Then the orbital compartment was sealed again, the cosmonauts dismantled the installation, transferred the samples to the descent vehicle and subsequently delivered them to Earth. The successful experiment opened up prospects for construction and installation work in space. On June 1, 1970, a new "Union" was launched - the ninth. This flight provided invaluable material for the further development of astronautics. Biomedical studies of the influence of long-term space flight factors on the human body were especially valuable. Ship commander A.G. Nikolaev, who made his second space flight, and flight engineer V.I. Sevastyanov then set a world record for the duration of a space flight. They worked in Earth orbit for 424 hours. The flight program was full of many experiments on autonomous navigation in space, scientific research of near-Earth space.
The Soyuz ship has impressive dimensions. Its length is about 8 meters, the largest diameter is about 3 meters, the weight before the start is almost 7 tons. All compartments of the ship are covered on the outside with a special heat-insulating "blanket" that protects the structure and equipment from overheating in the sun and too much cooling in the shade. There are three compartments in the ship: orbital, instrumentation and descent vehicle. The orbital compartment is shaped like two hemispheres connected by a cylindrical insert. On the outer surface of the orbital compartment, large and small antennas of the ship's radio systems, television cameras and other equipment are installed. In the orbital compartment, astronauts work and rest during their orbital flight. It houses scientific equipment, crew berths, and various household appliances. On the upper hemisphere of the compartment there is a frame on which the docking unit is installed, and a hatch for transfer to the ship with which the Soyuz is docking. A round hatch connects the orbital compartment with the descent vehicle. "The descent vehicle has a segmental-conical shape, reminiscent of a headlight," L.A. Gilberg writes in his book. longitudinal axis This allows for a controlled descent - to reduce overloads to 3-4 units and significantly increase the accuracy of landing. A durable heat-shielding coating is applied to the outer surface of the descent vehicle; the lower part of the apparatus, which cuts through the air during descent and is most susceptible to aerodynamic heating, is covered with a special heat shield, which is dropped after the parachute opens to lighten the astronauts' cabin before landing. At the same time, powder engines of a soft landing, covered by a screen, are opened, which are switched on just before contact with the Earth and soften the shock during landing. The descent vehicle has two portholes with heat-resistant glass, a hatch leading to the orbital compartment. Outside there is an optical sight, which makes it easier for the astronauts to navigate and allows them to observe another ship during mooring and docking. In the lower part along the circumference of the descent vehicle there are six engines of the descent control system, which are used during the return of the vehicle to Earth. These thrusters help keep the lander in position to exploit its aerodynamic qualities. In the upper part of the descent vehicle there are compartments with the main and reserve parachutes. The instrument-aggregate compartment of a cylindrical shape with a small conical "skirt" is docked to the descent vehicle and is designed to accommodate most of the ship's onboard equipment and its propulsion systems. Structurally, the compartment is divided into three sections: transitional, instrumental and aggregate. The instrument section is a sealed cylinder. It contains radio communication and radio telemetry equipment, devices of the orientation and motion control system, some units of thermal control and power supply systems. The other two sections are not sealed. The main propulsion system of the spacecraft is located in the instrument-assembly compartment, which is used for maneuvering in orbit and braking during descent. It consists of two powerful liquid propellant rocket engines. One of them is the main, the other is the backup. With the help of these engines, the ship can move to another orbit, approach or move away from the orbital station, slow down the movement to switch to a descent trajectory. After braking in orbit, the compartments of the ship are separated from each other. The orbital and instrument-aggregate compartments burn up in the atmosphere, and the descent vehicle lands in a given landing area. When 9-10 kilometers remain to the Earth, the parachute system is activated. First, the brake parachute opens, and then the main one. On it, the device makes a smooth descent. Just before touchdown, at a height of one meter, the soft landing engines are switched on. The thruster system consists of 14 docking and attitude thrusters and 8 fine attitude thrusters. In the instrument-aggregate compartment there are also hydraulic units of the thermal control system, fuel tanks, ball cylinders of the pressurization system of the executive bodies, accumulators of the power supply system. Solar panels are also a source of electricity. Two panels of these batteries with a useful area of about 9 square meters are fixed outside on the instrument-aggregate compartment. On the edges of the batteries there are on-board lights of red, green and white colors, which help to navigate when mooring and docking ships. A ribbed radiator-emitter of the thermal control system is also installed outside, which allows you to remove excess heat from the ship into space. There are many antennas on the instrument-aggregate compartment - radiotelephone communication of the ship with the Earth at short and ultrashort waves, a radio telemetry system, trajectory measurements - and sensors of the orientation and motion control system. The experience of using the Soyuz spacecraft and the Salyut stations has shown that it is necessary to improve the orbital complexes not only to increase the duration of the stations, expand the programs and scope of research, but also to increase the capabilities of the transport ship, increase crew safety, and improve operational characteristics. To solve these problems, a new ship, the Soyuz T, was created on the basis of the Soyuz. Original design solutions made it possible to increase the crew size to three people. The ship was equipped with new onboard systems, including a computer system, a combined propulsion system, solar panels, and a life support system for autonomous flight. The designers paid special attention to high reliability and flight safety. The ship made it possible to control in automatic and manual modes, including the descent section, even in such a difficult calculated contingency as depressurization of the descent vehicle in orbit. The duration of the Soyuz T flight as part of the station was increased to 180 days. All these new technical solutions fully justified themselves during the flight of cosmonauts V. Dzhanibekov and V. Savinykh to Salyut-7, which was in free drift. After docking, the ship, with its resources, enabled the crew to carry out restorative repairs to the station. Another no less striking example is the flight of cosmonauts L. Kizim and V. Solovyov from the Mir station to Salyut-7 and back with a cargo weighing up to 400 kilograms. Further development of the space program in order to create a permanent orbital complex required the improvement of the Soyuz T spacecraft. The developers were faced with the task of ensuring the ship's compatibility with the Mir station, increasing its energy capabilities and improving on-board systems. As I. Minyuk writes in the journal "Aviation and Cosmonautics": "The need to increase the energy of space vehicles is due to the fact that the Soyuz T spacecraft ensured the delivery of a crew of three people only to an orbit with a height of about 300 kilometers. But the stable orbit of the station lies higher 350 kilometers. The way out was found by reducing the "dry" weight of the ship, using lighter high-strength material for parachute systems and a new propulsion system for the emergency rescue system. This made it possible to increase the height of the docking of the three-seat Soyuz TM spacecraft with the Mir station to 350-400 kilometers and to increase the mass of the delivered cargo. At the same time, its on-board systems were being improved, including radio communications for the crew to communicate with the Earth, angular velocity meters, a propulsion system with sectioned storage of fuel supplies, and also heat-protective clothing for cosmonauts. It should be noted that Soyuz TM as part of the orbital complex can reserve some of the station's functions. So, it is able to carry out the necessary orientation and orbit ascent, provide power, and its thermal control system is able to dump excess heat generated in the orbital complex. On the basis of Soyuz, another spacecraft has been created that ensures the functioning of long-term orbital stations - this is Progress. This is the name of a disposable automatic cargo transport spacecraft. Its mass after refueling and loading is a little more than 7 tons. The Progress automatic cargo spacecraft is designed to deliver various cargoes and fuel to the Salyut orbital stations for refueling the station's propulsion system. Although it resembles the Soyuz in many ways, there are significant differences in its design. This ship also consists of three compartments, but their purpose and, consequently, the design is different. The cargo ship must not return to Earth. Naturally, it does not include a descent vehicle. After fulfilling its function, it undocks from the orbital station, orients itself accordingly, the braking engine is turned on, the device enters the dense layers of the atmosphere above the calculated area of the Pacific Ocean and ceases to exist. Instead of the descent vehicle, there is a compartment for transporting fuel - fuel and oxidizer, and the orbital compartment in Progress has turned into a cargo compartment. In it, supplies of food and water, scientific equipment, replaceable blocks of various systems of the orbital station are delivered into orbit. All this cargo weighs more than two tons. The instrument-aggregate compartment of the Progress is similar to the analogous compartment of the Soyuz spacecraft. But it also has some differences. After all, Progress is an automatic ship, and therefore all systems and units here work only independently or on commands from the Earth. Manned cargo ships are constantly being improved. Since 1987, cosmonauts have been delivered to orbital stations and returned to Earth on a modified Soyuz TM spacecraft. Modified and cargo "Progress". Apollo 11 spacecraft The idea of a flight to the Moon arose as a reaction to the systematic lag of American specialists behind Soviet specialists at the initial stage of space exploration. The launch in the USSR of the world's first artificial Earth satellite was regarded in the United States as "...a devastating blow to the prestige of the United States." As for the flights of automatic stations to the Moon, the Soviet Luna-1 and Luna-2 spacecraft proved to be the first here too. An attempt to get ahead of the Soviet Union in launching a man into space brought new disappointment - the first cosmonaut was a Soviet citizen Yu.A. Gagarin. In May 1961, President John F. Kennedy set the goal of landing the first people on the moon before the end of the decade, despite the fact that no one then imagined how to do this. It was a political action - the White House's ambitious response to the first manned flight into space. The program cost $24 billion. In the course of work on the Apollo program, many scientific and technical problems had to be solved. First of all, it was necessary to thoroughly study the radiation and meteor conditions along the flight path, as well as the features of the lunar surface. For this purpose, since 1958, American specialists have been launching Pioneer spacecraft, which in 1961 gave way to the new Ranger stations. However, until 1964, all launches were disappointing, not a single device before Ranger-7 completed its tasks in full. In May 1966, research began using the Surveyor apparatus, which was intended for landing on the moon. In August of the same year, the first apparatus of the Lunar Orbiter series was launched, photographing the surface of the Moon from a selenocentric orbit in order to map and select a landing site for future expeditions.
Under the leadership of the well-known German specialist in the field of rocket technology, Wernher von Braun, powerful launch vehicles were developed that can put more than 100 tons of payload into low Earth orbit. The first flight of Saturn 1 took place on October 27, 1961. The rocket itself weighed 512 tons, and could launch up to 10 tons into space. In 1966, Saturn-1B delivered 18 tons of cargo into orbit. A three-stage Saturn-5 launch vehicle was intended directly for the flight to the Moon. The first launch of this huge rocket, reaching a length of almost 111 meters, took place on November 9, 1967. The Saturn-185 could deliver 5 tons of payload to an orbit with a height of 139 kilometers, and up to 50 tons when put on a flight path to the Moon. The mass of the Apollo spacecraft ranged from 42,8 to 56,8 tons. From March 1965 to November 1966, ten crews flew on the two-seat Gemini spacecraft, and from October 1968, space experiments began on the Apollo spacecraft. Not everything went smoothly, there were equipment failures and other malfunctions common for the stages of experimental development of space technology. The astronauts also had to get acquainted with space motion sickness. In one form or another, the effect of weightlessness was felt by about a third of the astronauts. They experienced indigestion, nausea, and vomiting. Each Apollo flight was a marked step forward from the one before it, each flight having a new element tested in orbit for the first time. Since the beginning of 1964, four Ranger probes have successfully landed on the Moon, five Surveyor stations have made a soft landing, and three Orbiter satellites have been launched into its orbit. The first Apollo, with three astronauts on board, was to go on an experimental flight around the Earth in early 1967. And then a year later, as the optimists predicted, the first crew could go to the Moon. These plans were broken by the fateful Friday, January 27th. During one of the last pre-launch trainings, the entire crew died due to a fire in the Apollo cabin. The investigation showed that the fire was most likely caused by a spark in the ship's electrical wiring. The oxygen atmosphere and the presence of a range of flammable materials in the cockpit contributed to the rapid spread of the fire. On January 9, 1969, the newly elected director of NASA, Dr. Thomas Paine, introduced the crew that was supposed to go to the moon - Armstrong, Aldrin and Collins. “When our crew was approved in January for the flight to the Moon on Apollo 11, the goal seemed still fantastic and unattainable,” Armstrong later recalled. “Many questions remained unanswered. There were only unconfirmed theories. Lunar Module while waiting for his first practical exam, scientists continued to solve some of the mysteries of the lunar surface.In the meantime, even the following question was not answered: is it possible from Earth to maintain radio contact with two spacecraft at the same time?I was almost sure that we would not be able to land on Moon from Apollo 11. At the beginning of March, Apollo 9 launched into space with all the lunar equipment, primarily with the lunar module. Astronauts James McDivitt, David Scott, and Russell Schweikart performed all the operations under Earth control that would enable their happier colleagues to land on the Moon in the future. Scott and Schweikart moved away in the lunar module from the main ship at a distance of 180 kilometers. In the second half of May, Apollo 10 set off for the Moon. Thomas Stafford, Eugene Kenan and John Young had the difficult task of linking the main lines of work of the two previous expeditions. This they actually succeeded in doing. Stafford and Kenan approached the lunar surface by almost 16 kilometers in the lunar module. In January, Armstrong was almost certain that Apollo 11 would not be able to land on the moon. “But after the successful flights of Apollo 9 and Apollo 10, I changed my mind,” he later said. “Landing on the Moon moved more and more into the realm of real possibilities.” Filled with 1300 tons of propellant, Apollo 11 launched on July 16, 1969. On board the Apollo 11 spacecraft, a crew worked, all of whose members had already been in space. A few tens of minutes after the launch, the astronauts turned on the third-stage engine for a minute. Thus, they brought the ship out of low Earth orbit and headed for the moon. Then the command and instrumentation compartment, at the end of which the lunar module was placed in an aerodynamic container, was disconnected from the third stage of the rocket. So far, the astronauts have not had the opportunity to visit the lunar lander, since it was separated by a service module. The time that the designers had at their disposal did not allow them to develop another solution. The main block of the Apollo consisted of a pressurized flight deck, pitch orientation, roll orientation, yaw orientation and additional engines. On board were tanks with fuel for the propulsion engine and tanks with liquid oxygen and hydrogen. Communication was carried out through a highly directional antenna. Collins maneuvered the ship in such a way that the commander's compartment and the lunar module turned head-on - in other words, docking nodes to each other. Both objects are docked. If this operation had failed for some reason, the astronauts would not have been able to land on the moon - there would have been no descent vehicle. The flight passed without any complications. Approximately 76 hours after launch, Apollo 11 became a moon satellite. Apollo 11 made one orbit around the moon in exactly 2 hours 8 minutes 37 seconds. Of this time, 49 minutes the ship was out of sight from Earth and had no connection with Houston. On the second orbit, the cosmonauts transmitted a television report. Before evening, they once again carried out an orbit correction - they flew at an altitude of 99,3-121,3 kilometers at a speed of 1,6 kilometers per second. Finally, we checked all the instruments in the command compartment and the lunar module. 100 hours and 15 minutes after launch, the Eagle module turns on small thrusters and separates from the ship. Both of them are moving along the same path. The module sails away from the ship at a distance of four kilometers. Houston gave the two astronauts in the lunar module permission to land. Above the far side of the Moon, the engine was supposed to turn on again, and the ship entered the descending orbit. The ignition of the lunar cabin engine is switched on. Now it will be turned off only after landing on the moon. Height - almost 13 thousand meters above the surface of the moon. The crew and the control center mutually assure each other that the descent is proceeding normally. "Eagle": "... And the Earth is only in the front window. Houston, look at our delta H! Alarm!" Altitude 7000 meters, speed - 400 meters per second. Houston: "We think you're doing great, Eagle!" Altitude 4160 meters, speed - 230 meters per second. After a short time, the astronauts will turn on the P-64 program. The lunar module, which until now has been flying "feet first" along an elongated ellipse, slowly but surely approaching the lunar surface, at the eighth minute of its descent, hangs almost like a helicopter. Now Armstrong switches control from the on-board computer to himself, thereby relieving pressure from the computer for more important programs. At first, it was supposed to land on the moon in the Western Crater. “But the closer we went down to it, the clearer it became that this place was not very friendly. Boulders the size of at least a Volkswagen were scattered everywhere. It seemed to us that the rocks were flying at us with great speed. Undoubtedly, it would be interesting to land among these stones - it would be possible to take samples directly from the crater. Scientists would, of course, be interested. But, in the end, reason won." The astronauts would hardly have survived landing on the moon on this field of stones. With a twenty second delay, Armstrong turns off the P-64 and turns on the P-66. The program for the semi-automatic landing of the P-65, according to which the machines would control the descent to the last meter, cannot be applied. And the astronauts leave the completely manual control under the P-67 program as a last resort. “We toiled horizontally over the scattered rocks and were looking for some place to land,” the ship’s commander said in a somewhat cheeky tone about the dramatic events over the Moon. “We found several of them and thoroughly examined them. closer to the place we liked." The lunar cabin landed safely in the area of the Sea of Tranquility on July 20, 1969 at 20 hours 17 minutes 41 seconds GMT.
On the Moon, astronauts worked in spacesuits. Life support systems: compressed air cylinders, carbon dioxide and water vapor absorbers, designed for 7 hours of normal and 1,5 hours of emergency work, were behind the back, which is why they are called knapsacks. At 2:56 a.m., Armstrong stepped onto the surface of the moon. "This is a small step for man, but a huge leap for mankind," he said his first phrase on the moon. He spoke about his impressions, took several photographs and began to collect an emergency set of lunar soil samples. His general condition was satisfactory. The astronaut commented on all his actions. He spoke concisely, but often enthusiastically. So, about one of the moonstones that Aldrin liked, Armstrong said: "It (the stone) is like the best dessert in the United States." At 109:42 onboard time, Aldrin also landed on the Moon. Both astronauts entered the field of view of a television camera aimed at the lunar cabin. Armstrong peeled off the silver foil from the surface of the cabin, under which was a plate with the inscription: "Here people from the planet Earth first set foot on the moon, July 1969 CE. We come in peace from all mankind." The plate was signed by all members of the Apollo 11 crew and US President R. Nixon. The astronauts planted a US flag on the surface of the Moon, a device for studying the solar wind and tested various methods of movement: normal, jumping (pushing off with one foot) and running "kangaroo" (jumping, pushing off with two legs). The ground operator invited them to enter the frame of the TV camera. They were briefly addressed by President Nixon, who was in the Oval Office of the White House. After a conversation with the president, the astronauts collected the main set of lunar rocks, installed a seismograph and a laser reflector on the surface, and began to prepare to return to the cabin. Outside the cockpit, Armstrong spent 2 hours and 30 minutes, Aldrin - 20 minutes less. At 124 hours 22 minutes onboard time, the takeoff stage of the lunar cabin successfully launched from the Moon. The return of Apollo 11 to Earth passed without any complications, and on July 24, 1969, its crew compartment splashed down twenty kilometers from the Hornet aircraft carrier that met it. Thus ended this historic flight. While America was honoring its heroes, a new ship, Apollo 12, was preparing for launch at the cosmodrome. The launch took place on November 14, 1969 and almost became fatal for the astronauts. On that day, heavy thunderclouds hung over the cosmodrome, and when the rocket flew through them, an atmospheric electrical discharge arose, which caused malfunctions on board. After 16 seconds, the discharge arose again, the astronauts saw a bright flash in the cabin, after which a lot of emergency signals lit up on the remote control. It was a very stressful moment of the flight. Fortunately, everything worked out, and the further flight did not cause new complications. The greatest test fell on the crew of Apollo 13, which launched on April 11, 1970. On board were J. Lovell (commander), J. Swigert and F. Hayes. On April 14, when the ship was 330 kilometers from Earth, the astronauts heard a faint sound of an explosion coming from the engine compartment. A few minutes later, one of the fuel cell stacks was damaged, followed by another 20 minutes later. The remaining third battery could not provide the ship with electricity. In fact, the crew compartment was out of order, and if this happened during the return from the moon, the crew would inevitably die. Under the circumstances, the astronauts had to rely on the energy resources of the lunar cabin. The crew began to fight for life. "Apollo" in accordance with the laws of mechanics continued to fly to the moon. It was necessary to correct its trajectory. Since it was dangerous to turn on the sustainer engine intended for this - it could be damaged by an explosion - it remained to hope for a landing stage engine designed for only one long-term inclusion. But the astronauts had to turn it on three times! On April 15, at 5:30, the situation in the lunar cabin became threatening - the content of carbon dioxide increased to a level dangerous for the life of astronauts. The absorber cartridges were not designed for such a long work and could not cope with air purification for three crew members. The astronauts disconnected two hoses from their suits, one of which they extended from the fan in the lunar cabin to the absorber inlet in the crew compartment, and the second from the absorber outlet to the lunar cabin. To attach the hoses to the absorber, plastic food bags and adhesive tape were used. The content of carbon dioxide began to decrease rapidly and soon reached an acceptable value. At 23:10 p.m., a signal appeared that one of the chemical batteries was overheating. An analysis carried out on Earth showed that the alarm turned out to be false - the battery is working normally, only the sensor that measured its temperature failed. The gas escaping from the engine compartment twisted the ship and made it difficult to communicate with the Earth. NASA management has attracted a radio telescope located in Australia. On April 16, the pressure in one of the helium cylinders increased. As a result, the safety valve worked, and the escaping gas began to rapidly spin the ship. True, helium reserves were enough to ensure the start of the engine for correction. The lack of energy on board led to a deformation of the thermal regime. Shortly after the accident, the cabin temperature dropped to 11 degrees Celsius. The flight of Apollo 13, despite all the difficulties, ended happily. Emaciated, exhausted by the struggle for survival, sick people descended to Earth. After this flight to the Moon, four more expeditions were launched. These flights were successful in all respects, there were no more serious complications. On some expeditions, astronauts traveled on the Moon using the Rover, a wheeled vehicle powered by batteries. The lunar soil delivered by astronauts to Earth allowed scientists to expand their knowledge about the Moon. The assumption was confirmed that it is sterile and there is no life on it. The hypothesis that the Moon repeats the appearance of the Earth was refuted. It turned out that the Moon was formed independently, although its age coincides with the age of the Earth. In total, the astronauts traveled about 30 kilometers on the moon rover and delivered about 500 kilograms of lunar rocks to Earth. Author: Musskiy S.A.
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