Where and when did the first coffee house appear in Europe? Detailed answer

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Where and when did the first coffee house appear in Europe? Detailed answer

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Where and when did the first coffee house appear in Europe?

In 1647 in Venice. Venetian merchants brought the custom of drinking coffee from Constantinople and Alexandria. Three years later, the same coffee house appeared in Oxford, England. Now there is an elite club.

Author: Mendeleev V.A.

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What is an eye cataract?

We know that the word "cataract" refers to a natural phenomenon: a heavy downpour or a waterfall. So why are certain types of eye injuries called "cataracts"? Since ancient times, people have believed that these visual defects are caused by an opaque film, like a cataract in the lens of the eye.

A cataract is simply a clouding or darkening of the lens of the eye. It may or may not interfere with vision. In fact, many people have cataracts without knowing it. People discover they have cataracts when part of their visual field becomes blurry or cloudy. In another case, a person sees better in brighter light. In bright light, the pupil dilates, allowing more light to enter the eye. A cataract causes the pupil of the eye to appear gray or lighter than normal. Older people with cataracts may have very small pupils.

With a developed cataract, the pupil becomes milky. Cataracts are more common in older people. But it also happens in children - newborns or young children. Sometimes it appears as a result of damage or general diseases. When a child has a cataract, it is possible to restore good vision surgically without removing the lens. But usually, with a serious cataract that prevents people from functioning normally, the lens must be removed during surgery. This is done in one eye to avoid total blindness.

Most people who need this surgery are naturally worried about its success. But in fact, a good surgeon performs such an operation with very little risk of failure. Subsequently, using glasses, the patient can see as well as with the lenses of the eyes.

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Characteristics of polarons determined 19.01.2021

Researchers at Stanford University's SLAC National Linear Accelerator Laboratory used one of their X-ray lasers to track the origin and formation of so-called polarons, and to measure the basic characteristics of these formations. Polarons are deformations of the crystal lattice of a material that arise around moving free electrons and disappear without a trace after trillionths of a second. Despite such a short "lifespan", these deformations, according to scientists, affect some properties of the material and change its behavior, in particular, the response to light photons, which is especially pronounced in materials belonging to the perovskite class.

Perovskites are transparent materials whose name is derived from perovskite, a naturally occurring transparent mineral. About ten years ago, it was noticed that the inclusion of materials of this class in the composition of solar cells can significantly increase the coefficient of conversion of light into electricity. However, working with these materials causes a lot of problems, these materials are unstable, they degrade and quickly break down when exposed to air, they also contain lead, a toxic metal that should not be allowed to come into contact with the environment once again.

But it was in crystals of perovskite, synthesized in one of the laboratories of Stanford University, that polarons were first noticed. For this, the scientists used the LCLS (Linac Coherent Light Source), the most powerful and fastest X-ray free electron laser, which is able to image inside materials with almost atomic resolution and capture the movements of atoms on a time scale of a millionth of a billionth of a second.

During the experiment, the perovskite crystal was illuminated by conventional laser light, the pulse of which was immediately followed by a synchronized X-ray laser pulse, which made it possible to see the reaction of the material sample to light. It was found that the material begins to react to light with a delay measured in tens of trillionths of a second. And the reaction of the material consists in the beginning of the formation of polaron deformations, which at first have a size comparable to the distance between two neighboring atoms in the crystal lattice, and then quickly expand to a diameter of about 5 billionths of a meter, which approximately corresponds to the width of 10 atomic layers. At the same time, the process of polaron formation is very fast, it occurs in just a few picoseconds.

The increased interest from scientists in this phenomenon explains why polarons may be precisely the reason why solar cells made from hybrid perovskites exhibit their inherent high efficiency. And knowing how these deformations of the crystal lattice are formed, developed, plus knowing their parameters, such as shape, size and lifetime, will allow scientists to find answers to many questions, which, in turn, will make the field of solar energy more efficient in the future. and economically viable.

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