Organization theory. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Organization theory. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

Organization theory: concept, subject and object
The concept of organization and system
Classification of systems and their properties, environment
Managed systems and their features
Social organizations
Manufacturing organizations
Organization Model: Primary Variables
Organization Model: Management and Performance Variables
The laws of the structure of organizations
The laws of the functioning of the organization
Law of Organization Development
Frontiers of Organization Theory
Organization Theory of F. Taylor
Principles of organization A. Fayol. Weber bureaucracy
E. Mayo's principles and the Hawthorne experiment
Ch. Barnard and purposeful organizations
D. McGregor and theory x - theory y
Modern organization theory
Classic organization model
Bureaucratic and neoclassical models
Institutional and system models
Organization Structure Concepts
Horizontal differentiation of the organizational system
Vertical differentiation of the organizational system
Formalization in the organizational structure
Centralization in organizational structure
Basic elements of the organization structure
Forms of organizational structure: simple structure and machine bureaucracy
Forms of organizational structure: professional bureaucracy
Forms of organizational structure: divisional structure and adhocracy
Project structure of the organization
Matrix organization structure
Network structure of the organization
The Essence of Organizational Design
Organizational Design Process
Organizational Design Methods
The essence of organizational culture and the principles of its construction
Concept of organizational change
Analysis of the change situation
Overcoming resistance to change
Choosing a change strategy
Organizational Change Program
Change Management and Organizational Development
The concept of the effectiveness of the organization
Organizational Performance Factors
Evaluation of the effectiveness of the organization: 1 and 2 stages
Evaluation of the effectiveness of the organization: 3 and 4 stages

1. ORGANIZATION THEORY: CONCEPT, SUBJECT AND OBJECT

Organization theory studies modern organizations (enterprises, institutions, public associations), relations that arise within these organizations, the behavior of organizations and their relationship with the external environment.

Organization theory as a scientific discipline studies the general properties, laws and patterns of creation and development of the organization as a whole. The provisions of the theory of organization are based on economic laws and the laws of a number of sciences: systems theory, cybernetics, control theory, etc. At the same time, this science also relies on specific laws and patterns inherent only to it. The theory of organization formulates the principles on the basis of which the construction, functioning and development of organizations are carried out.

The theory of organization as an independent field of knowledge has its own object and subject of study, its own conceptual apparatus. Object - a phenomenon that is investigated by a particular science. The object of the theory of organization are social organizations, i.e. organizations that unite people. Subject science determines what this science does, what aspects of objective reality it studies. The subject of the theory of organization as a science is the organizational relations that develop between people in the process of their joint work in organizations of various types.

Organizational Relations is the relationship:

1) expressing objective forms of association of people and material factors of labor processes;

2) between people arising from the joint work of workers;

3) providing links between the technical side of the activities of organizations and property relations.

The general method of science "organization theory" is the dialectical method of research. To solve specific problems, science uses a systematic approach, which is understood as a systematic method of thinking, according to which the process of making and justifying decisions is based on determining the overall goal of the system and the consistent subordination of the common goal of many subsystems, plans for their development, as well as indicators and standards of work. The practical significance of the theory of organization lies in the development of forms, methods and conditions, the implementation of which is capable of ensuring the effective construction, functioning and development of organizations.

2. CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATION AND SYSTEM

To meet the needs of society, different groups of the population in material and spiritual benefits, household services, health protection, child rearing, education, society creates special institutions - organizations that are organic cells of society and the most massive form of united labor. They implement production, social and economic relations, concentrate the main labor resources of the country, its technical and technological base and financial resources.

Organization - this is a target community of people whose activities are integrated and properly ordered. An organization is created by society to solve a certain range of social problems and achieve certain goals. The goals of the organization are set from outside or developed within it, taking into account these goals, the form and structure of the organization are selected. The organization includes its participants, members, employees, since the organization is not one person, but a community of people, and people who are not just interconnected, but interconnected, where the actions of one are conditioned by the actions of another and cause them. People unite in organizations because the goals that they set for themselves and which are important for each of them cannot be achieved by any of them separately. Only the integration of the goals of individual members of the organization will achieve the goals of the organization itself.

system called an organized complex whole, a collection or combination of objects or parts that form a complex, unified whole.

In other words, a system is understood as the presence of a set of objects with a set of relationships between them and between their properties. With this interpretation, the systems are:

1) machines assembled from many parts and assemblies;

2) the human body, formed by a collection of cells;

3) an enterprise that unites and links into a single whole a multitude of production processes, teams of people, machines, etc.

Let's consider such terms as "objects", "properties", "connections". objects are parts or components of a system. Such a complex system as an enterprise includes workshops and sections, a machine park, teams of people, etc. <font><font>Materials</font></font> - this is the quality of the parameters of objects, and the quality is an external manifestation of the way in which knowledge about the object is obtained or by which the object is introduced into the system. Properties allow you to describe an object quantitatively, expressing it in units that have a certain dimension. communication - this is what connects objects and properties into a single whole. Without connections, the system cannot function.

3. CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS AND THEIR PROPERTIES, ENVIRONMENT

Systems can be physical or abstract. Physical systems consist of products, equipment, people, etc., abstract differ in that in them the properties of objects exist only in the mind of the researcher, representing symbols. There are also artificial and natural systems: artificial systems created by man natural exist from the very beginning, regardless of human efforts.

Technical, biological and social systems can be distinguished: technical systems are technical devices (machines, devices) or technological processes based on the use of certain technical means; biological systems - organisms of people, animals, etc.; social systems unite people, in their functioning a person plays an active role.

Systems have certain properties. First, most systems are open, that is, they exchange matter, energy, and information with their environment. Secondly, many systems have the property of adaptation, that is, the ability to respond to the environment in such a way as to obtain beneficial consequences for the operation of the system. And, thirdly, a number of systems have such a property that some of the outputs (results of behavior) of the system again affect the input of the system in order to cause subsequent outputs. Such systems are called feedback systems.

Artificial systems also have some special properties: compatibility or harmony, the ability to optimize.

The system exists in a certain environment. This environment largely determines the behavior of the system and its features. Environment defined as a set of objects contained within specific limits that affect the operation of the system. In other words, the environment is the totality of all objects whose change affects the system, as well as those objects whose properties change as a result of the system's behavior. From the definition of the environment it follows that any system can be divided into subsystems. Objects belonging to one subsystem can be successfully considered as part of the environment of another system.

4. CONTROLLED SYSTEMS AND THEIR FEATURES

Systems that have the ability to change their behavior, go into different states under the influence of various control actions, are called managed systems. In managed systems, there is always a body that performs control functions, i.e., the subject of control (the control part) and the control object (the control part).

Each system is influenced by the environment through a variety of external influences. These external influences are called input quantities (input variables of the system), and the elements of the system, to which input actions are applied, - entrances systems. When solving control problems, they distinguish two types of input values: control actions X and disturbing actions M. K manager Influences include such quantities, the values of which can be disposed of when controlling the system and change them in order to carry out movement in the desired direction. Outrageous impacts affect the movement, and they cannot be changed in the control process, but must be taken into account when developing control actions.

The impact of the system itself on the environment is characterized by the values of its output values Y, the totality of which allows the subject of management to assess the compliance of the results obtained with the goals of management. The output values generally change with the input values. The results of the system operation are also affected by internal perturbations arising in the system itself. The internal state of the system can be characterized by a set of values of m that determine its behavior. Thus, to characterize the system and its behavior, three groups of variables can be identified:

1) input variables, or input actions, X and M, representing signals generated in the external environment and affecting the behavior of the system;

2) output variables, or variables that characterize the reaction of the system Y and allow describing some aspects of the system's behavior;

3) system state variables m characterizing the dynamic behavior of the system.

The concepts of "organization" and "system" are very close. This is explained by the fact that the organization is a special case of the system. Modern science seeks to present the organization as a system of interdependent parts and variables, and views the organization as a social system that is part of a larger system of society. An organization is a system in which people are hierarchically united into a community to achieve a set goal.

5. SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS

Social organizations are systems created by people in the functioning of which a person plays an active role.

Social organizations take many forms. Examples include an enterprise, a hospital, a university, a school, a political party, a sports society, etc. Relations between people play an important role in their activities, so social organization is the subject of study of many social sciences.

There are several approaches to the classification of social organizations. The first classification on the principles of bringing people together - suggested A. Etziani. He identifies three groups of organizations:

1) voluntary organizations - churches, political parties, clubs, etc.;

2) compulsory organizations - army, elementary school, places of detention, psychiatric hospital, etc.;

3) unitary organizations, whose members unite to achieve common and individual goals - enterprises, banks, higher educational institutions, etc.

Like systems, organizations are divided into artificial и natural. The first are created artificially: they are designed, then built and put into practice. Examples of artificial organizations are enterprises, schools, hospitals, etc. The latter arise without preliminary design and other pre-planned actions, for example, spontaneous settlements of people.

Distinguish between organizations and the nature of the activity:

1) technological organizations implement the technology for the manufacture of certain products or the provision of services;

2) program-target organizations implement a certain program of work to solve some social problem;

3) non-program organizations implement a flexible and complex program of actions that cannot be determined in advance.

It should also be noted that social organizations, as a rule, belong to the class of open systems.

6. PRODUCTION ORGANIZATIONS

Manufacturing organization is a set of people, mechanisms, materials and other resources integrated into a single social system, which has the goal of its activity to produce material goods. In a single enterprise system, hierarchical, functional, cybernetic systems are distinguished, each of which, in turn, can be simultaneously considered as a hierarchy level, and as a functional, and as a cybernetic system. An enterprise is a complex hierarchical system in which production, a workshop, a site, and a workplace act as the steps of the hierarchy. At all levels of the hierarchy, functional systems can be distinguished.

At the enterprise, private functions can be distinguished in the form of relatively separate complexes. The types of activities that implement these functions have a certain independence and target orientation, which allows them to be combined into the following functional subsystems:

1) subsystems of the production process - preparation of production, basic production processes, processes of production infrastructure, logistics of production, marketing and sales of products;

2) subsystems that determine the composition of the elements of the production process - the functioning of labor tools, the organization of labor, the movement of objects of labor, the organization of information flows;

3) subsystems that ensure the integration of all production processes - the formation of a production structure, the organization of operational planning of production, the organization of intra-production relations.

Manufacturing organizations, despite their diversity, share some common characteristics. properties: 1) orientation of activities to social needs. Production organizations are created to meet the needs of society in material goods; 2) purposefulness as a property of the production system determines that the system can have several goals (external and internal). The activities of the organization are built in such a way that the goals set are achieved;

3) the integrity of the production organization is considered as a property that ensures the relationship of people, tools and objects of labor in the process of production and sale of goods and services;

4) the integrated nature of the system - the production organization includes various divisions united by common goals and a common development program; 5) the presence of a control object - a set of participants in the production process, tools and objects of labor, carrying out activities for the production of material goods; 6) the presence of a single center (subject) of management, the role of which is to coordinate the activities of participants in the production process through control actions; 7) hierarchical structure of the system; 8) the ability to solve emerging problems.

7. ORGANIZATION MODEL: PRIMARY VARIABLES

A social system can be described by identifying a number of variables that characterize it. These variables can be divided into three classes - primary variables, control variables and efficiency variables.

Primary variables - These are the requirements for the organization's management system, set from the outside or formed within it. The primary variables include the external environment, goals and strategies, production and technological basis, personnel.

Environment (external) environment It comprises:

1) social environment - elements and subsystems of the whole society that affect the organization: socio-economic relations, politics, ideology, culture, etc.;

2) task environment - a set of subsystems and communication elements that arise as a result of specific production and economic tasks of a given organization.

The environment (external) is singled out as the main defining variable of the organization, which largely affects the nature of the internal structures and processes of the organization, sets its boundaries, and influences behavior. Goals and strategies - these are the variables of the production system, which are partly given, that is, they are set objectively based on the essence and role of the organization, and partly - adjustable, since they are the result of a "strategic choice" of the enterprise management and serve the cause of the organization's development. Goals - this is the desired state of the organization as a system (primarily its inputs and outputs), which must be achieved through the use of the organization's resources. Strategy - this is the definition of the main long-term goals and objectives of the organization, the approval of the course of action and the allocation of resources necessary to achieve these goals. Production and technological basis - the most important primary variable, it covers the material base of the production system (means and objects of labor, technology, etc.), as well as the entire set of production, labor, natural, and partly information processes. The production and technological basis refers to both given and controlled variables and is determined by the general level of development of production forces and the level of scientific and technological progress. Staff - one of the essential variables of the social system. Characteristics of the personnel are cultural and value prerequisites, skill level and professional training of employees, leadership style, initial motivational base of labor behavior in the team. Personnel is also part of the regulated and partly unregulated variables. The potential of employees develops within the organization, and it is influenced by internal factors - the organizational structure of enterprises, practical experience, professional retraining, etc.

8. ORGANIZATION MODEL: MANAGEMENT AND EFFICIENCY VARIABLES

Control variables are the following characteristics of the control system.

1. Organizational structure of management - the main of the controlled, reconfigured by the will of the head of the organization of its characteristics. The organizational structure creates a framework, which is the basis for the formation of units that perform certain functions. The structure allows you to highlight and establish relationships between the employees of the organization and its individual employees.

2. Management processes. Structure and processes are two inseparable aspects of an organizational system. Processes in the organizational system are divided into functioning processes and development processes. The first group includes control functions (allow to describe the content of management activities, reflect the most important aspects of the full cycle of the management process), decision making (the process of developing and implementing management decisions, choosing a course of action to achieve a specific goal), organizational communications (the process by which an idea is communicated to the recipient with the intent to change the behavior of the latter), to the second - innovation processes (introduction of changes in the organization of production, labor and management) and organizational growth (an increase in the volume of activities and the number of personnel of the organization, accompanied by changes in the forms and methods of organizational and managerial activities).

3. Leadership - is the ability to effectively influence the activities of subordinates in order to achieve the goals of the organization. The leader must have a number of special qualities, including a higher level of intellectual development, social maturity, breadth of views, internal self-discipline, purposefulness, understanding the importance of "human relations" among subordinates, etc. There are four leadership styles: exploitative-authoritarian, paternalistic- authoritarian, deliberative, participatory.

4. Behavior. Through this category, the characteristics of the actions of people and groups in organizations are realized. On the one hand, behavior is a management variable, expressed in the conscious actions of the management apparatus, which is one of the tools for solving emerging problems, and on the other hand, it is the result of the influence of the management system on members of the organization, depending on how effective the levers of motivation are and the organizational climate is favorable.

Efficiency variables. The block of efficiency in the model of the organization mediates the connection between the requirements of the environment, the goals and the production and economic basis of the organization, on the one hand, and the parameters of its management system, on the other. Evaluation of organizational effectiveness is carried out in relation to the ultimate goals of the system. In addition, it should reflect the moral and psychological satisfaction of the members of the organization with their activities, assess the ability of the organization to maintain and grow its potential.

9. LAWS OF THE STRUCTURE OF ORGANIZATIONS

The laws of the structure of organizations reflect the internal stable links between the elements (parts) of the organization and the external environment and the organization as a whole.

1. The law of integrity (emergence) organizations manifests itself in the emergence of "new" integrative qualities in it, which are not characteristic of its components and characterizes the interdependence of the part and the whole in two directions:

1) the properties of the organization (whole) Q are not the sum of the properties of the elements (parts) q;:

2) the properties of the organization (whole) depend on the properties of its elements (parts):

Q=f(q_i)

The first direction of the law of integrity establishes a change in the relationship of the organization as a whole with the environment and the loss of certain properties by the elements when they become elements of the organizational system. The second side of the law of integrity indicates the interdependence of the properties of the organization and its elements.

Any organizational system is between extreme states of absolute integrity and absolute additivity. The property of additivity is manifested in organizations that have broken up into independent parts. Then the relation becomes valid

In this case, it is no longer possible to speak of the organization as an integral system. The observed state of the organization can be characterized by the degree of manifestation of one of these properties (integrity or additivity) or tendencies to its increase or decrease.

2. Law of proportionality and composition requires maintaining proportionality between the organization as an integral systemic entity and its elements in case of any possible changes. This allows them to maximize their potential. The implementation of this law requires an optimal state and composition of general, private and individual goals.

3. Law of Hierarchy consists in streamlining the interactions between levels of the organization in order from the highest to the lowest and considering the organization as a complex multi-level system. In accordance with the law of hierarchy, each of the levels of the organization acts as a manager in relation to all the lower ones and as a controlled, subordinate in relation to the higher ones. In a hierarchically constructed organization, there are structural and functional differentiation, i.e., each level specializes in performing a certain kind of functions, and at higher levels of the hierarchy, the functions of coordination and integration are mainly carried out.

10. LAWS OF THE FUNCTIONING OF THE ORGANIZATION

The laws of functioning and development of organizations reveal stable causal relationships and interdependence of phenomena observed in the process of life of organizations, characterize the main line (features) and direction of their development.

1. The law of necessary diversity in relation to organizational systems can be formulated as follows: the diversity of the organization's management system must exceed the diversity of the managed process or object (or at least be equal to it). The use of the law of necessary diversity in the improvement of enterprise management systems helps to see the causes of the shortcomings that appear in them and ways to improve management efficiency. Improving the efficiency of the functioning of organizations while reducing the diversity of the managed system is achieved through the creation of regulated mechanisms within the organization (subdivisions with a closed production cycle with relative independence and limited intervention of centralized management bodies).

2. The law of self-organization is manifested in the organization's ability to resist destructive tendencies, adapt to external disturbances, changing its structure if necessary and maintaining integrity. The basis of this law is the dualism of the development of the organization. On the one hand, the organization as an "open" (according to Bertalanffy) system obeys the second law of thermodynamics. This means that in really developing organizations there is always a desire to increase entropy, disintegration, differentiation. In practice, this trend is manifested in the decentralization of organizations, the creation of independent structural units. On the other hand, in any organization there are also non-entropic tendencies (increase in organization, order), which underlie evolutionary development.

3. Law of self-preservation suggests that any organizational system, as well as its individual element, seeks to preserve itself as a whole. The self-preservation of an organization depends on the external and internal environment, the nature of its activities, the availability of resources, the quality of management, etc. and is due to the action of two opposite organizational factors - stability and development. The stable factor, when absolutized, can eventually cause bureaucratization and stagnation; accelerated, under-resourced development can only lead to temporary success.

11. LAW OF ORGANIZATION DEVELOPMENT

Law of Development states that each system (social or biological) strives to achieve the greatest total potential during the passage of all stages of the life cycle. The development of the organization is described life cycle curve, the nature and extent of which are determined by the specific conditions of the functioning of the organization, its features of adaptation to emerging changes, etc.

There are five distinct stages in this cycle:

I. Entrepreneurial stage - the period of formation of the organization, awareness of their goals, creative upsurge (goals are ambiguous, high creative upsurge).

II. The stage of collegiality is a period of rapid growth of the organization, awareness of its mission and the formation of a development strategy (informal communications and structure, high obligations).

III. The stage of formalization of activity is a period of stabilization of growth (development) (formalization of roles, stabilization of the structure, emphasis on efficiency).

IV. The stage of restructuring is a period of slowdown in growth and structural changes, differentiation of goods (markets), anticipation of new needs (striving for complexity, decentralization, diversification of markets).

V. Recession stage - a period characterized by a sharp drop in sales and a decrease in profits; the organization is looking for new opportunities and ways to retain markets (high staff turnover, increased conflicts, centralization).

Life cycle curve characterizes the main trend of change (historical development) of the organization. This pattern must be taken into account when developing strategic and tactical plans for the development of an organization, improving its structure and management system.

12. LIMITS OF ORGANIZATION THEORY

There are two fundamentally opposite approaches to describing the development of organization theory. The first characterizes the organization as a system and reflects the development of managerial thought from a mechanistic view of the organization (closed) to a holistic (open) one. The second approach characterizes the nature of the organization in the direction from the rational to the social.

Development of views on the organization as a system. Until about the 1960s, problems of organization were solved only in terms of closed systems. Issues of the business environment, competition, sales, etc., which go beyond the scope of the internal organization and determine the external environment for the enterprise, were not considered. With the development of the market, the prevailing ideas about the organization have changed. It became obvious that the internal dynamics of organizations is formed under the influence of external events. The theory of organization begins to consider the enterprise as an open system in the unity of all components and elements that perceive changes in the external environment and respond to them. In the 70s of the XX century. a methodological apparatus is being formed to study the impact of the external environment on the enterprise using systems theory. Direct inclusion in the analysis of the influence of environmental factors on the internal processes of the organization was the beginning of the era of "open systems".

Development of views on the nature of the organization in the direction from the rational to the social. "Rational thinking" means that there is a clear perspective of the organization, and its goals are clearly and unambiguously defined. Suppose a machine-building enterprise aims to maximize profits from increasing production efficiency and product quality. If we accept this goal as given, then top management can only choose the means that will lead to its achievement. This position allows you to make rational decisions. The actions of the organization thus become programmed. "Social thinking" means ambiguity in the definition and choice of goals and the adoption of specific decisions to improve production efficiency in workshops, at the sites of a machine-building enterprise, etc.

From the standpoint of the noted approaches, four stages are distinguished in the development of organization theory. Each stage is determined by a single combination of established features (closed - open system, rational - social thinking) on a two-dimensional grid.

13. F. TAYLOR'S THEORY OF ORGANIZATION

The beginning of a series of fundamental works in the field of organization theory was laid by F. Taylor's Principles of Scientific Management, published in 1911. With his experiments and scientific works, F. Taylor sought to prove that the methods of scientific organization of labor developed by him and the principles of "scientific management" formulated on their basis "will make a real revolution in modern production, replacing outdated authoritarian methods with scientific approaches to management.

From his research and experiments, F. Taylor derived a number of general principles that formed the basis of the classical theory of organization. These include:

1) division of labor. This principle is not only carried out at the workshop or shop level, but also extends to the management echelons. The manager should be assigned the planning function, and the employee should be assigned the execution function. Taylor also recommended the distribution of specific production tasks, so that each member of the staff (both worker and manager) was responsible for only one function;

2) functional leadership. Supervision of workers should be functional and carried out at every phase of production. Taylor suggested moving from sole to functional leadership, replacing the power of one master with functional administration (several specialist managers, each of whom would give instructions to the worker within his competence);

3) measurement of labor. Taylor insisted on studying the processes of working time, seeing this as the most optimal way to implement production tasks. This principle involves the measurement of working time using the so-called "time units", representing the discrete elements of labor processes;

4) prescription tasks. According to this principle, production tasks should not only be broken down every minute, but also accompanied by a detailed description of the best methods for their implementation. The goals of the enterprise are clearly planned, and each worker is given written instructions regarding his specific tasks. Through the implementation of these measures, both the worker and the manager obtain certain standards that contribute to the measurement of work;

5) incentive programs. It should be clear to the worker that any element of labor has its price and its payment depends on the established output of finished products, while in case of achieving greater productivity, the worker is paid a bonus;

6) work as an individual activity. Group influence makes the worker less productive;

7) motivation. The essence of this principle is that self-interest is the driving force for most people;

8) the role of individual abilities. A distinction is made between the abilities of workers and managers: workers work for remuneration in the present, while managers work for remuneration in the future.

14. PRINCIPLES OF ORGANIZATION A. FAYOL. WEBER'S BUREAUCRACY

A. Fayol sought to develop principles of organization applicable to all levels of government. Briefly, they can be formulated as follows.

To operate effectively, an organization must have:

1) clear goals;

2) one center of subordination (unity of control);

3) one management department (unity of control);

4) clear lines of authority along which orders go (a scalar chain of subordination from the upper echelons of the hierarchy to its lower links);

5) equality of rights and obligations;

6) rational division of labor and logical grouping of tasks by subdivisions, departments and administrative sectors of the highest level;

7) a clear definition of responsibility for the results of activities and such established official relations so that everyone in the organization knows his role and position in the team;

8) favorable opportunities for taking the initiative.

A. Fayol attached particular importance to the formal structure of the organization. Using the principle of a scalar chain, according to A. Fayol, allows you to create a system of responsibility of various links and ensures the unity of management with the consistent transmission of instructions and information. However, he warns against excessive formalism of the organization, showing what obstacles are created by the organizational structure in the way of the communication flow.

M. Weber developed the principles of building an ideal type of organization structure, which was called bureaucratic. The term "bureaucracy" M. Weber used in its exact meaning - "the board of civil servants". In his opinion, the bureaucracy is distinguished by accuracy, strict discipline, stability and responsibility. The principles of building a bureaucratic organization are as follows:

1) all activities on the basis of the division of labor are divided into elements, which makes it possible to determine the tasks and responsibilities of each official;

2) the organization is built on the principles of hierarchy, a strict system of subordination and responsibility, a system of power and authority;

3) the activities of the organization are regulated on the basis of instructions, standards, rules that determine the responsibility of each employee and his duties;

4) management of the organization is carried out on the basis of formal impersonality, i.e. excludes personal motives and emotions;

5) selection, appointment and promotion are based on merit and merit, and not on tradition and whims.

M. Weber believed that the system of principles he proposed would ensure the satisfactory fulfillment of many monotonous organizational tasks, and hierarchy, power and bureaucracy underlie all social organizations.

15. PRINCIPLES OF E. MAYO AND THE HAWTHORNE EXPERIMENT

Australian consultant, sociologist, professor at Harvard Business School Elton Mayo led a series of experiments at the Western Electric plant in Hawthorne. The results of these experiments significantly changed at that time the ideas about the motives of the employee's behavior in the organization and served as the beginning of the second stage in the development of the theory of organization.

Research at the Hawthorne Works began with a series of experiments to improve the lighting of workplaces in order to find ways to increase labor productivity. The results of the experiments did not allow us to derive such a dependence. However, it was possible to establish that labor productivity is related to the fact that workers felt special attention to themselves as participants in the experiment. This phenomenon is called the Hawthorne effect. hawthorne effect refers to the propensity of people to deviate from the norm when they understand that they are the object of the experiment and feel special attention to themselves. This kind of "special" appeal to the test subjects led to the emergence of a new scientific school in the management, called the "school of human relations."

The conducted research allowed E. Mayo to make a number of significant conclusions that contradict the concept of "rational worker". The main ones are the following:

1) a clear division and rationing of labor does not always lead to increased productivity;

2) people are more responsive to the social influence of a group of people equal to them than to the motives and control measures coming from the leadership;

3) The manager must be well trained professionally to be a real leader.

He must understand the needs of individuals and groups, listen to the problems of both, be able to give the necessary advice and convince the employee to accept change. The influence of the ideas of E. Mayo is obvious today. Management improvement programs in many large organizations emphasize the need and importance of special training for managers in conversation, interpersonal relationships, group understanding, and developing other managerial social skills. All these problems are relevant and directly or indirectly follow from the works of E. Mayo.

In conclusion, it can be noted that Mayo formulated a set of guidelines which can be useful and used in the management of any organization:

1. Individuals have unique needs, goals, and motives. Positive motivation requires workers to be treated as individuals.

2. Human problems cannot be simple.

3. Personal or family problems of a worker may adversely affect work performance.

16. C. BARNARD AND PURPOSE ORGANIZATIONS

Ch. Barnard gave a definition of a formal (purposeful) organization and its constituent elements, appointments, singled out the subjective and objective aspects of the power of leaders. He developed a theory of perception, which in a new way explains the relationship between managers and workers, received particular recognition. The essence of Charles Barnard's ideas can be expressed in the following terms: 1) the physical and biological limitations inherent in individuals force them to cooperate, to work in groups, since cooperation is the most effective way to overcome these limitations; 2) cooperation leads to the emergence of coordinated systems. The successful functioning of such systems depends on the effectiveness and inherent efficiency: effectiveness characterizes the achievement of corporate goals, efficiency is a consequence of individual performance and means achieving goals with minimal cost for its participants; 3) individual individuals have personal motives for cooperation, but there is a certain limit to which they continue to contribute to efforts to achieve corporate goals. Therefore, the success of an organization also depends on the degree of satisfaction of its members; 4) organizations can be divided into two types: "formal", i.e. those that combine the efforts of several people and coordinate their actions to achieve common goals, and "informal", which means a set of personal contacts and interactions, as well as associated groups of people without a common or consciously coordinated goal; 5) an informal organization acts as a kind of self-defense of individuals against the expansion of formal organizations. Among its main functions are communication, maintaining cohesion, strengthening a sense of personal dignity, self-respect and independence of choice. Formal organization occurs when there are individuals who are able to communicate with each other, agree to contribute to group activities and have a common goal; 6) each formal organization includes the following elements: a) general purpose (purpose); b) a system of incentives that will encourage people to contribute to the achievement of the goal; c) a power system that induces group members to agree with the decisions of administrators; d) communications; 7) power is an information connection (team), thanks to which information is perceived by members of the organization as a tool for managing their activities. Leaders are empowered by people who want to be led. The subjective element of power is its perception by employees, and the objective element is the nature of the team or information connection; 8) the functions of an administrator in a formal organization - maintaining information communication through the organizational structure, ensuring the activities of the most important sections by the forces of individuals included in the organization, formalized goal definition (planning).

17. D. MACGREGOR AND THEORY X - THEORY Y

D. McGregor, observing the relationship between management and staff, came to the conclusion that the manager builds his behavior towards subordinates in accordance with his personal ideas about employees and their abilities. The conducted research allowed McGregor to describe the management system from two opposite positions, each of which can be taken by the leader in relation to his subordinates. A simplified version of this system considers designated positions on opposite sides of the continuum. One of the extreme positions, reflecting the traditional view of management and control, is called Theory X, and the other is Theory Y.

According to Theory X, the leader most often expresses his attitude towards his subordinates as follows:

1) every person by nature has an unwillingness to work, so he tries to avoid labor costs wherever possible;

2) due to the fact that people are not disposed to work, they should be coerced, controlled, directed or threatened with punishment if they do not make sufficient efforts to achieve the goals set by the organization;

3) ambition is inherent in very few, people try to avoid direct responsibility and prefer to be led;

4) most of all people want personal peace and need protection.

Theory Y describes the opposite idealized situation, in which subordination looks like a partnership and the formation of a team takes place in an ideal environment. It includes the following provisions:

1) the expenditure of physical and spiritual strength at work is as natural as when playing or relaxing, and under normal conditions a person does not refuse to perform certain duties;

2) the threat of punishment or external control are not the only means that stimulate the achievement of the goals set by the organization. People are endowed with the ability to self-manage and self-control in achieving the goals to which they are committed;

3) commitment to goals is a function of reward, i.e. involvement in the activities of the organization implies that the reward for the activity will strictly correspond to how the tasks facing the team are completed;

4) ingenuity and creativity are very common among the population, but in the conditions of modern life, when technology is so highly developed, they often remain hidden.

According to McGregor, Theory X is command and control through the direct application of power. In this case, a person acts as an object of power influence. On the contrary, the theory / is based on the principle of integration or the creation of such conditions in which the members of a given organization would best achieve their goals, directing their energy to achieve the success of the enterprise.

18. MODERN THEORY OF ORGANIZATION

The modern theory of organization is developing in three directions: a situational approach to the consideration of problems of organization, an ecological approach, and an organizational learning approach.

Situational approach is based on the recognition that there is no single right way in organizational activity. The organization must adapt to environmental conditions. It is impossible to ensure the creation of such structures, methods, types of organizational order that would be ideally adapted to any time, goals, values, situation. Each type of management situation, tasks to be solved, the external environment has its own optimal requirements for the state of the organization, strategy and structure.

Ecological approach argues that among organizations "survival of the fittest", there is a process of natural selection and replacement of organizations. In a simplified form, this approach to considering organizations can be described as follows:

1) the focus of researchers is not individual organizations, but groups, or populations, of organizations;

2) the effectiveness of the organization is determined by its ability to survive;

3) the role of the environment in shaping the structure, strategy of the organization is recognized as absolute, it is believed that management does not have a significant impact on the ability of the organization to survive;

4) since natural and social resources are limited, in the process of fierce competition, some organizations will survive, while others will cease to exist.

In modern models of organizational ecology (1980-1990s), the main attention of researchers is paid to the problems of the structure of the external environment, its dynamics, as well as the mechanisms that provide structural changes in the organization.

Organizational learning approach is based on the recognition of two types of organization learning: the first order - according to the "single loop" and the second order - according to the "double loop". The difference between these types of training in relation to the organization is that "single loop" training is a mandatory staff training that is usual for any organization, it increases the organization's ability to achieve its goals, and "double loop" training is organized and consciously managed the process of self-learning of the organization, which leads to a complete rethinking of the experience of the organization (reassessment of its organizational goals, values, beliefs) and its learning through this process.

19. CLASSICAL MODEL OF ORGANIZATION

The basis of the classical model is the idea that the organization is only the result of the actions of managers who completely construct it and own it. Its core is the labor process. The organization is seen as an impersonal mechanism, an administrative pyramid with various levels of management, permeated with formal connections.

The main thing in this model - unity of command and a clear distribution of responsibilities. Fixed assets - planning, coordination, control.

The main features of the organization of the classical model can be represented as follows:

1. Organizational Goals - obtaining economic and other specified results, contribution to their achievement.

2. Structure and processes - rationally constructed hierarchical structures, clearly regulated processes for the implementation of pre-specialized functions.

3. The nature of organizational behavior - performance of prescribed functions, works, fully regulated rational behavior.

4. Type of control system - mechanistic, that is, a set of elements of a formal structure (divisions, functions, positions, etc.), interacting, like a mechanism, to achieve goals.

5. Development - conscious, thoughtful, pre-justified and planned, adapted to changing conditions.

6. Main directions of improvement -

rationalization of formal structures, regulation of processes, systematic retraining or replacement of personnel.

The main characteristics of the model are the goals and the hierarchy of governing bodies and positions corresponding to them. The hierarchy is complemented by a system of formally introduced rules and procedures. A person is considered as an executor of programmed prescriptions, and an organization is considered as a set of mechanical, more or less autonomous parts, each of which individually can be improved to increase the efficiency of the organization as a whole. Stimulation and control are built in such a way as to ensure the behavior of people in accordance with the above provisions.

The organization acts as a closed system, and the improvement of its functioning is ensured by internal rationalization without taking into account the external environment.

20. BUREAUCRATIC AND NEOCLASSICAL MODELS

Author bureaucratic model M. Weber proceeds from the fact that the behavior of an individual is unpredictable, not always reasonable, and sometimes hinders the effective operation of the organization. Therefore, he chose as an ideal model such a form of organization in which the influence of the behavior of an individual could be minimized. The main features of the model ideal bureaucratic organization proposed by M. Weber are:

1) division of labor based on functional specialization;

2) a clear hierarchy of power;

3) a system of rules that define the rights and obligations of each member of the organization;

4) a system of procedures that determine the procedure for action in all situations that arise in the course of the functioning of the organization;

5) selection and promotion of employees according to their qualifications.

Thus, the classical, bureaucratic models consider the organization as purely formal, in which the internal life proceeds according to a strictly defined system of rules, regulations and recommendations that are binding on all members of the organization.

neoclassical model It is built taking into account the capabilities of a person who is considered not only as an operator who performs some work, but also as a person with certain social interests. Character traits neoclassical model:

1. Organizational Goals - survival of the system, maintaining balance with the environment, meeting the interests and needs of the group and individuals.

2. Structures and processes - decentralized structures and cooperative relations that develop spontaneously under the influence of the evolution and adaptation of organizations based on the needs of its members.

3. The nature of organizational behavior - actions caused by values, norms, characteristics of groups and individuals, organizational culture and climate and difficult to regulate.

4. Type of control system - organic - a self-adjusting set of individuals and groups, functioning in conditions of weakly regulated relations.

5. Development - spontaneously brewing changes due to an imbalance between the organization and the environment, due to the aggravation of internal problems.

6. Main directions of improvement - impact on group and individual norms, beliefs, organizational climate, incentives for members of the organization.

21. INSTITUTIONAL AND SYSTEM MODELS

institutional model considers the organization as a political institution, as an association of groups, each of which pursues its own goals. In accordance with the institutional model, the normal functioning of the organization is determined not only by the rationality of the structure, taking into account the socio-psychological needs of its members as individuals, but also taking into account the needs of social groups operating both inside and outside the organization. Character traits models: 1. Organizational goals - achievement of the organization's development goals. 2. Structures and processes - coordination of the social, informal structure with the formal structures of the organization, in which informal systems are given leading importance. 3. The nature of organizational behavior -the establishment of an order in which the directives of social action are recognized by the members of the collective as moral and socially important for the existence of the organization. 4. Type of control system - a combination of organic and mechanistic management systems that interact and in some cases oppose in achieving the goals of the organization. 5. Development - implementation of changes that ensure the overcoming of intra-organizational contradictions and conflicts. 6. Main directions of improvement - solution of emerging problems on the basis of taking into account mutual requirements and making concessions leading to certain compromises between groups.

System model seeks to represent the organization as a system of interrelated parts and variables, and views any organization as a social system that is part of a larger system of society. Characteristic features: 1. Organizational goals - providing a set of both external (economic, technical, etc.) and internal (socio-psychological, etc.) results that are interconnected and determined by the states of the outputs of the system as a whole and its subsystems. 2. Structures and processes - interrelated formal and informal characteristics of organizations, established both under the influence of centralized prescriptions, and on the basis of an organization's informal adaptation to solving emerging problems. 3. The nature of organizational behavior - actions caused by a complex of influences from external factors of the management system, group and personal relations and regulated only partially. 4. Type of control system - block, i.e. a combination of mechanistic and organic subsystems, depending on the requirements of the situation (environment, goals, personnel, technology). 5. Development - organizational innovations and restructurings that arise both consciously and spontaneously as organizational problems are identified, ways to solve them, and results are implemented. 6. Main directions of improvement - implementation of phased, interrelated measures to restructure the formal and informal characteristics of organizations based on feedback.

22. CONCEPTS OF THE STRUCTURE OF ORGANIZATION

An organization as a system can be represented as a set of interconnected subsystems (elements) in a certain way, forming a single whole. The composition, location and nature of the relationship between them determine the structure of the organization. The elements of the structure are individual employees, functional units, as well as services and other parts of the organization's management apparatus. Relations between them are carried out thanks to the establishment of stable ties, which are usually divided into horizontal and vertical. Horizontal links are in the nature of coordination and express the relationship between equal positions in the hierarchy of the components of the organization, so they are classified as one-level. Their main purpose is to promote the most effective interaction of the parts of the organization in solving the problems that arise between them. Vertical links - these are subordination links, they connect hierarchical levels and serve as channels for the transmission of administrative and reporting information.

The relationships established can be linear or functional. Linear connections reflect the movement of management decisions and information between the so-called managers, i.e. persons who are fully responsible for the activities of the organization or its structural divisions. functional links, they are often called headquarters, they take place along the line of information flow between individual parts of the organization and perform the role of information support for coordination.

Within the structure of the organization, various processes (management, production, etc.) take place, among the participants of which the corresponding tasks and functions are distributed, and, consequently, the responsibility for their implementation. From these positions organization structure can be considered as a form of distribution of various activities between its components and coordination of the activities of these components aimed at achieving the goals of the organization. The same structure may not be equally suitable for all types of organizations, but each enterprise (institution) has one or another structure that is adapted to achieve its specific goals.

23. HORIZONTAL DIFFERENTIATION OF ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEM

Horizontal differentiation involves a stage-by-stage division of labor and is based on the specialization and specification of work (the certainty of the duties of workers). Distinguish two main types of specialization - knowledge-based and routine. The first type is associated with the development of knowledge and technology and involves the allocation of work that requires knowledge and skill. In this case, the attention of workers is concentrated on a relatively narrow range of problems. The second type of specialization involves the division of tasks into separate elements and the implementation of each of them by a separate worker. This specialization is achieved through the fragmentation, simplification and standardization of template production and clerical tasks.

The level of specialization can be determined using two parameters - the depth of activity and the scope of activity. Activity depth is the degree of control that an employee exercises over his or her activities. The depth of activity is associated with the freedom to plan and organize one's work (work at one's workplace or move around it, interact with others). Scope of activity is determined by the length of the activity cycle and the number of operations included in it. Work that contains fewer repetitions and more operations has a wider scope.

Specialization Benefits:

1) contributes to the improvement of the labor process due to the fact that its performer has the opportunity to understand the essence of the matter to the smallest detail;

2) allows you to identify the most important, critical areas of activity in the organization;

3) facilitates the process of formalization of work.

However, specialization creates negative results. P. Lawrence and J. Lorsch name the following areas of negative manifestations of over-specialization: firstly, it takes the overall goal of the organization away from the employee and causes excessive functionalism; secondly, it necessitates greater coordination of activities; thirdly, overspecialization develops intrapersonal orientation and generates differences in work culture. There are three standard ways to eliminate the negative results of specialization and streamline routine work:

1) expansion of the scope of work;

2) alternation of activities;

3) enrichment activities.

24. VERTICAL DIFFERENTIATION OF ORGANIZATIONAL SYSTEM

Vertical differentiation associated with the division of work by hierarchy levels in the organization and serves as the basis for the formation of its vertical structure. Each vertical structure has well-defined channels for exercising power and exchanging information. With the distribution of tasks, powers and responsibilities, a system is formed subordination - the directions in which power is distributed among employees located at different levels of the hierarchy. The line of command determines who has the authority to give orders and who is accountable to whom. The simplest and most common system of subordination is called linear organizational structure. In this case, the transfer of power is carried out from the upper echelons to the lower ones. More difficult is line-staff organizational structure. In the organization of this form, subordination from top to bottom is also clearly expressed, but it is represented by functional groups of workers under the authority of the administrative apparatus. The main advantage of a line-staff organizational structure is the ability to involve specialists in specific areas in the decision-making process.

When forming a vertical management structure, people and work are grouped in accordance with the optimal interval or scale of management. Scale (interval) control (also called scope of control) is the number of people or production units that the manager oversees. The control interval is often defined as "narrow" or "wide". Narrow control interval characterized by a minimum number of subordinates from one leader and involves the construction of a multi-level organizational structure. This grouping of people and jobs has both advantages and disadvantages. So, with a smaller number of subordinates, it is easier for the manager to control their work, so he has the opportunity to do it more efficiently and quickly. However, with such a construction of relationships, the leader may have a desire to interfere in their direct work. Wide scale control assumes the maximum possible number of subordinates for one leader and the minimum number of hierarchy levels. This grouping of people and jobs has the following advantages. Having many subordinates, the manager is forced to delegate his powers, which is a positive fact. At the same time, giving his subordinates the rights to perform the work, the manager must be sure that they will cope with it, therefore, most often in this case, a strong and qualified team is selected. The disadvantages of a wide-scale management include the so-called "bottleneck effect", i.e., the manager's overload with routine tasks and, in connection with this, a possible loss of control over subordinates.

25. FORMALIZATION IN ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

Formalization characterizes a set of tools used by the organization to limit the freedom of choice of employees in the course of their activities. Formalization of behavior - this is a way of standardizing the labor process and regulating human activity, leading to a vertical differentiation of labor and involving the separation of the execution process from the process of designing labor activity through various kinds of specifications, for example, technological maps. Formalization takes three forms:

1. Formalization related to the content of labor, at a particular workplace involves determining the sequence of stages of work and their duration. Job descriptions are an example.

2. Formalization associated with the labor process, observed in organizations that use a set of methods and procedures in the form of instructions that indicate to a specific employee the order in which a particular task should be performed.

3. Formalization of behavior in the organization with the help of regulatory rules and procedures that determine behavior in all possible situations. Such regulatory documents take into account all types of possible behavior in the organization.

Formalization characterizes a certain degree of standardization and is achieved in the following ways:

1) through the selection of employees in order to determine the degree of compliance of the candidate with the nature and qualifications of the job for which he applies;

2) the use of a set of rules and procedures that indicate to employees what they should do and how to carry out the task assigned to them;

3) training and socialization, i.e., the totality of professional knowledge and requirements for a particular workplace. If they are defined, then the organization can either include them as recruitment criteria and select candidates in accordance with these criteria, or create programs to train and socialize employees so that they meet these criteria.

Organizations that use formalization techniques to predict and control their behavior belong to the bureaucratic class. Bureaucratic structure assumes that the behavior of the organization and its components can be predetermined, that is, it is standardized. organic structure based on weak or moderate use of formalization techniques. The characteristic features of such a structure are: informal relations; adjustment and reformulation of individual tasks in the process of interaction between members of the organization; the abolition of the concept of responsibility as an organic set of rights and obligations (no one "redirects" up or down the problems that arise, referring to someone else's duties); decisions are made in those departments where there is the appropriate knowledge and experience for this, and it is these departments (structural blocks) that become the centers of power, control and communications.

26. CENTRALIZATION IN ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

In a small organization, all decisions can be made by its leader. However, with an increase in the size of the organization, the scale and complexity of work, a situation may arise when the manager will be overloaded with decision-making and there will be a need for delegation of authority (decentralization). Decentralization indicates that power is widely distributed throughout the organization, while centralization means that power is held at the top of the organization.

Centralization - this is the concentration of decision-making rights, the concentration of power at the top level of the organization's management. Decentralization - this is the transfer or delegation of responsibility for a number of key decisions, and, consequently, the transfer of the rights corresponding to this responsibility to the lower levels of management of the organization.

The degree of centralization or decentralization in an organization or its divisions can be measured using the following variables:

1) the number of decisions made at each level of management;

2) the possibility of a solution for organizations as a whole;

3) the degree of control over the execution of the decision. Absolute centralization or decentralization rarely exists in an organization.

Centralization has several advantages: it facilitates vertical coordination (because decisions are "drifted down" from the top), it allows for greater experience and a better understanding of the organization's goals, and it provides strong leadership because it promotes the concentration of power at the top of the organizational structure. However, centralized decision-making takes more time than decentralized ones. When delegating authority to subordinates, decisions will be made faster. Subordinates not only do not waste time communicating with management, but also take fewer steps to make successful decisions. In addition, decentralization provides more incentives for lower-level workers and is one way to prepare subordinates for promotion to leadership positions.

27. BASIC ELEMENTS OF THE STRUCTURE OF THE ORGANIZATION

The structure of any organization in terms of its basic elements includes five main components:

1) operations center;

2) strategic center;

3) intermediate middle link;

4) technostructure;

5) support staff.

Operations Center form workers whose activities are directly related to the production of goods or services. Here, such types of work as procurement, the process of manufacturing products (creating services), distribution (implementation through distribution channels) of products or services, as well as work related to the direct support of the main stages of the production process, for example, storage of raw materials and materials, tool and transport services, etc.

For normal functioning, any organization (except the smallest ones) needs a management apparatus, which consists of three components: a strategic peak (center), a middle link and a technostructure. strategic pinnacle (center) includes employees and departments that are responsible for the development and implementation of the long-term goals of the organization and the allocation of resources in the short and long term. It consists of the director (president), his assistants and deputies, the board of directors, etc. The main tasks of the strategic top are direct control over the activities of the organization, managing the external environment, and developing an organization development strategy. middle link transmits the decisions of the strategic center and ensures their implementation, and also serves to support the information flows of both centers. It is formed by lines of hierarchical subordination, starting directly below the strategic peak and reaching the line managers of the first level, representing the middle link. To technostructure includes the activities of analysts (planners, etc.), which consists in influencing the work of other members of the organization. They are outside the direct labor process and are responsible for the standardization of activities.

Support staff performs functions related to indirect support of the functioning of the main production. Examples of such units are the legal department, the office, the research department, the editorial and publishing department at universities, etc. The existence of these units in the structure reflects the desire of organizations to integrate all aspects of their life and reduce the uncertainty of the external environment.

The functions performed by each of the five components may overlap and sometimes be performed by the same member.

28. FORMS OF ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE: SIMPLE STRUCTURE AND MACHINE BUREAUCRACY

simple structure is characterized by a clear predominance of the strategic center and uses direct control as the main mechanism of coordination. This is a simple, small-sized organization with a low degree of formalization of decisions and centralization of power, in which almost every performer (operator) reports information to the decision-making center. A simple organizational structure has its own advantages and disadvantages:

1) simplicity, flexibility, clear responsibility, lack of differences in the goals of the leader and subordinate;

2) at the same time, due to the fact that in simple structures there is a centralization of all decisions, an imbalance between them is possible, when one decision (for example, strategic) is given more attention than operational ones, or vice versa;

3) simple structures are most at risk from the external environment, for example, small businesses at the time of formation;

4) due to informal communication and the lack of formalization of behavior, simple structures are ideal from the standpoint of the employee's social comfort.

Machine bureaucracy has a technological component (technostructure) as a key element of the structure and uses the standardization of the labor process as the main mechanism for coordinating activities. Machine bureaucracy is characterized by centralization of power, formalization of behavior, horizontal and vertical differentiation of labor. Such organizations realize precise goals, which, as a rule, are functional in nature. The machine bureaucracy includes all enterprises with mass production of products, as well as enterprises of trade, hotel management, public catering, banks and post offices.

Strengths and weaknesses of machine bureaucracy:

1) the ability to perform standard activities in a highly efficient manner;

2) the ability to use managers and operators with a low level of qualification;

3) redundancy of control at all levels of the hierarchy and volume of conflict situations, especially in the operations center, due to the monotonous and routine nature of work;

4) distortion of information - in connection with a rigid and multi-level hierarchy of subordination, information that "reaches" the strategic peak is either maximally "generalized" (good news is embellished, and bad news is blocked), or it is very late.

Hence the inadequacy of the information received in a specific economic situation.

29. FORMS OF ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE: PROFESSIONAL BUREAUCRACY

Professional bureaucracy is based on the key position of the operations center. Organizations of this type use complex, changing technologies. Therefore, the standardization of tasks is combined with a detailed division of labor and requires the active participation of highly qualified personnel. Decision-making procedures in this case are predominantly decentralized, with little formalized rules used, which ensures freedom (flexibility) of choice.

An example of professional bureaucracies are all institutions of the education system, medical care (with the exception of research centers), legal consultations, etc., i.e., those organizations that apply standard sets of programs (methods, procedures) to a well-defined set of tasks.

Strengths and weaknesses of professional bureaucracy:

1) the ability to effectively perform specialized tasks using diagnostic procedures; unlike mechanistic bureaucracies, which apply a standard program of action to a predetermined situation, in professional bureaucracies, the execution of tasks includes two stages: a diagnostic stage, in which one of the standard programs is selected, and an execution stage, which involves the use of a standard program in a specific situation;

2) due to the professional nature of the work, control over the activities of the performers is in the hands of the professional operators themselves. Therefore, such structures are ineffective in two cases: in the absence of the necessary professional level of operators and low self-awareness of a professional operator, when he concentrates in his activities on using any one program of actions - the one that he does better or likes more - in harm to others; 3) professional bureaucracies, as well as mechanistic ones, are not adapted to significant innovations, since the latter are associated with additional coordination of activities.

30. FORMS OF ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE: DIVISIONAL STRUCTURE AND ADHOCRACY

Divisional structure can be represented as a set of independent departments (divisions) oriented towards some final result - a product, consumer or market. The dominant component of such a structure is "intermediate instances". In organizational theory, the divisional scheme is defined as "coordinated decentralization." The highest level in the organization centralizes the planning and allocation of resources, makes strategic decisions, while intermediate levels make operational decisions and are responsible for making a profit.

The fundamental difference between the divisional structure and the previous ones is that its elements, divisions, not only have their own administrative superstructure, but are also, as it were, "covered" from above by another structure with its own administrative superstructure - the headquarters. Advantages and disadvantages divisional structure:

1) it ensures the growth and effective management of various activities;

2) creates a personnel reserve for the strategic level of the organization;

3) division of decisions by levels speeds up their adoption and improves quality; at the same time, within the production departments, there is a tendency to "shortening" goals.

Due to the growth of the administrative apparatus due to the creation of branches, overhead costs increase. The centralized distribution of key resources in case of their lack can lead to the development of interdepartmental conflicts. In large divisional organizations, an interdepartmental career is difficult, and with a mechanistic approach, a person is lost, his resource is used inefficiently.

Adhocracy is a type of organization where support personnel are a key element due to the highly specialized nature of such support. An adhocracy organization is characterized by a high degree of freedom in the actions of employees and the ability to solve problems that arise. To the number main features adhocracy design can include the following:

1) high or complex technology that requires creativity, innovation and effective collaboration (group work interconnection);

2) employees are highly qualified experts in their field, perform complex production operations and are able to communicate effectively with each other;

3) informal and horizontal connections prevail, the hierarchical structure is constantly changing, many managers do not have a rigid attachment to any one job, parts of the structure are kept small;

4) the right to make decisions and power are based on expert knowledge, financial control is exercised from above;

5) vertical and horizontal relations are predominantly informal.

31. PROJECT STRUCTURE OF THE ORGANIZATION

Project structure is used when a decision is made to focus the maximum amount of an organization's resources on a specific project within a specific timeframe. project Any process of purposeful changes in the organization is considered (for example, modernization of production, development of new types of products or technologies, etc.), which has the following characteristic features: 1) the holistic nature of the activity; 2) participation in the work of various specialists, between whom cooperation relations are established; 3) a clearly defined end result of the activity; 4) restrictions in time and resources allocated to achieve design goals.

The project structure has great flexibility, but when conducting several projects leads to the need to allocate resources between them. Studies show that two-thirds of the problems associated with the project structure arise from poor cooperation between project teams, lack of linkage with the external environment and the basic management structure of the organization.

32. MATRIX STRUCTURE OF ORGANIZATION

Matrix structure is a lattice organization, built, in contrast to the project, according to the principle of double subordination of performers: on the one hand, to the direct head of the base unit (service), which allocates resources (including personnel); on the other hand, to the head of the temporary task force, who is endowed with the necessary authority to organize work on a specific program.

An organization built on a matrix principle combines the advantages of simple and project structures: for the successful implementation of the project, one specific person is appointed, employees are used more flexibly and efficiently, it becomes possible to respond quickly to the needs of the project and customers, and group organization of work is stimulated. At the same time, the matrix structure violates the classical principles of organizational structure - the principles of hierarchy and unity of command, and prevents the emergence of informal groups. An analysis of the practice of organizational building shows that the matrix structure is effective where it is required to combine the efforts of professionals for the qualitative solution of complex problems.

33. NETWORK STRUCTURE OF ORGANIZATION

network structure means that the organization disaggregates its core functions (manufacturing, sales, finance, research and development) between separate contracting companies brokered by a small parent organization.

Network organizations differ from organizations of other types in a number of ways. First, network organizations rely more on market mechanisms than on administrative forms of resource management. Second, many of the networks that have recently been developed involve a more active and motivated role for participants. Thirdly, in an increasing number of industries, networks represent an association of organizations based on cooperation and mutual ownership of shares by group members - manufacturers, suppliers, trading and financial companies.

The main advantages of the network structure of the organization:

1) competitiveness at the global level;

2) flexible use of labor force;

3) high adaptability to market requirements;

4) reduction in the number of levels of hierarchies (2-3 levels) and, accordingly, the need for managerial personnel.

The main disadvantages of the network structure of the organization:

1) lack of direct control over the activities of control over the activities of the company;

2) the possibility of unwanted loss of group members (if the subcontractor retires or his company goes bankrupt);

3) low employee loyalty.

34. ESSENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN

An important feature of modern science is the desire to present the problem of the formation and improvement of production systems as a scientific task of organizational design.

organizational design as a process is the ordering of the organizational and structural characteristics of the system in order to achieve or improve their efficiency, adaptability and effectiveness.

The subject organizational design at the lower level of the national economy - at the enterprise, in the institution - is a system for organizing production, labor and management in the organization as a whole, in its divisions or individual activities.

The purpose organizational design in these conditions is the development of new organizational systems or proposals for changing existing systems, and result - a set of technical, organizational and planning and economic documentation necessary for the creation and implementation in practice of an organizational, production system.

Modern approaches to organizational design should be considered in the following areas:

1. Designing an organizational system as a task of synthesizing a structure from some elements. This task is twofold: the tasks of forming, firstly, the production structure on the basis of a study of the production processes occurring in the system are solved; and secondly, the structure of the management system by grouping jobs, positions, elements of the information process, etc.

2. Designing an organizational system as a task of rationalizing the technology of organizational processes. Here, on the basis of different approaches, the actual organizational processes are developed.

3. Designing a system of indicators and evaluating the results of the organizational system.

35. ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN PROCESS

Process organizational design is a purposeful sequence of acts of making design decisions, leading to the construction of a description of the designed organizational system. The design process is implemented in accordance with the scheme, which reflects the order of execution of the main design procedures. Design procedure is a formalized set of actions, as a result of which a certain design decision is made. At the same time, under design solution is understood as an intermediate or final description of the design object, necessary and sufficient for consideration and determination of the further direction or completion of the design. Design procedures are procedures for building an organizational model, optimization of forecasting. The design procedure consists of elementary design operations. project operation corresponds to an action or a set of actions that are part of the design procedure, the algorithm of which remains unchanged for a number of design procedures. In turn, the design algorithm reflects the set of prescriptions necessary to complete the design. The implementation of the organizational design process requires the use of appropriate technology.

Design technology - this is a certain sequence of actions or operations that allows you to technically complete the design of a given object. The technology of organizational design, regardless of the relationship to the object of design work, contains a number of mandatory components. Identification of needs involves the establishment of the very fact of the existence of the problem, in accordance with which the design should be undertaken. Identification of the need confirms the recognition of the need to create new or improve existing organizational systems. Formulation of the problem includes a detailed description of the organizational system to be designed and is a clear statement of the identified need and serves, in essence, as a design task. At the heart of the design process are synthesis и analysis. The stages of synthesis and analysis are closely related to each other and are repeated many times in the design process. The interactive nature of these stages is manifested in the fact that at first the designer determines the conceptual basis of any element of the system being created, then this concept is analyzed, improved and re-embodied in the design solution. This cycle is repeated until the optimal solution is obtained within the design limits set by the task. Evaluation design results are produced from the standpoint of efficiency. At the same time, parameters should be selected that characterize the main aspects of the enterprise or the functioning of systems.

36. STAGES OF ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN

The development of an organizational project consists of three major stages: preliminary preparation, the actual design and implementation of the project. Each of these stages includes the corresponding parts, reflecting the main content of the design of organizational systems.

1. Pre-design preparation occupies an important place in the system of design work. At this stage, a general concept of the system being designed is developed, a comprehensive survey (or study) of the design object is carried out, a feasibility study of the project is carried out, and the design specification is formed and approved.

2. Design organizational systems is carried out in two stages: technical design and working design. In the case when standard design solutions are used in the design, the design can be carried out in one stage - a technical working project is being developed. On the stage technical design the work is carried out on the basis of the approved terms of reference: the main provisions are developed that determine the nature of the organizational system, the principles of its functioning, the methods of maintaining subsystems, decisions are made on the organization of information, material and financial flows. During the development of a technical project, simulation and mathematical modeling are widely used to select and justify fundamental design decisions. Stage working design involves the development of comprehensive working documentation: all structural diagrams are developed, the necessary organizational and planning calculations are performed, a regulatory information base is formed, organizational procedures and documents reflecting them are developed, job descriptions and regulations are approved, software is developed and debugged.

3. On stage implementation of the organizational project personnel are being trained and psychologically trained, new instructions and regulations are being put into effect, production and management structures are being rebuilt, and new systems of remuneration and labor incentives are being introduced.

37. METHODS OF ORGANIZATIONAL DESIGN

It is necessary to distinguish between the methods of performing design work and design methods. The following design work methods: original design, standard design and computer-aided design.

original design is traditional, this method is characterized by the fact that all types of design work are focused on the creation of individual projects. For each specific object, an organization project is developed that takes into account the features of this object to the maximum extent. The original design method has a very high labor intensity and long design time.

Methods standard design involves the division of the system being created into its constituent components and the creation of a complete design solution for each of them, which is then used with some modifications in the design of the organizational system. One of the typical design methods is model method, when the decomposition of the system is carried out at the level of an organizational module, which is a local part of the system or subsystem. After the selection of organizational modules for each of them, a standard design solution is created, from which the system project is subsequently assembled. The result of the design is an individual project of the organization with typical elements in the form of organizational modules. Creation and use in practice computer-aided design systems - a new, progressive direction in organizational design. In organizational systems of computer-aided design, the development process is considered from a system standpoint and is based on the use of computers. The computer-aided design system is based on model method, the application of which involves the construction and maintenance of a global model of the organizational system in an adequate state and the automated creation of an organization project corresponding to this model, taking into account the characteristics of this particular object.

design method is any action that can be taken during the design process. When evaluating project options and choosing the final option, methods of cost analysis, questionnaire survey, selection of measurement scales, selection of evaluation criteria, etc. can be used. Each design method is designed to solve one or another design goal.

38. ESSENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND PRINCIPLES OF ITS BUILDING

Organizational culture - this is a set of methods and rules for adapting the organization to the requirements of the external environment and the formation of internal relations between groups of workers, formed throughout the history of an enterprise (institution). Organizational culture concentrates the policy and ideology of the life of an enterprise (institution), the system of its priorities, the criteria for motivation and distribution of power, the characteristics of cultivated social values and norms of behavior. Elements of organizational culture are a guideline in making managerial decisions by the management of an enterprise or organization, establishing control over the behavior and relationships of employees in assessing production, economic and social situations.

The formation of organizational culture occurs over time, it absorbs the experience of employees, the fruits of their education, takes into account the goals and objectives of the enterprise. General goal organizational culture - the creation at enterprises (in institutions) of a healthy psychological climate for rallying employees into a single team, professing certain ethical, moral and cultural values, conscious of the interconnection of their goals and destinies.

The developed and conscious philosophy of the life of the team is transformed for each enterprise (institution) into the officially proclaimed principles of its development and the creation of an appropriate creative atmosphere in the team.

The following general principles of construction organizational culture inherent in different models of its implementation:

1) respect for the dignity and skills of each employee by encouraging high labor productivity, free exchange of information, the responsibility of managers for the development of subordinates;

2) support for the initiative of each employee in the field of innovation and a certain risk;

3) ensuring equal conditions for the development and remuneration of employees based on objective criteria, the distribution of rights and responsibilities between managers and subordinates;

4) the development of labor democracy and the involvement of workers in solving production and management problems.

Organizational culture The enterprise is designed to influence a complex system of intra-company human relations, including relations of a managerial type (manager - subordinate) and a horizontal type (between employees of the same level), as well as relations of an enterprise with the outside world - with buyers of its goods and services, sources of replenishment of the labor force , authorities and the media.

39. THE CONCEPT OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGES

Changes in the organization can be characterized as the purposeful influence of management on internal variables in the organization that determine its goals, structure, technology and human resources. Changes may be proactive i.e. precautionary, and reactive. For example, a change that is made to correct a detected error is typically reactive, while a change that is made to eliminate a possible environmental threat before the actual problem occurs is proactive. All organizational variables are interrelated, and a change in one of them will inevitably affect the others. The introduction of new equipment (for example, computers) can lead to changes in the structure (communication system), the number and qualification level of employees, as well as the nature and level of tasks performed.

Goal changes. For the survival of the organization, management must periodically evaluate and adjust goals in accordance with changes in the external environment and the organization itself. The goals are refined as the goals are achieved, and their radical change affects all other variables of the organization.

Structural changes refer to changes in the system of distribution of powers and responsibilities, in coordination and integration mechanisms, division into departments, management hierarchy and degree of centralization. Structural change is one of the most common and visible forms of change in an organization. The need for them arises when there are large changes in the goals and strategy of the organization. Changes in technology and tasks involve the transformation of the process and work schedule (introduction of new equipment, methods of processing materials, clarification of standards and a change in the nature of work). Changes in people involve empowering or modifying the behavior of the organization's personnel. This may be technical training, preparation for interpersonal or group communication, motivation, advanced training of management staff, team building, implementation of programs to improve job satisfaction and the quality of working life.

The reasons for change can be both external and internal. Most often, both types of causes operate simultaneously, and planned management actions take place, taking into account the influence of external factors. Reasons for change can be very diverse:

1) supply and demand in the market;

2) economic reasons;

3) social causes;

4) technological reasons;

5) political reasons;

6) natural disasters.

40. ANALYSIS OF THE SITUATION OF CHANGE

Change levels. Change can occur at various levels: individual, group, organization. As you move to each next level, changes in the organization become more complex and require more time. Evaluation of the situation of change and the choice of how to manage it depend on the level from which the situation is considered. For example, changing an individual employee's job specification will take less time and be less difficult than changing an organizational level. The average level of complexity corresponds to the changes that affect groups of employees, and it is natural to assume that the larger the group, the more time it will take to manage changes.

Force field analysis. Along with determining the level of a particular change, it is necessary to investigate the causes that cause it. Causes of change can be seen as forces that explain change (driving forces), and the forces preventing this change (restraining forces). To describe the situation of change, psychologist Kurt Lewin proposed a method "analysis of the field of forces", first used by him in the study of the behavior of groups of people. In accordance with this method, any situation is considered as existing in the balance of two forces: the forces that cause change and the forces that restrain it. From Lewin's point of view, the lack of change when problems arise is because the forces that hold back change are equal to the forces that cause these changes. As a result, the situation remains in a state of equilibrium. To describe this situation using a force field analysis diagram, it is necessary to determine (shown in the diagram) all restraining and driving forces and evaluate the relative strength of these forces. Then the next step is to identify potential for change or potential forces that are not active at the moment of analysis, but are capable of becoming the driving forces of change. Examples of the potential for change might be the wishes of the customer or the untapped capacity of the management team. To use the force field analysis diagram, it is necessary to collect all the information about the situation of change: to make a complete list of driving forces, including causes and forces of a long-term nature; give the forces an appropriate weight; evaluate the situation in terms of the balance of power, and find a way to change the situation by increasing the driving forces. For example, to make them more clear to others, to describe them in more detail, to enable more people to get acquainted with the diagnosis of the situation. However, the simplest solution is often to reduce the strength of the forces that prevent change. Consider methods for overcoming resistance to change.

41. OVERCOMING RESISTANCE TO CHANGE

Reasons for resistance to change. People resist change for four main reasons: misunderstanding or uncertainty, proprietary interests, differing assessments of the situation, and low tolerance for change. Misunderstanding of the situation usually arises from the fact that people are not able to appreciate the consequences of the change. A person may overreact to changes simply because they do not have the necessary information and do not know what their consequences will be. In this case, he consciously or unconsciously expresses his negative attitude towards changes or shows dysfunctional behavior during the period of change.

Methods for overcoming resistance. The choice of a change strategy is based on the use of one method or another to reduce resistance to change. There are the following methods by which you can reduce or completely eliminate resistance:

1. Education and provision of information. It involves open discussion of ideas and activities, which will help employees to be convinced of the need for changes before they are carried out. In this case, various methods of providing information are used - individual conversations, presentations to a group, reports.

2. Involving subordinates in decision-making enables employees who may resist to freely express their attitude towards innovations and leads to a sense of responsibility for change, and not just a feeling of coercion.

3. Help and support are the means by which employees can more easily adapt to a new situation. Support consists of providing opportunities for professional development, learning new skills, as well as free time for additional professional training.

4. Negotiations and meetings to ensure the approval of innovations in order to obtain the consent of those who resist in exchange for providing moral and material incentives to potential opponents of the change.

5. Manipulation involves the selective use of information and the conscious presentation of events in a certain order. One common form of manipulation is co-optation, i.e., giving a person who can or is resistant to change a leading role in making decisions about the introduction of innovations or in their implementation.

6. Coercion to change by implicit or explicit threat to deprive of work, promotion opportunities, real dismissal or transfer to a low-paying job.

42. CHOOSE A STRATEGY FOR CHANGE

Under change strategy refers to one or another approach to the implementation of change, chosen depending on the specific circumstances. Before using one or another change strategy, it must be remembered that there is always a choice, that is, there are several possible approaches to change. One of the main classifications includes the following types of strategies. 1. Directive strategy. When applied, decision-making remains with the manager (project leader), who implements the changes without deviating from the originally developed plan, and the people involved in the changes are forced to simply come to terms with the fact of its implementation. 2. Strategy based on negotiations. Using this strategy, the manager is still the initiator of the change, but already shows a willingness to negotiate with other groups on the implementation of the change and, if necessary, to make concessions. 3. Regulatory strategy (hearts and minds). This strategy attempts to expand the scope of normal change activities, namely, in addition to obtaining the consent of employees for certain changes, to get them a sense of responsibility for implementing changes and achieving the overall goals of the organization. 4. Analytical strategy. Its application involves the involvement of technical experts to study a specific change problem. For this purpose, a team of specialists is formed, including experts from leading departments or external consultants working under strict guidance. 5. Action-oriented strategy in its content, it is close to the analytical strategy and differs from it in two ways: the problem is not so precisely defined; the employees involved in the changes form a group over which the manager does not have a strong influence. Such a group tests a range of approaches to problem solving and learns from its mistakes.

Factors influencing the choice of strategy.

1. The degree and type of expected resistance. Other things being equal, the greater the resistance, the more difficult it will be to overcome and the more the manager will have to "move" to the right along the continuum to find ways to reduce the resistance.

2. The breadth of authority of the initiator of change. The less power the initiator has in relation to others, the more the manager - the initiator of change - needs to move along the continuum to the right, and vice versa.

3. The amount of information required. In the event that a significant amount of information and a responsible attitude of employees are required to plan and implement changes, the initiator of change should move to the right when choosing a strategy.

4. Risk factors. The greater the real probability of risk to the functioning of the organization and its survival (assuming that this situation is not changed), the more it is necessary to "move" along the continuum to the left.

43. ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE PROGRAM

Having considered the causes and drivers of change, resistance and how to overcome it, as well as factors in choosing a strategy for change, you can proceed to compiling a change program. As practice shows, the successful implementation of changes depends on the quality of its preparation. The preparatory phase includes the following phases:

1) awareness of the need for change (determining the need for change, often due to external factors affecting the organization);

2) determining the level or levels at which the change is taking place (individual, group, organizational) and the likely degree of difficulty that the change will involve;

3) determination of the forces that promote and hinder the process of change (analysis of the field of forces);

4) determination of the probable degree of resistance, possible causes of such resistance and ways to overcome it;

5) choosing an appropriate change strategy within which change can be effectively managed. The preparatory stage precedes the actual process of change. K. Levin, who created the diagram of the field of forces, proposed a model of the organizational change management process, which consists of three stages.

Stage 1. Defrosting. At the first stage, the main problem is to identify and overcome the initial resistance, the ability to get people to accept the new system of views necessary to implement the change.

Stage 2. Change. The main problem of the second stage is the implementation of the change and requires careful planning. A study of a large number of organizations in order to identify the problems that most often arise when trying to implement strategic decisions at the stage of change, made it possible to identify the most common of them: delaying the change process; the occurrence of unforeseen problems; lack (or insufficient level) of coordination of activities; distraction in connection with the emergence of a crisis situation; insufficient level of staff training; adverse effects of uncontrollable factors outside the organization (for example, the presence of economic or political changes). Thus, even well-planned plans can fail in the second step of the change process due to a range of changes.

Stage 3. Freezing. The task of the third stage is to consolidate the positive results and adopt new methods of work. At this stage, the change should be formally and informally secured. It needs to be made part of the culture of the organization.

44. CHANGE MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

The modern approach to change management and human resource development is called organizational development. The purpose of organizational development is to increase the efficiency of the organization's functioning. Achieving efficiency is ensured by the ability of the organization to quickly and timely adapt to changes in technology and sales markets, to other phenomena of the external environment, to changes in the structure and methods of the management system itself. The tool for achieving this goal is changes in the behavior of members of the organization, deliberately introduced by purposefully influencing the system of value orientations of employees, interpersonal and intergroup interactions, individual production skills, as well as by creating conditions for more intensive use of human potential.

Organizational development has a number of distinctive characteristics:

1) planning and long-term - organizational development involves the development of comprehensive long-term programs to improve the organization's activities;

2) focus on the key problems of the organization;

3) consistency;

4) action orientation - organizational development focuses on actions and results. Unlike traditional approaches to development, which tend to describe organizational change, organizational development emphasizes fait accompli;

5) using the services of organizational change consultants;

6) staff training - the main feature of the process of organizational development is that it is based on the retraining of personnel, which is one of the means of implementing changes.

For many years, the most popular methods of organizational development have been grid-based training, observational feedback, and team building. Management Grid Training aims to develop management style and leadership. The focus is on management. The main objective of the training is to educate "participating" management, which is characterized by maximum concern for both people and the achievement of the organization's goals. Feedback based on the results of observations involves identifying problems of production units (for example, a working group, department) or the organization as a whole using a questionnaire. The results of the survey are communicated to survey participants and used to diagnose problems and develop a specific action plan to resolve them. A typical questionnaire helps collect data on aspects of organizational life such as leadership, organizational climate, and employee satisfaction.

45. THE CONCEPT OF THE EFFICIENCY OF THE ORGANIZATION

There are several main approaches to determining the effectiveness of organizations:

1. Understanding efficiency as the degree to which the organization's goal is achieved. In this case, it is important to recognize the dynamism of goals and the difference between the official and operational goals of the organization.

2. Understanding efficiency as the ability of organizations to use the environment to acquire scarce resources. One of the main aspects of this concept is the interdependence between the organization and the external environment of the enterprise as a form of exchange of certain products.

3. Understanding efficiency as the ability of organizations to achieve maximum results at fixed costs or the ability to minimize costs while achieving the required results.

4. Understanding efficiency as the ability to achieve goals based on good internal characteristics. According to supporters of this approach, an effective organizational structure enhances satisfaction, a sense of security and control of staff over the activities of the organization.

5. Understanding efficiency as the degree of customer and customer satisfaction. This approach is applicable in a situation where powerful groups of people outside the organization are able to have a significant impact on its functioning.

If we use the above provisions as a starting point in determining the essence of efficiency, then we can conclude that the organization's activities can be recognized as effective if the following conditions are met:

1) goals at any given point in time are considered as temporary, mobile, derived from the requirements of both society and the organization itself;

2) the content of the objectives corresponds to the essential characteristics of the organization and reflects the external and internal conditions of the enterprise;

3) the set goals have been successfully achieved: the achievement of the goals is justified by the funds spent on this, the required ratio of costs and performance results has been met;

4) the means accepted and approved by the company have been used to achieve the goals; the necessity of this condition is determined by the socio-economic nature of the organization system; its implementation allows avoiding additional costs associated with the social rehabilitation of ongoing work.

Based on these provisions, we can formulate the following definition. The effectiveness of the organization's activity is its property associated with the organization's ability to formulate its goals, taking into account external and internal conditions of functioning and achieve the results by using socially approved means at an established cost-benefit ratio.

46. FACTORS OF ORGANIZATIONAL EFFICIENCY

Three groups of interdependent efficiency factors can be distinguished: 1) system-wide factors that determine the prerequisites for the effective functioning of the organization; 2) external factors limiting the activities of the organization of production, due to the regularity of the communicativeness of systems, the main of which are the requirements of the external environment, restrictions on investment resources; 3) factors for managing the development of the organization - the presence of a development program for the organization of production, the availability of organizational resources. According to the significance and strength of the influence of individual factors, among them are those that have the most significant impact on the effectiveness of the organization's system - critical factors. The effectiveness of the organization's activities is mainly determined by critical factors, while intermediate factors only slightly change its parameters.

Let us give a description of the main critical factors.

1. Organizational principles are the basis for building the practical work of the enterprise. Their implementation makes it possible to increase efficiency by coordinating and streamlining the links between the main elements and processes of production, as well as the organization's links with the external environment. 2. Organizational culture is a factor that allows the organization to indirectly influence the effectiveness of decisions made. There is a close relationship between organizational culture and business success. All successful enterprises, along with a clear vision of their development strategy, a flexible organizational structure and highly qualified employees, have a strong culture and a distinctive style, which together contribute to the achievement of high organizational performance. 3. The presence of an organizational mechanism, carrying out coordination and ensuring the interconnection of partial processes. The presence of an organizational mechanism makes it possible to carry out purposeful work to streamline communications and increase the degree of coordination of processes and work. 4. Requirements of the external environment characterize social needs, specified in the properties and volumes of production, the timing of its delivery, as well as restrictions associated with the impact on the environment and the possibilities of material production. 5. Restrictions on investment resources as a factor in the effectiveness of the organization's activities, they determine the possibility of achieving the final result, adequate to the goals set, using the available financial resources. 6. Security with organizational resources. The resources of the organization give an idea of the means of organizational activity. These funds include employees, as well as information, technical means, and investments used in practical activities. 7. Organization development program performs the functions of planning, control and regulation of its activities.

47. ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFICIENCY OF THE ORGANIZATION: STAGES 1 AND 2

The most rational way to assess the effectiveness of an organization is the method of sequential comparison using standard assessments, when performance is measured by calculating the values of individual indicators for groups of criteria and determining their relative importance on an interval scale. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the organization's activities can be divided into several stages of calculations.

First stage - organizational system identification - consists in identifying the features of the functioning of the organization. At this stage, the functions, goals and organizational resources of the system are determined, the requirements and the possibilities for their satisfaction in specific conditions are established.

Second phase - formation of criteria and performance indicators - includes work to determine the main areas of assessment and performance criteria. Criteria act as a necessary prerequisite for making a decision on the level of organization's efficiency, each of them is characterized by a number of indicators. The selection of indicators is carried out on the basis of the following requirements: the meters used must record the actual level of efficiency and at the same time be subject to the task of analyzing and managing economic processes based on the identification of various cause-and-effect relationships. The final procedure for the formation of a system of criteria is their ranking according to the degree of influence on the efficiency of the organization of production. Ranking is carried out on a quantitative scale in the range from 0 to 10. The maximum score is assigned to the most preferred feature. If we designate the assessment of the feature /y of expert j as ac, then the relative weight of the indicator is calculated by the formula

The indicator with the highest weight receives rank 1. For each most important criterion, a utility scale is developed with an interval of 0-1,0. The main purpose of the scale is to convert heterogeneous meters into equivalent scores.

48. ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFICIENCY OF THE ORGANIZATION: STAGES 3 AND 4

At the third stage - evaluation of the effectiveness of the organizational system - the calculation of the actual values of the indicators and the conversion of the obtained numerical estimates into points using the utility scale are carried out. The scores are used to build a performance profile, in which each characteristic must be judged on the basis of its quantitative assessment and compared with the idea of \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbwhat corresponds to the concepts of "good", "satisfactory", etc.

The fourth stage - analysis of the state of efficiency of the production organization system - as can be seen from the diagram, includes the calculation of the reserve for changing efficiency, a relative assessment of the significance of criteria for improving the performance of the system, and establishing directions for its reorganization.

Efficiency change reserve K_pi characterizes the value of unused opportunities and increase according to a specific criterion and shows the need to improve the system in this direction:

K_pl \u1d XNUMX-B_fi/B_opti)

where is bf_i - a score equivalent to the actual value of the indicator on the utility scale; B_opti - the optimal scoring of the indicator. The closer bf_i to B_opti, the higher the level of efficiency for a given characteristic. Since the criteria have different weights for effectiveness, there is a need for a relative assessment of their significance. The most rational approach to relative evaluation is, in our opinion, the synthesis of indicators of the efficiency reserve and the weight of the criterion:

Q_kl=K_piV_i

where Q_Ki - relative assessment of the significance of the 1st criterion. The criterion with the maximum score Q_K;, defines the performance bottleneck. Therefore, the sequence of measures to reorganize the system is set in accordance with the value of Q_ki.-.

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