What is unique about the Umayyad Caliphate? Detailed answer

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What is unique about the Umayyad Caliphate? Detailed answer

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What is unique about the Umayyad Caliphate?

The great wars of conquest began under Caliph Omar, who brought Islam to the very center of ancient civilization. In 636, the battle of the Yarmouk River marked the limit of Byzantine rule in Syria. Damascus fell and the road to west to Egypt, which, having crossed the Isthmus of Suez in 639, was conquered by Ali, and further to Roman Africa, where Okba Ben Nafi penetrated, who founded Kairouan and moved further to the Atlantic Ocean. In the east the battle of Qadissia in 670-636. led to the fall of the Sasanian Empire of the Persians and allowed Muslims to advance to the banks of the Indus, where they camped in 637.

Meanwhile, having defeated Ali, Muawiyah from the powerful Meccan family Banu Umayya. He founded the Umayyad dynasty, moved the capital empire from Medina to Damascus, surrounded himself with courtiers, established a real royal ceremonial, took literature and art under its patronage, continued his aggressive policy and handed over the rule to his heirs. Horsemen of Allah, whose number in major battles did not exceed 661 thousand, converted everyone to their faith with the help of the sword, but also with the help of the Koran, revelation which was generally received favorably. Converts to their turn to get down to business, like the Berber Tariq ibn Zeyad, who landed in 20 in the south of the Iberian Peninsula, near the rock that received his name - Jebal Tariq, or Gibraltar - and conquered Andalusia. Several Muslim units advanced further north and reached Poitiers, where they were stopped by Charles in 711 Martel. A dizzying epic, but every medal has a downside.

For the second time since the time of Alexander the Great, the lands of Asia, Africa and Europe were merged into a single religious, economic and cultural whole. Caliphs considered as "people of the Book" Jews and Christians, as well as Zoroastrians and Buddhists, whose knowledge was used to translate Greco-Roman texts, Persian and Indian civilizations, founding cities, building palaces and mosques, developing an elegant lifestyle.

But in the empire itself, the Arabs had a predominant influence. Converts, despite injunctions of the Koran, were considered second-class citizens and had to seek themselves patrons among the Arab tribes or noble Arabs. Zealous Caliph Yazid II dealt harshly with the "dhimmis", non-Muslims who paid taxes, and humiliated Christians by forcing them to wear special clothes. Arab dominance caused civil strife within the Muslim community and led to uprisings. Kharijites captured Mecca in 747 and united the entire north of Africa under their rule. The Shiites also rebelled. Hussein, son of Ali, opposed Caliph Yazid, son of Muawiyah, who killed him with his companions near Kerbsla in 680; in 740 Zaid, Hussein's grandson, in turn, rebelled and ended up in Kufa just like him grandfather. More revolts occurred in 747-748. - this time in Khorasan (Iran). The end of the magnificent Umayyads was approaching. It turned out bloody.

Author: Irina Tkachenko

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Extremely intermittent radio pulsar discovered 04.07.2023

An international team of astronomers using the MeerKAT telescope has discovered a new pulsar. The newly discovered object, designated PSR J1710-3452, is an extremely periodic radio pulsar.

Pulsars are neutron stars with high magnetic polarity that emit beams of electromagnetic radiation. They usually manifest themselves as short radio pulses, but some of them can be detected using optical, X-ray and gamma-ray telescopes.

Scientists led by Mayuresh Surnis of the Indian Institute for Science Education and Research Bhopal (IISER Bhopal) in India have observed a millisecond pulsar known as PSR J1708-3506 using the MeerKAT telescope as part of the MeerTIME program. In the course of these observations, they accidentally discovered a new pulsar due to its individual impulses.

The object was discovered due to the detection of 97 bright radio pulses in only one of the 66 observed epochs, spanning approximately three years. The bright pulses made it possible to accurately localize the source using a radio image with an accuracy of 0,5 inches.

According to the study, PSR J1710-3452 has a relatively long rotation period of about 10,4 seconds, and its dispersion index is 189 pc/cm3. The intensity of the magnetic field on its surface is estimated at 25 quadrillion Gauss.

Individual pulses of PSR J1710-3452 were found to exhibit similar overall emission, but with greater structure diversity on shorter timescales than previously observed. In addition, each individual pulse consists of two main radiation components separated by approximately 0,7 seconds, for a total pulse width greater than one second. This corresponds to a pulse modulation of approximately 10%.

Astronomers note that such a large lobe-forming cycle is often observed in radio-bright magnetars. Magnetars, in general, are neutron stars with extremely strong magnetic fields, exceeding the magnetic field of our planet by several quadrillion times. In addition, the researchers suggest that the very intermittent nature of PSR J1710-3452 and its position in the Milky Way galaxy indicate that it may be part of an older population of magnetars.

If this is indeed a magnetar, then its location at a relatively high galactic latitude (2,9°) makes it potentially one of the oldest and most intermittent magnetars known in the galaxy. The very short active window of this object is unique and may indicate the presence of an as yet undiscovered population of long-period neutron stars emitting high-brightness radio emission.

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