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How did the Byzantine Empire arise? Detailed answer
Directory / Big encyclopedia. Questions for quiz and self-education Did you know? How did the Byzantine Empire arise? The thousand-year history of Byzantium had its ups and downs, its revival and extinction. Until the XNUMXth century The Eastern Roman Empire remained one of the most powerful states in the world. Meanwhile, already in the XNUMXth century. she had to face the barbarians. The first were the Goths and the Isaurians (a wild Asia Minor tribe). In the second half of the XNUMXth c. the Isaurian Zeno even became the emperor of Byzantium. From the north, the empire was disturbed by the Bulgarians, Huns and Slavs, from the east - the strong Persian power of the Sassanids threatened. However, Byzantium had the strength not only to resist attacks, but also to expand in the middle of the VI century. borders due to the reconquest of the "Roman" territories from the Germans in North Africa, Italy and Spain. The empire retained the features of late antique society and state. The emperors considered themselves followers of the Roman Caesars, the Senate and the Council of State were preserved. As before, even the most unborn could "break out into people". Emperors Justin and Justinian the Great were from the peasantry. Dissatisfaction with the government led to uprisings. The plebs enjoyed the distribution of free bread. As in Rome, in Constantinople there were traditional spectacles - gladiator fights and chariot races. But with the spread of Christianity, attitudes towards spectacles began to change. Gladiator fights under pressure from Christians were banned, and circuses were increasingly used as public stands. Roman law remained the most important element of Byzantine economic life. Under Justinian the Great, the codification of laws was undertaken, which led to the creation of a legal basis for regulating property relations. In a certain sense, Byzantium of that period can be considered the legal state of the Middle Ages. In the VII-IX centuries. The Byzantine Empire was in deep crisis. The Arabs attacked Constantinople from the sea. For more than half a century, the brave warriors of Islam haunted Byzantium. The whole 100th century took place in the wars with the Bulgarians. The Eastern Roman Empire remained an empire in name only. But civilization withstood the onslaught of the barbarians. Constantinople officials tried to establish governance and divided the country into regions - themes - with strong civil and military power of the stratigs. But this only complicated the situation: the semi-barbarian themes did not want to submit to Constantinople and revolted. In addition, the empire was agitated by an iconoclastic movement within Christianity that lasted over XNUMX years. The turmoil led to the fact that all laws were violated, the monasteries were desolated, the university was burned. In the ninth century the Christian movement "Paulicians" was born - followers of the elder Constantine, who preached the New Testament with the epistles of the Apostle Paul. In the middle of the ninth century Paulicians with weapons in their hands marched through Asia Minor, exterminating the infidels. Emperor Basil I overpowered the Paulicians, but accepted many of their demands. Since that time, the revival of civilization and Greek learning began. End of the ninth century marked the restoration of the empire: the state again began to regulate relations between citizens; Basil I reissued the laws of Justinian; a strong army was created and the role of the military nobility was strengthened; the revival of the ancient sciences and arts began; cities and crafts were restored; The church rose to an unprecedented height. Changes in the social structure of Byzantium were also significant. A rigidly centralized state began to play a huge role. The special role of state principles received a theoretical justification, which contributed to the formation of a specific mentality of the Byzantines. It was believed that along with the one God, the one true faith and the one true church, there should also be a single Christian empire. Imperial power acquired sacral (sacred) functions, for by its very existence it ensured the salvation of the human race. It was a complex of a kind of messianic ideas, where the role of the messiah, the savior, was assigned to the empire. In the hands of the emperor concentrated all the fullness of the legislative, executive, judicial power. In fact, the emperor also controlled the church, appointing and removing patriarchs. The emperor relied on bureaucracy and a strictly hierarchized state apparatus. Autocracy was born - the sole power of the emperor consecrated by the church. The relationship between society and government was built on the principles of allegiance. The social system was corporate in nature. Corporations of artisans and merchants were completely dependent on the state. The peasant neighboring community was the supreme owner of the land and was responsible to the state for paying taxes. Thus, the Byzantine Empire acquired the features of a traditionally Eastern state. In the middle of the XI century. The Great Steppe spewed out of its womb a new wave of warlike nomads. The horse-drawn avalanche of the Turks swept across the plains of Persia and poured over the Byzantine borders. In the first decisive clash in 1071 at Manzikert, the Roman army was defeated. After that, the Seljuk Turks occupied almost all of Asia Minor, as well as Syria and Palestine - the Holy Land. The military nobility of Byzantium revolted and placed their leader Alexei I Komnenos on the throne. Unable to withstand the onslaught of the victorious Turks, the emperor turned to the Christians of the West for help. Back in 1054, the church split into two parts - Catholicism and Orthodoxy, but under the onslaught of Muslims, Christians temporarily forgot their mutual grievances. Emperor Alexei I Komnenos managed to cope with the enemies pressing from all sides. Together with the crusader warriors, Byzantium set about reclaiming territories in Asia Minor. During the XII century. the empire wages numerous wars, trying to regain southern Italy, seizes the Balkan countries. However, by the end of the XII century. Byzantium is weakening and losing Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary, territories in Greece and Asia Minor. From 1096, the crusades began, and by the beginning of the 1204th century. inner peace among Christians has come to an end. Rich Byzantium has always attracted Western European knights, who looked at her with a sense of envy, contempt and discontent. The destruction of Constantinople by the crusaders in 1261 reflected their true feelings. The Frankish knights divided the country among themselves, but could not get along peacefully and constantly fought. In XNUMX, the Greeks managed to take over what was left of Constantinople, and their leader Michael VIII Palaiologos became emperor, but his power extended little beyond the dilapidated walls of the "New Rome". Around the city during the XIII-XIV centuries. Bulgarians and Turks ruled. By the beginning of the fourteenth century. the Turks created a powerful state. The rapidly emerging Muslim civilization captured Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. By the middle of the XIV century. Asia Minor was invaded. The Balkan states, weakened by internal strife, were captured one by one. On May 29, 1453, the Ottoman Turks stormed Constantinople. Byzantium fell. This ended the centuries-old history of Byzantium. With the establishment of Turkish power in the Balkans, the peoples of the peninsula found themselves in an oppressed position, since the conquerors and subordinates shared ethnic roots and religious beliefs. The confrontation between the "Cross and Crescent" results in a series of endless wars between European Christian countries and the Muslim Ottoman Empire. The Eastern Roman Empire perished at a time when Western Europe switched to a progressive path of development. The classical beginnings of Byzantine civilization had a significant impact on Russian cultural and political traditions, and during the Renaissance, on European artistic creativity. Author: Irina Tkachenko
What is shock? You may get shocked when you see your test score or witness an accident. But from a medical point of view, this is not a shock. The word "shock" means a state in which the activity of the body is disturbed. Usually, this slows down the processes going on in it. A person in shock may suddenly or gradually feel weak or close to fainting. He may become very pale, and his skin may become cold and sweaty. Sweating increases, and the pupils dilate. Shock is accompanied by changes in mental state. It can begin with a feeling of anxiety, and end with a loss of consciousness. All these are signs of shock, appearing due to the fact that blood circulation decreases, as well as blood pressure. As with fainting, blood entering the brain can eventually lead to loss of consciousness. An insufficient amount of blood in the capillaries explains why the skin becomes cold. If a person is injured and has lost a lot of blood, then this, of course, in itself can cause a state of shock. But shock can come from a lot of stress, a lot of excitement, pain or a sudden illness, some kind of accident. It is important to understand that for one reason or another, the blood does not circulate properly, and as a result, important processes in the body are disrupted. The best thing to do if a person is in a state of shock is to call a doctor. Do not move the patient, sit him or put a pillow under his head. Lay the person on their back if they are unconscious and keep them warm until help arrives.
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