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MOST IMPORTANT SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES
Cosmonautics. History and essence of scientific discovery
Directory / The most important scientific discoveries In our time, the flight of a spacecraft is considered commonplace. And sometimes it even seems strange that even a hundred years ago people could only dream of such flights. “In the XNUMXth century, the story of the French writer Cyrano de Bergerac about the flight to the moon appeared,” writes I.A. Minasyan. “The hero of this story got to the moon in an iron cart, over which he kept throwing a strong magnet. higher rose above the Earth until it reached the Moon.The famous English writer Herbert Wells described a fantastic journey to the Moon in a projectile, the body of which was made of a material not subject to gravity. Various means have been proposed for the implementation of space flight, but not a single scientist, not a single science fiction writer for many centuries has been able to name the only means at the disposal of man, with which you can overcome the mighty force of earth's gravity and be carried away into interplanetary space. The great honor of opening the way to the stars for people fell to the lot of our compatriot Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky. The modest Kaluga teacher was able to see in the well-known powder rocket the prototype of the mighty spaceships of the future. His ideas still serve and will serve as the basis for the creation of rockets and human exploration of space around the Sun for a long time to come. Almost two thousand years have passed since the inventors of gunpowder - the ancient Chinese - built the first rockets, but only Tsiolkovsky showed that the only aircraft capable of penetrating the atmosphere and even leaving the Earth forever is a rocket. He not only substantiated the general principles, but also made detailed practical calculations, as a result of which the remarkable scientist came to the conclusion that it was necessary to create rocket trains, or, as we now say, multi-stage rockets, as well as the need to create artificial satellites of the Earth. Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935) was born in the village of Izhevsk, Ryazan province, into the family of a forester. At the age of ten, Kostya fell ill with scarlet fever and lost his hearing. The boy could not go to school and had to study on his own. Here is how the scientist himself recalled the years of his youth: "I sorted out with curiosity and understanding several of my father's books on the natural and mathematical sciences (my father was a teacher of these sciences in taxator classes for some time) And now I am fascinated by the astrolabe, measuring the distance to inaccessible objects, taking plans, determining heights. I arrange an altimeter. With With the help of an astrolabe, without leaving home, I determine the distance to the fire tower. I find 400 arshins. I go and believe it. It turns out that it is true. So I believed the theoretical knowledge ... " When Konstantin was sixteen years old, his father sent him to Moscow to his friend N. Fedorov, who worked as a librarian at the Rumyantsev Museum. Under his leadership, Tsiolkovsky studied a lot and in the fall of 1879 he passed the exam for the title of teacher of public schools. After Christmas 1880, Tsiolkovsky received news of his appointment as a teacher of arithmetic and geometry at the Borovsk district school... Tsiolkovsky worked in Borovsk for several years and in 1892 was transferred to Kaluga. It was in this city that he spent his entire life. Here he taught physics and mathematics at the gymnasium and the diocesan school, and devoted all his free time to scientific work. Having no funds to buy instruments and materials, he made all the models and devices for experiments with his own hands. The range of Tsiolkovsky's interests was very wide. However, due to the lack of systematic education, he often came to the results already known in science. For example, this happened with his first scientific work on the problems of gas dynamics. But for the second published work - "The Mechanics of the Animal Organism" - Tsiolkovsky was elected a full member of the Russian Physico-Chemical Society. This work earned positive reviews from the largest scientists of that time - Mendeleyev's и Stoletova. Stoletov introduced Tsiolkovsky to his student Nikolai Zhukovsky, after which Tsiolkovsky began to study the mechanics of controlled flight. The scientist built a primitive wind tunnel in the attic of his house, on which he made experiments with wooden models. The material he accumulated was used as the basis for the project of a controlled balloon. So Tsiolkovsky called the airship, since the word itself had not yet been invented at that time. Tsiolkovsky was not only the first to propose the idea of an all-metal airship, but also built a working model of it. At the same time, the scientist created an original device for automatic flight control of the airship, as well as an original scheme for regulating its lift. However, officials from the Russian Technical Society rejected Tsiolkovsky's project due to the fact that the Austrian inventor Schwartz made a similar proposal at the same time. Nevertheless, Tsiolkovsky managed to publish a description of his project in the journal "Scientific Review" and thus secure priority for this invention. After the airship, Tsiolkovsky turned to the study of aircraft aerodynamics. He studied in detail the influence of the shape of the wing on the amount of lift and derived the relationship between air resistance and the required engine power of the aircraft. These works were used by Zhukovsky in creating the theory of wing calculation. Subsequently, Tsiolkovsky's interests switched to space exploration. In 1903, he published the book "Investigations of the World Spaces by Jet Instruments", where he proved for the first time that the only apparatus capable of making a space flight is a rocket. True, Tsiolkovsky lacked mathematical knowledge, and he could not give detailed calculations of its design. However, the scientist put forward a number of important and interesting ideas. Those first works of the scientist went almost unnoticed. The doctrine of a jet starship was noticed only when it began to be printed a second time, in 1911-1912, in the well-known widespread and richly published metropolitan magazine "Bulletin of Aeronautics". Then many scientists and engineers abroad declared their priority. But thanks to the early work of Tsiolkovsky, his priority was proved. In this article and its subsequent continuations (1911 and 1914), he laid the foundations for the theory of rockets and a liquid rocket engine. He was the first to solve the problem of landing a spacecraft on the surface of planets devoid of an atmosphere. In 1926-1929, Tsiolkovsky solves a practical question: how much fuel should be taken into a rocket in order to obtain a liftoff speed and leave the Earth. I.A. Minasyan: "Tsiolkovsky derived a formula that allows you to calculate the maximum speed that a rocket can develop. This maximum achievable speed primarily depends, of course, on the speed of the outflow of gases from the rocket nozzle. And the speed of gases, in turn, depends primarily on the type of fuel and temperature of the gas jet.The higher the temperature, the greater the speed. This means that for a rocket it is necessary to select the most high-calorie fuel, which, when burned, gives the greatest amount of heat. But the maximum speed of a rocket depends not only on the speed of the outflow of gases from the nozzle. It follows from the formula that it also depends on the initial and final mass of the rocket, i.e., on what part of its weight falls on fuel and what part - on useless (in terms of flight speed) structures: body, control mechanisms, rudders and even the combustion chamber itself and the nozzle. This Tsiolkovsky formula is the foundation on which the entire calculation of modern rockets is based. The ratio of the total, starting mass of the aircraft to its weight at the end of the engine operation (that is, essentially to the weight of an empty rocket) is named the Tsiolkovsky number in honor of the great scientist. The main conclusion from this formula is that in airless space the rocket will develop the greater the speed, the greater the speed of the outflow of gases and the greater the ratio of the initial mass of the rocket to its final mass, i.e., the greater the Tsiolkovsky number. Having established that the speed limit of a rocket depends on the quality of the fuel and the ratio of useful and "useless" mass, Tsiolkovsky investigated the calorific potential of powder fuels. His calculations showed that these fuels would not be able to provide the required combustion temperature, and hence the exhaust velocity, necessary to overcome the earth's gravity. In addition, loose powder occupies a large volume, it is necessary to increase the body and, consequently, the final mass of the rocket. The calculation shows that in order for a liquid-propellant rocket with people to develop a lift-off speed and go on an interplanetary flight, you need to take fuel a hundred times more than the weight of the rocket body, engine, mechanisms, instruments and passengers combined. Again a very serious obstacle. The scientist found an original way out - a rocket train, a multi-stage interplanetary ship. It consists of many missiles interconnected. In the front rocket, in addition to fuel, there are passengers and equipment. Rockets work in turn, dispersing the entire train. When the fuel in one rocket burns out, it is dumped, while the empty tanks are removed, and the whole train becomes lighter. Then the second rocket begins to work, and so on. The front rocket, as if in a relay race, receives the speed gained by all previous rockets. It may seem that it is more profitable to make as many rocket stages as possible. However, calculations convincingly prove that this is not the case: the maximum speed noticeably increases up to three or four steps, and then it hardly grows. The speed of the rocket after six stages remains practically constant. It is curious that, having practically no instruments, Tsiolkovsky calculated that the optimal height for a flight around the Earth is an interval from three hundred to eight hundred kilometers above the Earth. It is at these altitudes that modern space flights take place. Many years ahead of his contemporaries, the great scientist, using the exact language of mathematics, for the first time showed the ways of man's mastery of outer space and indicated the real paths along which the technique of interplanetary communications should go. Having learned about the works of Tsiolkovsky, the German scientist Hermann Oberth wrote to him: "Knowing your excellent work, I could do without many vain labors and today I would have advanced much further." Back in 1911, Konstantin Eduardovich uttered prophetic words: "Humanity will not remain forever on Earth, but, in pursuit of light and space, it will first timidly penetrate beyond the atmosphere, and then conquer all the circumsolar space." Today we are all witnesses of this great prediction coming true. Author: Samin D.K.
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