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HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY, TECHNOLOGY, OBJECTS AROUND US
Stone processing. History of invention and production
Directory / The history of technology, technology, objects around us As economic activity became more complex, man began to feel the need for more advanced tools with carefully finished blades. Their manufacture required new techniques in stone processing. About eight thousand years ago, people mastered the technique of sawing, drilling and grinding. These discoveries were so important that they caused a real revolution in the development of society, called the Neolithic revolution. A person learned to saw when he noticed that a serrated knife cuts better than a smooth one. As you know, the action of the saw is based on the fact that its cutters, or teeth, when the strip moves, consistently penetrate the material and remove a layer of a certain depth in it. It turns out like a system of knives. The oldest primitive saw that has come down to us was entirely made of flint. Working on it required great physical effort, but it made it possible to successfully cope with sawing wood and bone. At the end of the Mesolithic, in a number of places in the Middle East, the process of establishing a manufacturing economy (agriculture and cattle breeding) began. In other areas, the transition from an appropriating economy to a productive one, from hunting to agriculture and cattle breeding began to take place during the Neolithic, Eneolithic and Bronze Ages. The Neolithic, the New Stone Age, got its name because of the widespread introduction of new methods of processing large stone tools - grinding, drilling and sawing. These techniques allowed a person to move on to the processing of new, harder types of stone: jade, jadeite, jasper, basalt, diorite, etc., which began to serve as the raw material for creating large-stone axes, adzes, chisels, pickles, hoes. The blank for the future tool was made either in the old way - by chipping, or using a new method - sawing. The necessary geometric shape of the workpiece was created, which was then polished. Dry and wet grinding of stone tools was used. According to S. A. Semenov, it took 2,5-3 hours to make a polished ax from hard rocks of slate, 10-15 hours to make it from jade when grinding the working edge, and 20-25 hours to polish the entire ax.
The first polished tools appeared in the Mesolithic, but it was in the Neolithic that they became widespread. Polished guns were even more effective. If the flint plates of lined tools were connected to the handle with the help of bitumen, it was impossible to fasten large-stone tools with a wooden or bone handle in this way. I had to find a new way - drilling holes. Even during the Upper Paleolithic, beads and pendants made of stone with holes appeared. Holes of a larger diameter in stone objects began to be punched, but at the same time, holes of a biconical shape were obtained, inconvenient for mounting a stone tool on a wooden handle. Cylindrical holes were required for a tight connection. The mastering of the technique of drilling cylindrical holes dates back to the Neolithic period, when tubular bones or bamboo trunks began to be used for these purposes. Quartz sand served as an abrasive. The production of rigid-compound tools began. The use of sawing, drilling, grinding made it possible to achieve a certain shape, cleanliness of the surface of the tool. Work with polished tools reduced the resistance of the material of the workpiece, which led to an increase in labor productivity.
New techniques for making an ax increased the efficiency of its use. It was difficult to work on wood with Upper Paleolithic axes, made by double-sided upholstering of stone nodule, fastened with a wooden handle with straps, it was difficult to work on wood, since the blow of such an ax did not chop the tree, but macerated it. With polished stone axes, rigidly fastened to a wooden handle by means of drilled cylindrical holes, they began to chop wood, hollow out boats, and build dwellings. Polished axes were of great economic importance among the tribes that occupied the forest regions: without such a tool in these regions, the transition to agriculture would have been impossible.
Sawing stone took even more time and effort. It developed gradually, but only in the Neolithic era this technique became widespread. The saw was usually a toothed flint blade, under which quartz sand moistened with water was sprinkled. Sawing was rarely through. Usually the master made only a deep inscription, and then with a calculated blow of a wooden mallet he broke the stone into two parts. Thanks to sawing, the correct geometric shapes of products became available to people, which was very important in the manufacture of tools. Simultaneously with sawing, the technique of drilling stone developed. This technique was very important in the manufacture of composite instruments. People have long noticed that the most comfortable and durable axes are obtained when the handle is tightly hammered into the hole of the ax itself, and not tied to it. But how to make the right hole in solid stone? The answer to this important question has been hidden from man for many millennia. As in the case of sawing, the ancient masters first mastered the drilling of soft materials.
In ancient times, when a person needed to make a hole in a tree or bone, he resorted to knocking out. At least, this was the way some primitive peoples made holes until recently. It is possible that during this operation, rotating a stone punch in the hole, the ancient master discovered that drilling requires much less effort. Drilling also had the important advantage that it made it possible to make a hole in hard and brittle materials. The first drill, apparently, was an ordinary stick, to the end of which a stone point was attached. The master simply rolled it between the palms. A significant shift in drilling occurred after the bow method was invented in the Neolithic era, in which the rotation of the drill was achieved by turning the bow. With one hand, the master shook the bow, and with the other he pressed the drill from above. Then the stone drill began to be replaced with a hollow animal bone of large diameter. Inside it, quartz sand was poured, which played the role of an abrasive. It was a fundamental and very important improvement that greatly expanded the possibilities of drilling. In the course of work, the sand gradually woke up from the cavity of the drill under the edges of the crown and slowly abraded the drilled stone. Since the success of drilling largely depended on the force of pressure, later artificial weighting agents began to be used. When sawing and drilling were supplemented with grinding, the ancient man completely mastered the entire technology of stone processing. From now on, nothing was impossible for him - he could give the product any desired shape, and at the same time, the edges always remained smooth and even. The essential difference between stone grinding and other processing methods was that it was possible to remove the material in very small and even layers, and simultaneously from the entire surface of the workpiece. Thanks to this, it became possible to create tools of regular geometric shapes with a smooth surface. Grinding made it possible to process material of any shape, structure and hardness.
In the early stages, the workpiece, apparently, was simply polished on a rough stone. Then, quartz sand was poured between the workpiece and the grinding stone. This significantly speeded up the processing. Finally, the process of wet grinding was mastered, when the grinding plate was plentifully and often poured with water. Thus, the grinding time of even a very hard workpiece was reduced to several hours (for example, according to Semenov's observations, it took up to 25 hours of continuous work to make a polished ax from jade). For final finishing and polishing, the ancient craftsmen in some places used a very fine pumice powder, which was applied with a piece of leather.
The art of polishing reached such a height that in some places the production of stone mirrors, quite suitable for use, was practiced (in Hawaii, such mirrors were made from basalt, in pre-Columbian Mexico, from obsidian). Grinding and polishing were the last links in a long chain of stone processing history.
New processing techniques allowed a person to master harder types of stone: jade, jadeite, jasper, basalt, diorite, etc. These materials were more suitable for making tools that used impact force (such as axes) than brittle flint. In addition, flint was completely unsuitable for drilling and was difficult to grind. Author: Ryzhov K.V.
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