Theory of learning. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Theory of learning. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

The essence of the learning process, its goals
The contradictions of the learning process
Drivers of the learning process
Patterns and principles of learning
Laws of learning
Psychological components of assimilation
Learning principles
Characteristics of modern didactic concepts
Learning Functions
Developmental function
Educational and educational functions
The content of school education
Culture as the basis for building and determining the content of education
Steps of learning
Individual and typical characteristics of students in the learning process
Psychological patterns of the formation of skills and abilities
Theory of the gradual formation and assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities
Methodological and general theoretical foundations of the pedagogical concept of the learning process
Stages of the educational process and their implementation in educational situations
Features of the learning process depending on the type of subject
Basic, variable and additional components of the content of education
Characteristics of the learning process
State educational standard
The concept of learning and teaching
General pedagogical and didactic characteristics of a holistic educational process
Principles of a holistic educational process
Learning techniques
Classification methods
Rational application of various teaching methods
Requirements for the organization of the learning process
Problem learning
Modular learning technology
Modern models of organization of training
Academic performance and methods for its assessment
Types of student progress records
Reasons for academic failure
Types of unsuccessful schoolchildren, their psychological characteristics
Ways to prevent and eliminate failure
Indicators of the quality of the learning process and didactic directions for its improvement
The main characteristics of the quality of knowledge
Formation of students' readiness for self-study
Didactic principles of K. D. Ushinsky
Teacher in the learning process
Study planning
Pedagogical diagnostics
Individual approach in the system of didactic principles
Pedagogical tact and its role in teaching, pedagogical skills
Innovation policy
Intensification of the learning process
Principles of designing the learning process
Using Programmed Learning in School
Selection of material for the organization of problem lessons, requirements for it
Development of cognitive independence in problem-based learning
The use of gaming teaching methods as a means of mastering knowledge and testing it
The system of teaching aids in the educational process
Independent work of students, its types

1. The essence of the learning process, its goals

The science that studies and investigates the problems of education and training is called didactics.

The term didactics comes from the Greek didatikos, which translates as "teaching". For the first time this word appeared thanks to the German teacher Wolfgang Rathke, who wrote a course of lectures called "A Brief Report from Didactics, or the Art of Learning Ratikhia".

Along with the term "didactics", pedagogical science uses the term learning theory.

Didactics is a part of pedagogy that studies the most important problems of the theoretical foundations of education. Basic task didactics is to identify the patterns that govern learning process, and using them to successfully achieve educational goals.

Learning objectives, although being limited, are achieved in the process of obtaining empirical knowledge. There was an interest in laws, which intensified as the goals of education and the conditions for its implementation became more complex.

Didactics and psychology of learning. Psychology and didactics are closely related. The commonality of psychology and didactics is that they have single object - the process of training and education; their difference is determined by different aspects of the study of this object.

There is an unbroken chain of connections: "pedagogical psychology"-"didactics"-"methodology"-"practice". These connections reflect the successive stages of designing the educational process. Education is the process and result of the assimilation of knowledge, skills, and abilities. There are primary, secondary, higher education, general and special education.

The object of science is the real learning process.

Learning theory as a science includes several categories:

The essence of the learning process. Considers learning as part of the overall educational process.

Teaching methods. He studies the techniques used by the teacher in his professional activities.

Principles of teaching. These are the main views on learning activities.

The content of school education. Reveals the relationship of various types of education in a comprehensive school.

Organization of training. Deals with the organization of educational work, discovers new forms of organization of education.

The activities of the teacher. Behavior and work of the teacher during the implementation of the educational process.

Student activities. Behavior and work of the student during the implementation of the educational process.

2. Contradictions in the learning process

Since learning is a living and constantly evolving process, it is characterized by the presence of various contradictions.

The contradiction between the amount of knowledge accumulated by civilization and the amount of knowledge adopted by the student. This contradiction contributes to the improvement of the content of education. The fact is that the amount of experience accumulated by mankind is so great that no one of the people will ever be able to fully assimilate it. Therefore, it is necessary to choose exactly the information that would meet the needs of the individual and society. Along with the information, the student must master the basic methods of cognition (analysis, synthesis, generalization, abstraction, modeling, etc.), in order to be able to "extract" knowledge on their own in the future.

The contradiction between the practical tasks facing the student and his individual abilities. As a rule, starting training, the student does not even have elementary concepts of discipline. At this stage, the teacher needs to interest the student. In modern society, there are many different sources of information (television, print, Internet, etc.), which greatly facilitates the work of the teacher and makes information more accessible.

The contradiction between educational tasks and the level of development of the student. At different stages of training, the level of complexity of training tasks increases. It is important for the student to adequately assess his abilities. If a task far exceeds the level of development of the student, then it is likely to be not completed or not fully completed. This situation can completely deprive the student of motivation to learn. On the other hand, if the task turns out to be too simple, then it will not contribute to his development, because he did not make enough efforts to achieve the goal.

Contradiction between science and school subject. The teacher, as a rule, has a greater amount of knowledge than he offers students in the course of training, since the implementation of school education does not always require the student to have deep analytical knowledge of the subject. Moreover, the teacher cannot always present, and the student, for a number of reasons, can not fully assimilate the entire amount of information.

In addition to the above, other contradictions may arise in the learning process. Each of them contributes to the development of didactics, poses a number of pedagogical tasks for the teacher, and helps to most fully implement educational activities.

3. Drivers of the learning process

The learning process is a set of consistent actions of the teacher and the students led by him, aimed at the conscious and lasting assimilation of the knowledge system, during which the development of cognitive forces, mastering the elements of the culture of mental and physical labor is carried out. Education in a modern school is aimed at preparing young generations for active participation in society.

It is often believed that the movement of the educational process is entirely determined by the teacher, his explanations, instructions, questions. Uncovering the real driving forces behind the learning process is a complex task, due to the many and varied factors involved in such a multifaceted, fluid, and controversial process. Not everything that is taught is learned by students, and the teacher is not always able to arouse in them a desire to learn. It has been noticed that the more the teacher "teaches" his students and the less he gives them the opportunity to independently acquire knowledge, think and act, the less energetic and fruitful the learning process becomes. And vice versa, the learning process, in which, in close connection with the teacher's explanations, a lively, active cognitive activity of students is carried out, it turns out to be effective in relation to the assimilation of knowledge and the mental development of students. Thus, organized learning does not stand still, but constantly develops, acquiring the internal forces of its movement.

The driving force of the educational process is the contradiction between the cognitive and practical tasks put forward by the course of education and the current level of knowledge, skills and abilities of students - their mental development.

The art of the teacher lies in the fact that, arming students with knowledge, consistently leading them to more complex tasks and to their implementation. Determination of the degree and nature of difficulties in the educational process is in the hands of the teacher, who causes the driving force of learning - develops the ability and moral-volitional forces of schoolchildren.

Contradiction is also a driving force if it is meaningful, that is, meaningful. The condition for the formation of contradiction as the driving force of learning is its proportionality with the cognitive potential of students. If the contradiction between the task put forward and the available cognitive abilities of students is such that even with the strain of efforts, the students of the class in the overwhelming majority are not able to complete the task and cannot even complete it in the short term, such a contradiction does not become the driving force of learning and development, it slows down mental activity of students.

4. Patterns and principles of learning

As practice shows, the learning process has some general patterns. Their identification helps to develop ways to consciously manage learning. Learning patterns are the theoretical basis for understanding learning. As a rule, they are probabilistic-statistical in nature and do not imply practical settings for specific actions, but thanks to their disclosure, it is possible to develop specific rules for the teacher's work.

It should be clearly understood that these patterns are very subjective and depend in their manifestation on the activities of the teacher. So, the learning process is an objective process that takes into account the subjective characteristics of its participants. In this regard, the existence of two groups of regularities and the complex conditionality of the objective and subjective factors of the learning process are determined.

Modern teachers distinguish two types of learning patterns: external and internal.

External patterns depend on social processes, the political situation, the level of culture in society, etc.

Internal patterns are associated with the goals, methods and forms of education.

Let's name some of these regularities.

1. The learning process is both educational and educational in nature. In the course of its implementation, the influence on the student may lean in one direction or the other.

2. The learning process requires constant repetition of the material covered.

3. The learning process requires the intensity and consciousness of the work of the student and teacher.

4. The learning process requires the trainee to use search methods and analyze the studied material.

In the learning process, in addition to didactic laws, there are psychological, physiological, epistemological laws and patterns. They are

predominantly determine the relationship between the student and the teacher in the learning process.

Patterns of learning can also be divided into two types:

1) objective, inherent in the learning process in its essence, manifesting itself as soon as it arises in any form, regardless of the method of activity of the teacher and the content of education;

2) patterns that manifest themselves depending on the activities and means undertaken by the teaching and learning, and therefore, the content of education that they use.

Thus, the learning process is an objective process, colored by the subjective characteristics of its participants.

5. Laws of learning

In addition to the basic laws, learning, like any other type of human activity, has its own laws. Thanks to these laws, it is possible to identify the internal connections of the learning process, they reflect its development. Science identifies a number of basic pedagogical laws.

1. The relationship between learning and the mental development of an individual has long been known. Properly delivered education is focused on the development of the child, aimed at shaping the correct moral, aesthetic, spiritual, creative and other attitudes in him.

2. A person lives in society, interacts with it. Depending on the social order, the goals, methods and content of training are built.

3. The educational process cannot be considered in isolation from the upbringing of the child. The teacher educates the student not only through moralizing conversations (which most often turns out to be less effective). He educates with his tone, manner of talking, manner of dressing, etc.

4. The learning process is a harmonious combination of content, motivation, emotionality and other components of the educational process.

5. Theory and practice in teaching are inextricably linked.

6. Collective and individual organization of learning activities are also inextricably linked.

Examples of the law of the first group: 1) the educational nature of education. Every act of teaching has an educative effect on students in one way or another. This influence can be positive, negative and neutral;

2) any learning requires purposeful interaction of the teaching, the learner and the studied object. Interaction can be direct or indirect;

3) the activity of students: learning occurs only with the active activity of students.

Examples of the law of the second group:

1) concepts can be mastered only if the cognitive activity of students is organized to correlate some concepts with others, to separate one from the other;

2) skills can be formed only if the organization of the reproduction of operations and actions underlying the skill;

3) students' learning in complex ways of activity depends on how much the teacher has ensured successful previous mastery of simple activities that are part of a complex way and the readiness of students to determine situations in which these actions can be applied;

4) any set of objectively interrelated information is assimilated only depending on whether the teacher presents it in one of the systems of connections inherent in it, while relying on the students' actual experience.

6. Psychological components of assimilation

Initial knowledge about the world is given to a person in sensory knowledge - sensations, perceptions, ideas. The results of mental activity not only provide new knowledge that is not directly contained in the data of sensibility, but also actively influence the structure and content of feelings, knowledge. Therefore, those experimental data that science deals with are formed as a result of using theoretical provisions to describe the content of feelings, experience and suggest a number of theoretical idealizations. Along with this, sensory experience, which acts as the initial basis of the cognitive process, is understood not as a passive imprint of the impact of objects of the external world, but as a moment of active practical, sensory-objective activity.

The psychological components of assimilation are interrelated multifaceted aspects of the student's psyche, without the activation and appropriate direction of which learning does not achieve its goal. These components include: 1) students' positive attitude towards learning. It is a necessary condition for the full assimilation of educational material. Such an attitude helps to form the following factors: the problematic and emotional nature of the presentation, the organization of the cognitive search activity of students, which gives them the opportunity to experience the joy of independent discoveries, equipping students with rational methods of educational work. The student's attitude to learning is expressed in attention, interest in learning, readiness to expend volitional efforts to overcome difficulties;

2) processes of direct sensory familiarization with the material. Mastering knowledge, students observe specific objects and phenomena, their images, acquire specific ideas. Distinguish subject, pictorial and verbal visibility;

3) the process of thinking as a process of active processing of the received material. Understanding always means the inclusion of new material in the system of already established associations, the linking of unfamiliar material with the already familiar. Analyzing the thinking of a schoolchild, two main types are distinguished - concrete and abstract;

4) the process of storing and storing the received and processed information. Memorization directly depends on the nature of the student's activity. The greatest efficiency of memorization is observed when it occurs in some active activity. Efficiency also depends on settings. There may be settings for memorization in general and settings of a more particular nature - for long or short storage in memory, for accurate reproduction in your own words, etc.

7. Principles of learning

As a rule, the laws and patterns of learning are implemented through its principles.

The principles of learning are the conditions on the basis of which the teaching activity of the teacher and the cognitive activity of the student are built.

The development of the principles of education has been going on for several centuries. For the first time, the teacher Jan Komensky spoke and tried to formulate the principles of education. In his work "Great Didactics" he called them the foundations on which the entire pedagogical process should be built.

K. D. Ushinsky played an invaluable role in developing the principles of education. He identifies a number of principles used in modern didactics:

1) systematic, accessible and feasible training;

2) consciousness and activity of learning;

3) strength of knowledge;

4) visualization of training;

5) nationality of education;

6) educational nature of education;

7) scientific nature of education. Let's consider them separately.

1. The principle of scientificity. Knowledge of reality can be right or wrong. Education should be based on official scientific concepts and use scientific methods of knowledge.

2. The principle of systematicity. The teacher requires consistency in the presentation of the material so that the student can imagine real relationships, connections between objects and phenomena.

3. The principle of accessibility and feasibility.

Education should be related to the individual characteristics of the student, with his personal experience, already existing knowledge and skills. Otherwise, the material will not be learned.

4. The principle of visibility. The principle introduced into pedagogy by Comenius and Pestalozzi. One of the necessary elements of training is the creation of visual images, models that depict or imitate certain phenomena being studied.

5. The principle of consciousness and activity. In the learning process, the student must consciously perceive the proposed material. The teacher must set conscious goals and educate the student in cognitive activity.

6. The principle of the strength of knowledge. Since human memory tends to forget information, the teacher must achieve solid knowledge, skills and abilities.

7. Nationality of learning. Pedagogical activity should be aimed at a wide range of students, and not at representatives of certain segments of the population.

8. The principle of individualization of learning helps to determine the norm of knowledge and development of students, which allows you to set and solve specific learning tasks.

8. Characteristics of modern didactic concepts

The basis of the learning process are didactic concepts or so-called didactic systems. Based on how the learning process is understood, there are three basic didactic concepts: traditional, pedocentric and modern.

Traditional concept. This concept can also be called pedagogocentric. The main role in this system is played by the teacher. A similar doctrine was developed by such teachers as Comenius, Pestalozzi, Herbart. The principle of this doctrine is such concepts as leadership, management, rule. The learning process is based on the authoritarian influence of the teacher on the student, on the explanation of the material.

The traditional concept has recently been criticized a lot for being authoritarian. It is believed that this system does not contribute to the development of the student's creative thinking, since the material is given ready-made and does not give the student the opportunity to independently find knowledge.

Pedocentric concept. This theory puts the child and his activities at the forefront. J. Dewey, G. Kershenstein, V. Lai are considered adherents and developers of this doctrine. Teachers strive to build the learning process in such a way that it is interesting first of all to the child, based on his needs, life experience.

However, the pedocentric concept overestimates the child's ability for active independent activity, which often leads to an unreasonable waste of time and a decrease in the level of learning. Knowledge is random.

Since neither pedocentric nor pedagogical-centric systems can meet the needs of modern didactics, a modern didactic system has been developed.

Its essence is to use the positive aspects of both one and the other doctrine. The modern concept believes that both learning and teaching are integral components of the learning process. This system was developed and based on the concepts proposed by P. Galperin, L. Zankov, V. Davydov, K. Rogers. The elements of the modern concept are such areas as problem-based learning, programming, developmental learning, and cooperation pedagogy.

The modern didactic concept is based on the interaction and mutual understanding of the teacher and the student. The educational process is built on the transition from the reproductive to the search activity of the student. The task of the teacher is to set a goal, a problem; he is an active assistant in finding a way out of a difficult educational situation.

9. Learning functions

Exploring its subject, didactics performs the following main functions: cognitive (scientific and theoretical); practical (constructive and technical).

Cognitive function

Didactics discovers or only states facts that are directly or indirectly related to it, systematizes and generalizes them, explains these facts and establishes quantitative and qualitative relationships between them.

At the same time, didactics performs a practical, i.e. utilitarian, or service, function in relation to social life:

1) it provides teachers (or other persons involved in teaching and educational activities) with theoretical prerequisites and norms, the application of which in practice increases its effectiveness;

2) didactics explores the phenomena of social activity, which has the goal of educating and retraining people in accordance with changing historical ideals and social needs.

The practical (constructive-technical) function is closely related to the cognitive function. When a scientist moves from displaying learning to designing it, he performs a constructive-technical function.

Didactic activity consists of the actions of teachers and students. These actions have certain consequences:

1) rational learning entails learning; 2) as a result of learning, the student acquires knowledge, skills and abilities, forms his own beliefs, attitudes, worldview and his own system of values;

3) learning (or the subject itself) caused by learning leads to various changes in the personality of the student.

A typical didactic fact cannot refer only to the activity of the teacher, to the work of students, or to the results of learning. This fact allows:

1) establish a certain pattern that manifests itself in all three actions;

2) reveal important relationships between the didactic behavior of the teacher in certain conditions;

3) reveal the relationship between the behavior of students in the course of learning and the changes that have occurred under the influence of the actions of the teacher and their own activities.

Modern didactics sees the learning process as a single interdependent process. Learning is seen as a movement that has several functions that are inseparable from each other. The three most important functions of learning are educational, educational and developmental functions. To train a harmoniously developed, competitive personality, the teacher must constantly improve the ways of the student's intellectual activity.

10. Developmental function

To ensure constant intellectual growth, development and education of students in the learning process, the teacher needs to learn how to fix the level of development of the student and move to the next level of development.

When a child performs a certain task, he is doing complex mental work.

This work includes some activities. He observes, analyzes, applies rules to solve learning problems. In the event that learning takes place using only two mental actions (perception and memorization), then the child is deprived of the developing moment of learning. He gets used to using these two simple actions and becomes incapable of solving more complex problems that require him to analyze.

The teacher needs to teach the child to think. This is the developmental function of learning. Having learned to think and analyze, the student is already becoming able to set goals on his own, he can improve. A sign of a mentally developed person is the need for knowledge. Depending on the level of organization, learning can speed up or slow down the development of a child.

There are a number of factors that affect the development of a child. Some of them work independently of human consciousness - this is a biological factor. Others depend on the will of the individual and society.

1. Biological factor. The born person is not a "blank slate". From birth, it carries genetic information. Heredity is of great importance for human development. The level of giftedness, emotionality, the dynamics of psychological processes - all this is hereditary.

social factor. The child develops in the environment, this concept includes external circumstances necessary for human life. In early childhood, the child already has a need for communication, for obtaining information. The level of developing influence depends on the nature of the influence of circumstances and on the activity of the individual.

2. The factor of directed personality formation. Since the influence of the environment, as a rule, is unorganized and spontaneous, the teacher cannot count on its positive effect. The relationships that a child enters into are usually built by adults, so he easily adopts the behavioral models offered to him.

Learning and development is the main activity at school age. It is closely connected with work, with political, cultural, aesthetic and sports activities, as well as with the game. Along with other activities, learning activities affect all aspects of children's development.

11. Educational and educational functions

But the learning and mental development of the child is not enough. A full-fledged and worthy member of society must also be well brought up. Education enables a person to a more extensive knowledge of the world, introduces the achievements of mankind, allows you to systematize the processes taking place in society.

From early childhood, the child enters into a complex relationship with the environment. By repeating after adults, he masters speech, norms of behavior.

With the development of the student, the level of his responsibility to society increases, and civic qualities are formed. At this stage, the comprehensive development and education of a growing personality is important. It is necessary to develop an active life position.

Education in a team is very important for a child, since various children's upbringing, educational organizations and institutions create social experience for him, the experience of behavior in a society where his interests may collide and even come into conflict with the interests of the team.

Stable connections in the learning process that help increase the effectiveness of education are called patterns of education.

These patterns include:

1. The nature of education is determined by the social and economic needs of society, as well as the interests of the ruling classes.

2. The goals, methods and content of education are the same.

3. Upbringing and education are one.

4. Effective education occurs with a high motivation of a person.

5. More effective education occurs under the condition of mutual respect between the student and the teacher.

6. In the course of education, it is important to take into account the psychological and age characteristics of the student.

7. The process of education should be based on the positive qualities of the student.

8. The student must see the prospects of education, receive joy from achieving success.

9. Education takes place in the course of human activity.

10. Education in a team is extremely important.

11. It is important to develop in students the desire for self-education.

Like education in general, education can be based on an authoritarian or free beginning.

A person needs to constantly improve their knowledge. In the process of schooling, the child constantly receives information, this happens in the classroom, class hours, circles, extracurricular activities. The acquisition of knowledge by a schoolchild outside the lesson is largely spontaneous, not systematized. The information provided by the teacher should help the child successfully enter the society, navigate in the choice of a future profession and become a full-fledged citizen of the country.

The concepts of education, upbringing and development are inextricably linked in the overall learning process.

12. Content of school education

The concept of the content of education means a system of knowledge, skills, attitudes and creative activity that a student masters during the learning process.

The content of education is based on the social experience of mankind, which includes the experience of the physical, aesthetic, labor, scientific and moral development of society and satisfies the needs of society.

The needs of society are the determining factor in characterizing the content of education. Knowledge, skills and abilities (KAS) is a system of practical, moral and ideological ideas accumulated by generations and specially selected in accordance with the goals of the development of society.

1. Knowledge is understanding, the ability to analyze, reproduce and put into practice certain elements of social experience, expressed in concepts, categories, laws, facts, theories.

2. Skill - the ability to put into practice the knowledge gained in the learning process.

3. Skill - an integral component of skill, brought to perfection.

4. Attitude - the ability to evaluate and emotionally perceive the experience of generations.

5. Creative activity is the highest form of human activity and self-expression.

It is possible to identify several laws in accordance with which the content of education should be built.

1. At any stage of education, it should follow one goal - the formation of a comprehensively, harmoniously developed, competitive personality. To achieve this task, it is important to ensure mental development, aesthetic, moral, physical education, and labor training.

2. The most important criterion for constructing the content of education is the scientific basis of education. Teaching must include rigorously scientific statements that are consistent with the current state of science.

3. The content of the educational material on the subject should not contradict the provisions of official science, should be built in accordance with the logic of official science. Educational material must be linked with other educational subjects.

4. Theoretical knowledge should not be obtained in isolation from practical training. The connection between theory and practice is a necessary condition for normal learning.

5. The content of education should be built in accordance with the age and psychological characteristics of the child.

6. The content of education should be career-oriented, contain elements of technical and labor training.

13. Culture as the basis for building and determining the content of education

One of the sources of formation of the content of education is culture. Culture (along with social experience) determines the factors for selecting material, the principles for constructing and building it into an appropriate structure. Culture determines the presence of such elements in the content of education as the experience of social relations, spiritual values, forms of social consciousness, etc.

There are a number of principles for the formation of the content of education from the field of culture (art):

1) the principle of unity of ideological content and artistic form;

2) the principle of harmonious cultural development of the individual;

3) the principle of ideological community and the relationship of art;

4) the principle of taking into account age characteristics. The implementation of the above principles is aimed at raising the general cultural level of students and teachers, including.

Subjects based on these principles represent a culturological cycle consisting of disciplines in accordance with the defining role of personal culture. Such subjects are aimed at overcoming the neglect of the personal culture of the teacher and student in the traditional school.

The purpose of the culturological cycle is the formation of personal culture as a way of self-realization of the individual in professional and non-professional creativity. Cultural education is provided by training courses that present:

1) fundamental knowledge about culture as a way of human life, expressing its generic specificity;

2) knowledge about specific forms of cultural activity, the theoretical and practical development of which provides the necessary level of a person's personal culture;

3) the basic concepts of the theory of culture (the idea of its structure, the patterns of its development, the understanding of man as the creator of culture, helping the student to understand the personal meaning of culture).

It is necessary to make the elements of the culturological cycle of disciplines an obligatory component of each lesson. For this purpose, there are special forms of extracurricular activities: a lesson-excursion, a lesson-discussion, etc.

Excursion is one of the types of extracurricular educational work. These can be excursions such as going to a museum, to some enterprise, to a theater, etc. An effective way is to hold debates, evenings of questions and answers on certain topics, more often on cultural or moral topics.

Aesthetic education in education is carried out both in the process of teaching a number of general educational disciplines (literature, geography, history), and with the help of aesthetic disciplines (music, fine arts).

14. Stages of learning

All students at a certain educational level are characterized by initial common and typical features for them:

1) the elementary school stage is the beginning of the social existence of a person as a subject of educational activity. Readiness for schooling means the formation of attitudes towards school, learning, and knowledge. Expectation of the new, interest in it underlies the educational motivation of the younger student. In primary school, the primary schoolchildren form the main elements of the leading activity during this period, the necessary learning skills and abilities. During this period, forms of thinking develop that ensure the further assimilation of the system of scientific knowledge, the development of scientific, theoretical thinking. There are preconditions for self-orientation in learning and everyday life.

2) in the middle school (adolescent) age (from 10-11 to 14-15 years old), the leading role is played by communication with peers in the context of their own learning activities. The activities inherent in children of this age include such types as educational, social, sports, artistic, labor. When performing these types of useful activities, adolescents develop a conscious desire to participate in socially necessary work, to become socially significant.

As a subject of educational activity, a teenager is characterized by a tendency to assert his position of subjective exclusivity, a desire to stand out in some way;

3) a high school student (the period of early youth from 14-15 to 17 years old) enters a new social situation of development immediately upon transition from secondary school to senior classes or to new educational institutions - gymnasiums, colleges, schools. This situation is characterized by a focus on the future: the choice of lifestyle, profession. The need for choice is dictated by the life situation, initiated by parents and directed by the educational institution. During this period, the value-oriented activity acquires the main importance.

A high school student as a subject of educational activity is characterized by a qualitatively new content of this activity. Along with internal cognitive motives for mastering knowledge, broad social and narrowly personal external motives appear in subjects that have a personal semantic value, among which achievement motives occupy a large place.

The main subject of the high school student's learning activity, i.e., what it is aimed at, is the structural organization, the systematization of individual experience by expanding, supplementing, introducing new information.

15. Individual and typical characteristics of students in the learning process

The effect of training depends not only on its content and methods, but also on the individual characteristics of the personality of schoolchildren. Features that are important in the learning process:

1) the level of mental development of the child, which is often identified with the ability to learn. The criteria on the basis of which a student falls into a group of highly developed or underdeveloped ones are academic success, the speed and ease of mastering knowledge, the ability to quickly and adequately respond to lessons, etc. The teacher can divide the class into groups, guided by the mental development of children, and give each group of assignments of the corresponding difficulty;

2) traits associated with individual manifestations of the basic properties of the nervous system. Combinations of the basic properties of the nervous system form the types of the nervous system; therefore, such properties are often called individual-typological.

Taking into account both the psychophysiological and psychological traits of schoolchildren is important for achieving two main goals - increasing the effectiveness of teaching and facilitating the teacher's work. Firstly, if the teacher has an idea about the individual characteristics of a student, he will know how they affect his learning activities: how he manages his attention, whether he quickly and firmly remembers, how long he thinks about the question, whether he quickly perceives educational material , confident in himself, how he experiences censure and failure.

Determining the level of achievement, i.e., the success of a student in different school subjects, is not difficult. Taking into account the developmental levels of students and adapting teaching to them is the most common type of individual approach. It can be carried out in different ways, but most often the teacher chooses the individualization of tasks.

The second form of an individual approach, which takes into account the procedural parameters of the educational activity of schoolchildren, is much less common. The most important way to individualize this form is to help the student in the formation of an individual style of learning activity.

Three indicators are distinguished, on the basis of which individual differences in the behavior of students and the characteristics of their personality are considered:

1) attitude to learning (conscious and responsible, accompanied by a pronounced interest in learning; conscientious, but without a pronounced interest; positive, but unstable; careless; negative);

2) organization of educational work (organization, systematic, independence, rationality);

3) mastering knowledge and skills.

16. Psychological patterns of the formation of skills and abilities

At primary school age, learning activity becomes the leading one, in the course of which the child is introduced to the achievements of human culture, the assimilation of knowledge and skills accumulated by previous generations.

The educational activity of younger schoolchildren is regulated and supported by a complex multi-level system of motives.

As they enter school life and master educational activities, younger students develop a complex system of motivation for learning, which includes the following groups of motives.

1. The motives inherent in the educational activity itself, related to its direct product: motives related to the content of the teaching (learning is motivated by the desire to learn new facts, to acquire knowledge, methods of action, to penetrate the essence of phenomena);

2. Motives associated with the indirect product of learning and with what lies outside the educational activity itself:

1) broad social motives:

a) motives of duty and responsibility to society, class, teacher, etc.;

b) motives for self-determination and self-improvement;

2) narrow-minded motives:

a) motives for well-being (the desire to get approval from teachers, parents, classmates, the desire to get good grades);

b) motives of prestige (the desire to be among the first students, to be the best, to take a worthy place among comrades); 3) negative motives (the desire to avoid troubles that may arise from teachers, parents, classmates if the student does not study well).

The transition from primary school age to adolescence is at the same time a transition to a different, higher form of learning activity and a new attitude to learning, which acquires personal meaning precisely during this period.

In classes of "advanced level", gymnasium, specialized, etc., focused on continuing learning, a drop in learning motivation, including direct interest in learning, can be observed only in individual students who, for one reason or another, cannot open for himself personal meaning in teaching.

In ordinary classes, oriented at best to receive secondary education (short-term educational perspective), there is a sharp decrease in learning motivation precisely because schoolchildren do not see the point in obtaining knowledge, and the value of school knowledge is not included in their idea of adulthood.

17. The theory of the gradual formation and assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities

Basic provisions of the theory.

1. The idea of the fundamental commonality of the structure of internal and external human activity. The assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities occurs through a gradual transition of external activity to the internal mental plan.

2. Any action is a complex system consisting of several parts: indicative (managing); executive (working); control and orientation. The indicative part of the action provides a reflection of all the conditions necessary for the successful completion of this action.

3. Each action is characterized by certain parameters: the form of commission, the measure of generalization, the measure of deployment; a measure of independence; measure of development, etc.

4. The quality of acquired knowledge, skills and abilities depends on the correctness of the creation of an indicative basis of activity (OOB). OOD - a textually or graphically designed model of the studied action and a system of conditions for its successful implementation (for example, an instruction manual for a device).

5. In the process of teaching fundamentally new knowledge, practical skills, the theory of the gradual formation and assimilation of knowledge, skills and abilities distinguishes several stages:

1) the first stage is motivational. The trainees develop the necessary cognitive motivation, which allows them to master any action;

2) the second stage - a preliminary acquaintance with the action, i.e., the construction of an indicative basis in the mind of the trainee;

3) the third stage - students perform a material (materialized) action in accordance with the training task in an external material, expanded form. They receive and work with information in the form of various material objects: models, devices, diagrams, layouts, drawings, etc., comparing their actions with written instructions;

4) the fourth stage - after performing several actions of the same type, the need to refer to the instruction disappears and the function of the indicative basis is performed by the student's external speech. Pupils pronounce aloud the action, the operation that they are currently mastering;

5) the fifth stage - the stage of silent oral speech, the trainees pronounce the action to be performed, the operation to themselves;

6) the sixth stage - the tentative part of the action is so automated that pronunciation to oneself begins to slow down the execution of the action. Students automatically perform the practiced action, without even mentally controlling themselves. Thus, the action was reduced, passed into the internal plan, and the need for an external support disappeared.

18. Methodological and general theoretical foundations of the pedagogical concept of the learning process

In philosophy, the word "methodology" means a system of principles and methods of organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system.

The methodological basis of the learning process is epistemology (philosophy of knowledge), which considers knowledge as a process of active reflection of reality in the human mind.

The process of active learning by students in learning is based on the contradictions that act as the driving forces of the learning process. In the most general form, the main contradiction is manifested in the contradictions of the content (knowledge, skills), motivational need and operational (methods of cognition) aspects of learning. There are several alternative philosophical foundations that appear in the concepts of pedagogical technologies:

1) materialism and idealism;

2) humanism and anti-humanism;

3) anthroposophy and theosophy.

In Russia, the dialectical-materialistic philosophical basis prevails, in which the main system-forming principles of understanding reality are:

1) the principle of the materiality of the world, which states that matter is primary in relation to consciousness, is reflected in it and determines its content;

2) the principle of the cognizability of the world, proceeding from the fact that the world around us is cognizable and that the measure of its cognition, which determines the degree of correspondence of our knowledge to objective reality, is social production practice;

3) the principle of development, generalizing the historical experience of mankind, the achievements of the natural, social and technical sciences, and on this basis asserting that all phenomena in the world and the world as a whole are in continuous, constant dialectical development, the source of which is the emergence and resolution of internal contradictions, leading to the negation of some states by others and the formation of fundamentally new qualitative phenomena and processes.

Humanism is a system of views that recognizes the value of a person as a person, his right to freedom, happiness, development and manifestation of all abilities.

Theosophy is the substantive foundation of religious schools, has deep roots in folk pedagogy, and forms in young people the right ideas about good and evil, moral behavior.

Anthroposophy pursues the goal of a strictly oriented worldview, aimed at the study of not material, but spiritual values, gives answers to questions about the meaning, goals of life.

19. Stages of the educational process and their implementation in educational situations

All learning begins with the teacher setting a goal for the student and accepting this goal by the latter. Goal setting can be done in different ways. Initially, it mainly consists in attracting attention and offers to listen, see, touch, etc., that is, perceive. Subsequently, setting a goal is complicated by tasks of various types, setting questions, tasks of a practical and cognitive nature, up to creative ones. Goal setting should take into account the direct and indirect needs and motives of students - the manifestation of independence in a child, the desire for self-affirmation in a teenager, the thirst for new knowledge and interest in the process of learning in developed people.

Organized perception of new information and its comprehension. Perception is organized in different ways with the simultaneous or subsequent introduction of the received information in connection with what is already known. At the same time, the organization of new information can be different: the presentation of specific facts with their subsequent generalization, the disclosure of the indicative basis of actions, the explanation of the principle underlying the content being studied, the movement from generalization to the particular, etc.

Consolidation of perceived and initially learned information. The complexity of this stage is that consolidation is not its only purpose. If you need to ensure the memorization of any educational text or action, then direct reproduction and exercises serve only to reinforce. But consolidation can be combined with other types of work that perform other functions. In this case, consolidation ceases to be a special stage and its main goal. So, after the presentation of new educational material, it is necessary to provide in-depth awareness of it. It is achieved by completing tasks to apply the acquired knowledge in situations that are significant for them. Applying this knowledge independently or with the help of a teacher, the student expands his information, comprehends knowledge from different angles, learns how to apply this knowledge and learns generalized methods of activity. At the same time, the original information is also fixed.

Checking and summarizing knowledge both in the course of studying the educational material and the final one. The modern learning process involves a systematic, periodic generalization of the studied material on the topic, section, course, individual cross-cutting issues of the course, interdisciplinary issues. The significance of such a generalization lies in the fact that it introduces knowledge into a wider system, helps students to penetrate into the general scientific picture of the world, and brings them closer to understanding worldview problems.

20. Features of the learning process depending on the type of subject

At all stages of the formation of pedagogical thought, the main task of the general education school was understood as such an opportunity for learning to give the younger generation deep knowledge, skills and abilities, which in turn are the foundation for the development of the personality of each student and the formation of his scientific worldview. Due to the fact that in the real world everything is interconnected and belongs to some system, then the knowledge that describes the diversity of forms of this world must also be systemic.

Mastering a certain system of knowledge and activities adequate to it are both a means and a goal in relation to the development of the student's personality. A relatively complete and systematized stock of knowledge about the surrounding world is the most important indicator of the development of a person and the degree of formation of his scientific worldview. All of the above is achieved only through the implementation of interdisciplinary connections in the learning process. Moreover, all the main goals of teaching in an average Russian general education school can be fully achieved only when interdisciplinary connections are realized.

For example, one of the main goals of teaching geometry in secondary school is the development of spatial imagination and logical thinking of students, which is quite often in the future simply necessary for practical human activity in many areas: architecture, technology, construction.

In psychological studies, during the experiment, results were obtained that there is a statistically significant relationship between the inclination of students to the corresponding professions and the level of development of their spatial representations. Note that spatial representations are necessary for students to perceive the educational material of the geometry course and for successful learning of the drawing course.

Despite such an important role played by spatial representations in personality development, many educators believe that a large number of secondary school graduates do not fully develop them.

At the present stage of development of pedagogical thought, the role of intersubject communications has increased, which are implemented by teachers of various subjects in the classroom and in extracurricular forms. Close attention to the problem of interdisciplinary connections contributed to the inclusion in the new curriculum for the eleven-year school in the main subjects of a special section "Interdisciplinary connections", the recommendations of which were determined by the creative search of practicing teachers, stimulated the improvement of their pedagogical skills.

21. Basic, variable and additional components of the content of education

A school subject is a system of scientific knowledge, practical skills and abilities that allow students to learn the basic starting points of science. In pedagogy, the subject is defined as the basis of science in the sense that the content of the subject makes it possible to master modern science.

The academic subject reflects a certain part of the experience of mankind and forms the relevant knowledge, skills and abilities.

The Charter of the secondary general education school states that the secondary general education school is a single labor polytechnic school. The unity of the school is ensured by basically the same curricula, programs and principles of organization of educational work.

The curriculum is a state document approved by the ministries of education, mandatory for teachers and school administrations, public education authorities. The basis for the preparation of the curriculum are the goals and objectives of education, the idea of the comprehensive development of the individual, the current level of pedagogical science.

Variable experiment - new experimentally tested conditions or methods are varied.

In the structure of the curriculum, there are: 1) an invariant part that ensures the familiarization of students with general cultural and nationally significant values, the formation of personal qualities that correspond to social ideals;

2) the variable part, which ensures the individual nature of the development of schoolchildren and takes into account their personal characteristics, interests and inclinations.

In the curriculum of a general educational institution, these two parts are represented by three main types of studies: compulsory classes, which form the basic core of general secondary education; compulsory classes at the choice of students; extracurricular activities.

At school, the curriculum is a state document, which is approved by the Ministry of Education of Russia and is subject to mandatory implementation.

Each subject in the school system has an approved curriculum. This follows from the principle of unity and statehood of schools in our country. The single goal of education - the comprehensive harmonious development of the personality - is provided at school with a single content of education, the same curriculum.

The implementation of educational programs is a concern not only for the quality of knowledge of a younger student, but also for the formed full-fledged qualities of his personality.

22. Characteristics of the learning process

A process is a change in the states of an activity system. This system is realized, first of all, by the people themselves and does not exist separately from them. The learning process is understood in conjunction with the content of education. Pedagogical theory must reveal the various regularities inherent in the phenomena it studies.

Didactics considers learning as a single dynamic process, but several components can be distinguished in its structure.

1. Clear setting of learning objectives. It is known that learning is built much more efficiently if the goals are formulated by the teacher in such a way that the student can clearly see the perspective of learning.

2. Development of observation and imagination of students. Didactics has developed a number of ways by which it is possible to intensify the activity of the student and increase the degree of perception of new information.

3. Learning to analyze and comprehend patterns. For the effective assimilation of knowledge, the student should have the goal of comparing, summarizing, analyzing what has been learned. The quality of perception of educational material will depend on the level of achievement of this goal.

4. Formation of knowledge, skills and abilities (ZUN), memory development. One of the properties of human memory is forgetting. The information embedded in the child's brain must be strengthened. This is achieved through two stages of consolidation.

Primary fastening. This action is carried out immediately after the explanation of the new educational material. The consolidation process can take place by simply reproducing the material (in this case, it is recommended to break the topic into several sub-items) or by analyzing the explanation passed at the end.

Generalized repetition. This type of activity acts as a consolidation of the material and is associated with the independent work of the student.

It is very important that the material for repetition is carefully selected and analyzed. Interest in the material covered is also characterized by the quality of its consolidation.

5. The use of ZUN in practice. The most reliable way to consolidate new material is to use the acquired knowledge as often as possible in the course of performing both everyday and educational tasks.

6. Verification and analysis of the strength of assimilation of ZUN.

For the successful implementation of the educational process, a constant analysis of the knowledge studied at the previous stages is necessary.

A harmonious combination of all the above components of the learning process allows you to achieve success in your studies.

23. State educational standard

The Constitution of the Russian Federation guarantees to every citizen of the country equal opportunities for education, accessibility and free of charge. To ensure these and other requirements in Russian education, the State Educational Standard has been developed. In federal law, this concept is interpreted as follows:

"The state standard of general education is a system of norms and requirements that determines the mandatory minimum of the content of basic educational programs of general education, the maximum volume of the study load of students, the level of training of graduates of educational institutions, as well as the basic requirements for ensuring the educational process."

In addition to ensuring the above requirements, GOST education makes it possible to distinguish between educational services financed from the budget and at the expense of the student. It defines the requirements for educational institutions that implement the state standard.

Based on the state educational standard:

1) the basic curriculum, educational programs, curricula of educational institutions and programs in academic subjects are developed;

2) an objective and unified assessment of the activities of students in all general educational institutions of the country is carried out;

3) the amount of funding for educational services provided by the educational institution is determined;

4) the level of equipment of educational institutions is determined;

5) the equivalence of education documentation is established.

The general education standard includes three components: the federal component, the regional component and the educational institution component.

1. Federal component. This element of educational legislation includes a mandatory minimum content of educational programs.

2. Regional component. Each region of the Russian Federation has the opportunity to build educational activities in accordance with its economic and social needs.

3. Component of an educational institution. By the decision of the pedagogical council and the management of the educational institution, changes can be made to the curriculum in accordance with the wishes of students and teachers.

The following conceptual provisions are basic for the implementation of the state educational standard.

1. Personal approach to learning.

2. Activity orientation.

3. Interdisciplinary.

4. Educational and developmental potential.

5. Profile.

6. Formation of information culture.

24. The concept of learning and teaching

Learning is a purposeful, controlled process, during which the teacher presents knowledge, gives assignments, teaches methods and techniques for meaningful acquisition, consolidation and application of knowledge in practice, checks the quality of knowledge, skills and abilities. At the same time, he regularly takes care of the development of the cognitive abilities of schoolchildren.

The learning process is a rather complex phenomenon. It can be defined as the interaction of a teacher and students, in which students, with the help and under the guidance of a teacher, realize the motives of their cognitive activity, master the system of scientific knowledge about the world around them.

Teaching is a purposeful activity of a teacher to develop positive motives for learning in schoolchildren, organizing perception, understanding the facts and phenomena presented, providing the ability to use the acquired knowledge and the ability to acquire knowledge independently.

Teaching is a purposeful, conscious active cognitive activity of a student, which consists in the perception and mastery of scientific knowledge, in generalizing the perceived facts, in consolidating and applying the acquired knowledge in practical activities on the instructions of the teacher or on the basis of their own cognitive needs.

The learning process today is characterized, as you know, by a huge variety of "educational routes", a wide range of programs and textbooks. For its effective organization, the teacher needs the ability to independently design a system of subject education (in his school), flexible, differentiated development of teaching methods (in each individual class) in accordance with the cognitive capabilities of his students.

Now the work of the teacher begins with the construction of a model of subject education in his school. The starting point in the implementation of the learning process within the framework of the technological approach is the diagnosis of the level of educational potential of specific students in a particular class and the development of the learning process taking into account this factor.

Of course, the tasks of maintaining a unified educational space in Russian schools are oriented towards compliance with state regulatory requirements set forth in temporary standards, basic state curricula. Therefore, in relation to the conditions of domestic education, the starting point in the development of the teaching process is the correlation of the requirements defined in the standards and curricula with the cognitive capabilities and level of training of students.

25. General pedagogical and didactic characteristics of a holistic educational process

Systems such as school, college, university, lyceum, gymnasium, etc., in which the process of interaction between the educator and the pupils, teachers and students, that is, objects and subjects, organizationally proceeds, are called pedagogical systems. The process that realizes the goals of education and training in the conditions of such systems is called the pedagogical process. A synonym for the pedagogical process is the educational process. The relevance of the pedagogical process has increased. A holistic approach in the practice of teachers is manifested in the fact that they strive to provide a comprehensive solution to the problems of education and upbringing in every lesson and extracurricular activity.

The dynamics of the development of the pedagogical process, its movement depend on the relationship between the educator and the student. The peculiarities of the organization of the pedagogical process are due to the fact that the object of education - the student and the student team - is at the same time the subject of education. The mutual activity of cooperation in the process of communication at school is reflected in the term "pedagogical activity". In schools, there are various connections, interactions between the subjects and objects of education, these include:

1) information communications - the exchange of information between educators and educators;

2) organizational and active communication - joint activity of a student and a teacher; 3) communicative communication - the interaction of management and self-government.

Pedagogical interaction takes place under certain conditions: social, geographical, educational and material, moral and psychological, etc. The means of the pedagogical process are content, forms and methods. The components of pedagogical activity are the purpose of training, content, forms and methods of teaching and education. The pedagogical process is characterized by integral properties:

1) the purpose of the pedagogical process is to create conditions for the comprehensive development of the individual;

2) the pedagogical process is enhanced if the growth of education contributes to the growth of good breeding;

3) the pedagogical process leads to the merger of the teaching and student teams into an integral school team;

4) the pedagogical process creates opportunities for mutual penetration into each other of teaching and upbringing methods;

5) the pedagogical process allows you to implement a program-targeted approach to the final result;

6) the pedagogical process has its own patterns, principles that reflect its integrity.

26. Principles of a holistic educational process

Principles of a holistic educational process:

1) purposefulness of the pedagogical process;

2) scientific character in training and education;

3) connection of school with life;

4) availability;

5) systematic and consistent;

6) consciousness, activity, independence and creativity of students;

7) succession;

8) the connection of training and education with useful production work;

9) visibility;

10) the collective nature of education and training;

11) respect for the personality of the child, combined with reasonable demands on him;

12) choice of optimal methods, means and forms of education and upbringing;

13) the strength and effectiveness of the results of formation in education and development;

14) an integrated approach to education and training. The main elements of learning are the activity of teaching, the activity of learning and the content of education. The interaction between them constitutes learning. The teacher, in teaching, transmits some educational material, that is, part of the content of education or the content of social experience. At the same time, he uses the content as a means of interacting with students.

The act of learning is a closed cycle, the beginning of which is characterized by a certain state or level of student's preparation for the perception of the teacher's activities and educational material, and the end - by a new state of this preparation.

Having characterized the main elements of learning and their relationship, it is necessary to draw some conclusions that are important for understanding the learning process.

Thus, the activity of a teacher presupposes the presence of teaching aids - subject (textbook, instruments, visualization), motor (construction of experiments, demonstration of practical activities), intellectual (logical, constructive, etc.).

All types of means are used in certain and, at the same time, in a variety of ways that make up teaching methods. Thus, the teacher and the student, the content of education, the means and methods of teaching participate in the change of teaching acts. In the process of learning, they all change, i.e., at each moment of learning, the teacher is different from what he was before, the student changes, the content of the educational material is assimilated differently, other teaching aids are used, teaching methods are modified.

But the main thing that characterizes the learning process is a change in the qualities of the student, his personal properties. Change occurs regardless of the success of teaching, from the achievement of the goal by the teacher. Therefore, it is important to take into account all factors affecting students in order to avoid undesirable consequences. Education forms either positive qualities - knowledge, skill, conscientiousness, etc., or negative ones.

27. Learning techniques

In the course of observing the learning process at school, didacticists and methodologists drew attention to the wide variety of activities of the teacher and his students in the classroom. These activities are called teaching methods: the teacher tells new material - he teaches by the storytelling method; children study material from a book - a method of working with a book; the teacher in the process of telling a story shows an object - a demonstration method, etc.

It is customary to call the method of learning the components of the method that lead to the achievement of particular tasks.

Verbal methods allow in the shortest possible time to convey information of a large volume, to pose problems for students and show ways to solve them.

Story. The storytelling method involves an oral sequential presentation of the content of the educational material. This method is applied at all stages of schooling. Only the character of the story changes, its volume, content, duration.

A story, as well as any method of presenting new knowledge, usually has a number of pedagogical requirements:

1) the story should suggest the ideological and moral orientation of teaching;

2) contain only reliable and (or) scientifically proven facts;

3) include a sufficient number of vivid and convincing examples, instructive facts proving the correctness of the put forward provisions;

4) have a precise and clear logic of presentation;

5) be moderately emotional;

6) presentation in simple and accessible language;

7) the stated facts, events.

Explanation. Under the explanation we will understand the verbal interpretation of patterns, the most significant properties of the object under study, individual concepts, phenomena.

Using the explanation method involves:

1) accurate and clear formulation of the task, the essence of the problem, the issue;

2) consistent disclosure of cause-and-effect relationships, argumentation and evidence;

3) the use of comparison, comparison, analogy;

4) attraction of obligatory vivid examples;

5) unmistakable logic of presentation.

Conversation is a dialogic teaching method in which the teacher, by asking pre-conceived questions, leads students to understand new material or checks their assimilation of what they have already studied.

Visual teaching methods are methods in which the assimilation of educational material is directly dependent on the visual aids and technical means used in the learning process.

The demonstration method is usually closely related to the demonstration of instruments, experiments, technical installations, films, filmstrips, slides, etc.

28. Classification of methods

According to the nature of the cognitive activity of students and the nature of the teacher's activity (or the method of mastering the types of content), the methods are divided into:

1. Verbal methods occupy a leading place in the system of teaching methods. Verbal methods are divided into the following types: story, explanation, conversation, discussion, lecture, work with a book.

2. Visual methods. Visual teaching methods can be conditionally divided into two large groups: the method of illustrations and the method of demonstrations.

3. Practical teaching methods are based on the practical activities of students. Practical methods include exercises, laboratory and practical work.

Classification of teaching methods according to the nature of the type of activity dominating over others

So, using this classification, we can distinguish two groups of methods that are fundamentally different from each other:

1) reproductive, in which the student learns ready-made knowledge and reproduces (reproduces) the methods of activity already known to him (these include explanatory-illustrative, informational-receptor, reproductive methods);

2) productive, characterized in that the student obtains subjectively new knowledge as a result of creative activity (partial search, heuristic, research methods). The problem statement belongs to the intermediate group, because it equally involves both the assimilation of ready-made information and elements of creative activity.

Classification of teaching methods by activity components

There are four groups of teaching methods:

1) methods of mastering knowledge, based mainly on cognitive activity of a reproductive nature;

2) methods of self-acquisition of knowledge, called problematic, based on creative, cognitive activity in the course of solving problems;

3) methods, also called exposing, with an emphasis on emotional and artistic activity;

4) practical methods, characterized by the predominance of practical and technical activities that change the surrounding world, creating its new forms.

Methods of self-acquisition of knowledge, i.e. problematic methods

This group includes the following methods:

1) the method of chances (consideration of any several cases);

2) situational method (similar to the method of chance, but one complex situation is considered here);

3) didactic games (at the heart of the lesson is a game). Exposing methods (evaluative). A person not only cognizes reality, but also experiences it emotionally, and also evaluates it. These evaluation experiences are related to, but not identical to, intellectual cognition.

29. Rational application of various teaching methods

Each method should be chosen and applied in conjunction with other teaching methods. When a certain section of educational material is being worked out, the teacher is faced with more than one method.

The use of a certain method imposes certain requirements on the activities of the teacher, having a specific impact on the activities of students. The value of methods is determined by the quality of the learning process, in particular the quality of its results.

The methods of oral presentation must be applied when consolidating, exercising, systematizing and repeating, while deepening the educational material. The method of oral presentation, which is most often encountered, is the story (lecture) of the teacher. This method is the most rational way to communicate new knowledge.

The studied material must be repeated and consolidated. Students can be involved in the presentation of the material, and here the student's educational report especially justifies itself.

If the teacher is going to check the degree of preparation of students for the lesson, then the method of testing and examination conversation is used here, that is, in the form of a survey, the teacher asks questions to the students, which they must answer.

The teaching method establishes the methods of activity of the teacher and students, ensuring the effective assimilation of the material being studied. It determines how the learning process should go, what actions and in what sequence the teacher and students should perform.

When choosing teaching methods and ways to implement them, one should take into account such issues as: requirements for teaching methods; criteria for choosing methods and ways to implement them in the planned lesson. The teacher is free to choose the means and methods of teaching - the main thing is that the requirements for teaching methods must be met.

Currently, there are two mandatory requirements for all teaching methods: they must contribute to the activity of students in the educational process and provide a deep understanding of the material being studied.

Teaching methods and ways of their implementation should contribute to the inclusion in the educational process in the classroom not only of thinking, but also of the imagination of students, which relates to the active inner life of students.

Imagination is the power that makes learning interesting and exciting. In order for the imagination of students to be included in the learning process, ordinary activities in the lesson must be combined with unusual, special ones.

In addition to those already listed, it is necessary to take into account the abilities of students, their knowledge, abilities, skills on the issue under study, attitude to the subject, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the teacher himself.

30. Requirements for the organization of the learning process

The forms of organization of educational work are determined by the composition of the students, the place and time of classes, the sequence of activities of students and the ways in which they are guided by teachers.

A lesson is a collective form of education, which is characterized by a constant composition of students, a certain scope of classes, and strict regulation of educational work on the same educational material for all.

There are the following types of lessons: lecture lessons, lessons to consolidate new material, repetition lessons, seminar lessons, conference lessons, lessons for testing acquired knowledge, combined lessons. There are also non-standard lessons, the purpose of which is to stimulate interest in learning.

Psychological requirements: the teacher controls the accuracy, thoroughness and timeliness of students fulfilling each requirement.

hygiene requirements. Compliance with the temperature regime in the classroom, proper lighting standards. Uniformity and monotony in work should be avoided, and listening to educational information should be alternated with practical work.

The form of the final accounting of knowledge, skills and abilities is obligatory - these are mainly exams and tests; current accounting is carried out at almost every lesson, at every practical lesson.

In elementary and secondary schools, special importance is attached to polytechnic education, carried out primarily in the process of theoretical education of students - their assimilation of the fundamentals of science. Labor occupies a special place in educational work.

In the process of theoretical training, lessons, excursions, seminars, homework, exams are used, in the system of labor training - practical exercises in training workshops. Additional classes are held in the form of teacher consultations, his work with small groups to fill gaps in the knowledge of students, individual or group classes of interest, for which various forms of extracurricular education are used.

Teaching material is mainly learned in the classroom. At each lesson, the teacher sets as his obligatory task:

1) inform students of a certain amount of new knowledge;

2) fix them in the memory of students;

3) to teach students to apply knowledge in practice;

4) the teacher always controls whether students remember previously acquired knowledge.

31. Problem-Based Learning

In the course of problem-based learning, the teacher widely uses verbal, visual and practical teaching methods. In problem-based learning, the presentation is carried out through a problem story, a problem lecture, a creative problem task, an unexpected question, a proposed action.

The essence of the problematic presentation is as follows: the teacher sets a problem that he himself solves, but at the same time shows the solution path in its true and accessible to students contradictions, expresses trains of thought when moving along the solution path. The purpose of this method is that the teacher shows examples of scientific knowledge, scientific problem solving, and students control the credibility of this progress, mentally follow the logic, in this manner mastering the stages of solving integral problems.

A problem statement can be based on materials from the history of science or on the path of evidence-based disclosure of a method for solving a problem. The direct result of problem-based learning is the assimilation of the method and logic of solving a given problem or even a group of problems, but without the ability to apply them independently. In problem-based learning, problem-search or heuristic conversation is often used. In the course of this conversation, students are asked a number of logically related questions, in response to which students should express their assumptions and try to prove the correctness of their words, thus showing independence in mastering knowledge.

Visual aids take on a slightly different purpose in problem-based learning. They are used not to facilitate the memorization of new material, but to set educational tasks and create any problem situations in the lesson. An example is manuals in which a series of drawings are depicted, with the help of which an educational problem is posed. It, in turn, requires quite a long independent reflection, analysis and comparison.

Problem-search exercises are used when students can independently perform any specific types of mental and practical work. This contributes to the most successful comprehension of the material.

The legitimacy of this method lies in the fact that the truth of knowledge, as well as the effectiveness of the methods of activity that are prescribed to students, must not only be affirmed and illustrated, but must be proved in order to familiarize students with certain methods of seeking knowledge, in order to form an absolute conviction in the truth of the knowledge communicated. In general, the problematic type of training is used not only to master new educational material, but also serves as the most important means of developing the skills of creative educational and cognitive activity.

32. Modular learning technology

Modular technology is one of the youngest alternative technologies that has recently been gaining widespread use. Modular learning got its name from the word "module", one of the meanings of which is "functional node". A module is a logically completed part of the educational material, which ends with a control action (test, control work or settlement and graphic work). Modular learning technology is understood as the implementation of the learning process by dividing it into subgroups of "functional nodes" - significant actions and operations that are performed by the student more or less unambiguously, which allows you to achieve the planned learning outcomes.

The rating system of control (100 points) takes into account all the vigorous activity of students. The use of rating systems allows using the principle of systematic control of knowledge and skills and an individual approach to the student in the learning process. The essence of modular learning lies in the fact that it allows each student to achieve the goals of educational and cognitive activity completely independently (or with unobtrusive advice from the teacher).

Training modules serve as a means of modular training. A module can also be considered a training program, which is individualized in terms of content, teaching methods, level of independence, pace of learning. For example, the development of modular courses in a socio-pedagogical college is one of the promising areas of work for the Pedagogical Technologies Office. A distinctive feature of these developments is that the modular courses are aimed at a competent approach to learning.

Competence is usually called the performance of work at a certain level. The introduction of any new technology, its use opens up new opportunities for the realization of the needs of the individual in the development of creative and mental potential, increases the time for independent work, and establishes uniform levels of competence.

Modular learning allows solving such problems of education as optimization of the content of training based on an activity-modular approach that provides the possibility of any change (the so-called variability of programs), individualization of educational programs, practical activities and control over the success of training on the example of assessing observed actions. At each successive stage of mastering the program, the competence of students / students is determined.

33. Modern models of organization of training

The process of updating the content of education, its modernization and development is associated, first of all, with overcoming the already established social restrictions, understanding the very content of education. This problem can only be partially solved by separating the structural components of the content of education in the following logical chain: "culture - education - social order - pedagogical modeling", and thereby approach the correct solution of the problem. Consider the relationship between the concepts of education and training. Learning is a clear representation (pedagogical content) of education. Bring together training and education goals and means to achieve goals. The specific subject of consideration is the modeling of the content of education - that epistemological component that will make it possible to bring students' own personal-historical experience as close as possible to the socio-historical one received by someone and sometime. Let us dwell on the theoretical foundations of modeling. In practice, filling the content of education with real material is an eternal debatable issue. The following representatives of the education system are involved in the process of its resolution:

1) ministry;

2) methodical services;

3) the administration of the educational institution.

But a special case may be such problems that the teacher solves directly together with his students, adjusting the content of the training in the course of the process. When discussing the modeling of the content of education, the following system of concepts is introduced:

1) education as a process - a way of transferring the cultural heritage of society to a person. Education is a means of socialization, as well as the physical and spiritual formation of a person, which is focused on certain ideals, on historically determined social stamps established in the public mind. Education as a process of introducing a person to culture occurs through the internalization and inclusion of cultural components in the world of human subjectivity;

2) education as a result (or, in other sources, erudition) - a set of cultural components that a person has for his further formation and development as a subject of socio-economic activity, replenishing the cultural potential of civilization;

3) from philosophical and anthropological positions, education can be viewed as a way of becoming a person in culture, a tendency to understand and understand meanings, and develop one's own existential position.

34. Academic performance and methods of its assessment

Accounting for progress is an integral part of the process of schooling. Assessment of knowledge, skills and abilities should be objectively correct, i.e. correspond to the true level of student achievement. Such accounting allows you to manage the process of mastering knowledge, skills, i.e., mental and practical actions, their sequence, introduces the necessary adjustments into the activities of the teacher and students and serves as a means of improving the learning process, increasing its efficiency, and overcoming repetition.

The significance of continuity in recording progress is especially great in work with young children, when the process of mastering the methods of mental activity and the skills of independent work is just beginning. At subsequent stages, accounting continues to retain its importance, especially if students are working on difficult and complex material. The specificity of taking into account knowledge in school is that it has a teaching and educational value here. Thinking over the accounting indicators, the teacher and his students decide what form and content their subsequent work should be, and what their main efforts should be directed to.

Checking the assimilation of the material by schoolchildren, the teacher takes care of the strength of his memorization, the development of memory, and the education of their habit of work. Accounting for progress, therefore, stimulates the cognitive activity of students. Accounting helps students to force themselves to perform certain actions, which thereby contributes to the education of the will.

In pedagogy, there is an opinion that the desire to get high scores necessarily gives rise to the pursuit of only marks and indifference to knowledge itself. This takes place only when the record of progress is incorrectly set, in conditions of exaggerated attention to grades on the part of parents and teachers, when grades are used as bait or a threat to the student. If the assessment is a natural consequence of the normally flowing learning process, the record of progress cannot cause such an incorrect attitude of children towards it.

Recording of progress also organizes the work of the teacher. As the methods and forms of teaching improved, grades became more and more indicators of the teacher's pedagogical skills and began to play an increasingly important role in improving the quality of the teacher's work.

As a result, with the proper implementation of the process of recording progress, the teacher most correctly assesses the success of students, creates in them the desire to improve knowledge, and contributes to their mental and moral development.

35. Types of accounting for student progress

Current accounting is a type of accounting that ensures the timely assimilation and consolidation of educational material at each stage of training. The transition to the next stage is carried out on the condition that the previous task is completed. The teacher continuously keeps records of the results, based on his regular ongoing observations of the work of students.

Thematic account. Having completed the study of the entire topic, the teacher returns to it more than once in the future, when studying other topics, since previously acquired knowledge is often organically included in the new material as its integral part.

Periodic accounting. This is a record of knowledge carried out for a certain period of the academic year - in quarters and for half a year. With correctly set current and thematic accounting, quarterly scores can be displayed without special verification.

Final account. This type of accounting is carried out during the final repetition at the end of the academic year. That is, this is a reproduction of the most important questions of the course, the most concise overview of the topics covered, sections of the educational material, comprehension and deepening of the acquired knowledge at a higher level.

Methods for testing knowledge, skills and abilities - this is when the teacher has every reason to require students to report on the development of the material being studied and to assess the level learned by each student.

There are several tests of knowledge: oral, written and practical.

Oral check. Not so long ago, the prevailing method of testing knowledge at school was an individual survey, which took up to 40% of the time in each lesson.

Written verification. The main purpose of a written (and graphic) test is to identify the degree of mastery of students' skills and abilities in a given subject. It also allows you to judge the quality of knowledge - their correctness, accuracy, awareness, the ability to apply knowledge in practice, makes it possible in a short period to simultaneously check all students in the class.

Practical check. It tests the ability of students to apply theoretical knowledge in practice. Verification tasks of a practical nature are tasks that require experience, measurement, labor operations.

Performance appraisal plays an important role in various spheres of public and private life of people.

The modern school has adopted a digital five-point system for assessing students' knowledge, which contributes to the differentiated accounting of students' achievements in educational work and makes it easier for them to perceive the significance of the assessment. Already in the first quarter, first-graders understand what level of performance the scores "5" and "3" correspond to.

36. Causes of failure

Underachievement is considered the low level of knowledge of students, compared with generally accepted standards. The reasons for failure may vary. In some cases, teachers themselves are the culprits. The teacher believes that the student is inattentive in the lesson, that he is a loafer, incapable. But often under this lies the insufficiently prepared work of the teacher, who could not interest the student, develop his individual abilities, and introduce him to work in the lesson.

If, from the earliest grades, a student has lost interest in learning and goes to school simply because “everyone does it,” then in connection with any failures, a certain prejudice against teaching is strengthened in him. Therefore, it is very important for a teacher to instill in his students that failures should not upset them, but teach them, temper their will. The teacher needs to constantly motivate the need for learning at each stage. The second reason for student failure may be the family. After all, learning is not limited to working in the classroom. With a child, especially at the initial stage of education, you need to work continuously, help him to comprehend knowledge. And if you "abandon" a child from the very beginning, it is difficult to expect great success from him in further studies.

It is not uncommon for parents themselves to convince their children that education is far from being the most important thing in life, and that people used to get only five years of education and still achieve success in life. The third source of failure is the free children's society - a group of closest friends and comrades with whom he spends his free (and not always just free) time. If the company surrounding the student has a negative attitude towards learning, if academic success is not prestigious in the school (or non-school) team, the student will not strive for academic success. The fourth source of student failure may be himself. That is, if one mechanically, directly derives academic performance from school, family, comradely influences, this will mean that the child is simply a passive, weak-willed product of external circumstances. In fact, this is a very active and selective creature that perceives all sorts of influences. Consequently, the failure of a schoolchild, especially in high school, where people are already quite independent, is not so much to blame for someone as he himself.

But sometimes the failure of a student appears for reasons beyond the control of the student - the student unintentionally misses classes for a long time, for example, due to a serious or chronic illness. In this case, the teacher should treat the student more favorably, try to avoid the presence of gaps in the students' knowledge, and not turn his temporary poor progress into a permanent one.

37. Types of unsuccessful schoolchildren, their psychological characteristics

Despite the progressive development of pedagogical and psychological sciences, the problem of combating lagging students has not lost its relevance at the present time. In any educational group, you can find students who do not have time in learning for one reason or another. But in order to eliminate and prevent academic failure, it is necessary to know not only its causes. In the eyes of teachers, all underachieving students are exactly the same.

According to the psychologist N. I. Murachkovsky, certain types of underachieving students can be conditionally distinguished. He based the classification on two features: the first characterizes the features of the student's mental activity, the second characterizes the orientation of the personality, its attitude to learning. As a result of consideration of these aspects, the following typology was obtained.

The first type of underachievers are students whose low quality of mental activity is combined with a positive attitude towards learning.

The second type is schoolchildren, in whom a high quality of mental activity is combined with a negative attitude towards learning.

The third type of underachievers includes children whose low quality of mental activity is combined with a negative attitude towards learning.

If the teacher is familiar with such a typology, and can independently determine what type of underachievers their students belong to, he can help each of the groups of underachieving students, applying an individual approach to each of them. One of the most common coping strategies is to

organization of additional classes with lagging behind during extracurricular time. Moreover, it is used for all students, regardless of what reason caused them to fall behind. So often the teacher leaves after the lessons the students from the first and second groups listed above, inviting them to perform the same tasks.

An additional lesson with students from the second group is justified to some extent, since they do not prepare for lessons at home. But what about the students from the first group? They are always conscientious about doing homework, and they need a different kind of corrective work. And if the teacher analyzes the tasks in detail with the first group, the second, which has great abilities, will lose interest in these classes. And the organization of additional classes with the third group after the end of the lessons can not only not bring positive results, but vice versa - weaken the already weakened child's body, because the process of learning is given to him with difficulty.

38. Ways to prevent and eliminate poor progress

The problem of academic failure has always worried teachers. Leading educators and psychologists are trying to find ways to deal with academic failure. In order for this struggle to be effective, the teacher simply needs to know the reasons for the failure of students. At the same time, the situation can be complicated by the fact that academic failure is caused not by one, but by a number of reasons. In this case, the solution of one problem will not give a positive result as a whole. It is necessary to use a whole range of measures. Moreover, it is also important to take into account the individual characteristics of each lagging schoolchild, i.e., what type of lagging behind each of them belongs to. It is the combination of this knowledge that will allow the teacher to improve the performance of the class as a whole, and of each student individually. Having determined the type of the lagging student, having clarified to the end all the reasons why this lag occurred, the teacher must develop a special program for correcting poor progress. It should include both additional classes with a teacher in the classroom, and self-preparation of the underachiever. Moreover, self-training should include not only independent work of the student, but also work on the part of parents and stronger classmates. The program must take into account:

1) the total amount of material to be worked out;

2) the nature of the selected material - easy or difficult, descriptive or analytical, what does it have to do with the material currently being covered;

3) the volume and degree of difficulty of this current material;

4) load in other subjects;

5) the state of health of the student;

6) his attitude to learning, the degree of personal organization, the ability to work independently;

7) family and living conditions; possible help from the teacher, family, comrades;

8) the period during which the student must complete the developed program.

Accordingly, in the program, the educational material must be divided into portions with an indication of the time frame for each portion to be worked out. Also, the program should contain instructions not only on what needs to be worked out and in what terms, but also how to work rationally, bearing in mind the large amount of material, the limited time frame and (in case of lagging behind due to illness) the student’s health that has not yet fully recovered. In addition, it is necessary that the program is in the hands of the student. This is very important both for business reasons - the student receives guidance for work, and for psychological ones - he clearly sees the prospect of successfully completing his hard work, first distant, and then more and more approaching, and this mobilizes and gives strength.

39. Indicators of the quality of the learning process and didactic directions for its improvement

The main indicators of the quality of the learning process are assessment and mark. Evaluation is understood as a characteristic of the value, level or significance of any objects or processes. Evaluate means to establish the level, degree or quality of something. The assessment is based on the information available and the results of the control carried out. The concepts of "estimates" and "marks" are quite close, but not identical. Evaluation is a broader and more capacious concept, since it expresses the qualitative state of the student's preparedness, while the mark gives only a conditional quantitative characteristic of it. A grade is the result of a value judgment, expressed as a score. Knowledge assessment, as an indicator of the quality of education, is one of the most basic and debatable in the entire problem of knowledge accounting. This issue causes many difficulties in the practice of subject teachers, although it is a strong stimulating tool for students and is of great educational importance, provided that it is properly applied in the conditions of the pedagogical process. In fact, assessment in the educational system should only characterize the knowledge of students. It should not be presented as a reward or a means of punishment. In addition, marks should be given as objectively as possible. Both overestimation and excessive severity are considered unacceptable. General criteria for assessing students' knowledge are contained in programs that establish the amount of knowledge, skills and abilities that students should have in a given subject in each particular class. Assessment standards should be clearly defined, as they correlate with the specific knowledge, skills and abilities of students in subjects. When grading for a quarter, the teacher's daily observation of the student should play the most important role. The assessment cannot be set as some kind of arithmetic mean, the teacher must certainly take into account the following requirements for students' knowledge:

1) independence of thinking;

2) systematic knowledge;

3) activity;

4) the degree of disclosure of the material;

5) exactingness;

6) taking into account the age and individual characteristics of the student.

When conducting school exams, the teacher usually asks a series of questions, thereby trying to give an opportunity to a strong student to show his knowledge, as well as to additionally test the knowledge of a weak student.

40. The main characteristics of the quality of knowledge

The quality of students' knowledge is checked using learning control (checking and evaluating learning outcomes). In a broad sense, control is the verification of something. In learning activities, control provides external feedback (control performed by the teacher) and internal feedback (student self-control).

Each student, actively participating in the control process, not only answers the teacher's questions and completes his tasks, but also comprehends the answers of his comrades, makes adjustments to them, and performs additional work on insufficiently mastered material.

Control is characterized by great educational value, since it increases the responsibility for the work performed not only by students, but also by the teacher, accustoms students to systematic work and accuracy in the performance of educational tasks.

There are certain requirements for the organization of control over the educational activities of students:

1) the individual nature of control, requiring control over the work of each student, over his personal educational activities, which does not allow the substitution of the results of the teaching of individual students by the results of the work of the team;

2) systematic, regular control at all stages of the learning process, its combination with other aspects of the educational activities of students;

3) a variety of forms of conducting, ensuring the fulfillment of the teaching, developing and educating functions of control, increasing the interest of students in its conduct and results;

4) comprehensiveness, which means that the control should cover all sections of the curriculum, ensure the testing of theoretical knowledge, intellectual and practical skills and abilities of students;

5) objectivity of control, excluding deliberate, subjective and erroneous value judgments and conclusions of the teacher, based on insufficient study of schoolchildren or a biased attitude towards some of them;

6) a differentiated approach that takes into account the characteristics of each academic subject and its individual sections;

7) the unity of the requirements of teachers exercising control over the educational work of students in a given class.

Consequently, in the process of control, the teacher can make a certain characteristic of the quality of knowledge of each student and group of students. It has its own structure:

1) orientation of the student in this subject (the ability to demonstrate the acquired knowledge);

2) the isolation of a given subject from a number of others and the relationship of this subject with other sciences;

3) the ability to find application of the acquired knowledge in everyday life;

4) the ability to compare different subjects with each other and with their accumulated life experience (this stage should become fundamental when the student graduates from an educational institution).

41. Formation of students' readiness for self-study

Depending on the nature of the organization of the educational process, two main types of student activity can be distinguished. The first is observed in the classroom, where the teacher plays the leading role. The second type of activity is revealed in the process of independent work in the classroom or at home. This type of activity is called self-learning. Didacts single out the necessary and sufficient elements that make up self-learning: understanding the purpose of the upcoming work (the motivating activity of the teacher plays an important role here), planning the progress of its implementation; selection of means and methods for its implementation, implementation of self-control and self-regulation of activities; self-analysis of the results of educational activities. Self-study only at first glance is the teacher's "lifesaver", facilitating his work. In fact, to organize this kind of work, the teacher often spends more effort than in other types of work with students.

For sufficient strength, consistency, quality of knowledge acquired by students as a result of self-education, the teacher needs to create a number of conditions that ensure students' readiness for self-education. Firstly, obtaining new knowledge is impossible without the presence of basic, initial knowledge. Without such a basis, it is impossible to understand the essence of the phenomena studied later. Secondly, it is necessary as often as possible in ordinary lessons to practice the organization of independent work of schoolchildren, aimed at solving various problems and exercises in order to develop skills for applying knowledge; conducting independent observations and experiments; finding answers to teacher's questions that require not mechanical reproduction of knowledge, but their creative application in non-standard situations; assignments requiring independent work with reference literature. Thirdly, the teacher must constantly stimulate the independent cognitive activity of students, if necessary, provide assistance, form positive motives for self-learning in them. It has been noticed that the more a teacher teaches his students, and the less opportunities are given to them to independently acquire knowledge, think and act, the less energetic and fruitful the learning process becomes.

The art of the teacher lies in arming students with knowledge, consistently leading them to more and more complex tasks and at the same time preparing them to perform these tasks.

42. Didactic principles of K. D. Ushinsky

Ushinsky in his didactics provides for his time at a high scientific level a developed system for building the learning process at school. In this system, the leading place is occupied by his doctrine of didactic principles.

K. D. Ushinsky considers such principles:

1) timeliness;

2) gradualness;

3) limitation;

4) constancy;

5) hardness of assimilation;

6) clarity;

7) self-activity of the student;

8) the absence of excessive tension and excessive lightness;

9) morality;

10) utility.

An analysis of the content of each of them clearly shows that under "morality" K. D. Ushinsky understood the educative nature of education, under "usefulness" - the connection of education with life, under "timeliness" and "limitation" - natural conformity in education, and under the rest " conditions" - what we call the didactic principles of teaching.

K. D. Ushinsky considered the main didactic principles:

1) the consciousness and activity of students in the learning process ("clarity", "self-activity of the student") - K. D. Ushinsky understood that the psychological content of the principle of consciousness makes the learning process active, i.e. ensures the activity of each student in the entire learning process; therefore, consciousness and activity are inseparable from each other: activity is the form in which the student's conscious learning is carried out;

2) visibility in learning - for K. D. Ushinsky, visibility is not some kind of "higher" or "universal" principle of learning, capable of replacing even a teacher, as representatives of the so-called "free education" often pointed out, but one of such learning conditions, which, under the guidance of the teacher, along with other conditions, ensures that students receive solid, full-fledged knowledge;

3) consistency (“graduality”, “lack of excessive tension and excessive lightness”) - the main task of this principle for Ushinsky is to build the entire learning process on the basis that it gradually, in a certain sequence, develops a unified system of knowledge and skills among students;

4) the strength of knowledge and skills ("hardness of assimilation") - special exercises are of great importance for consolidating knowledge and skills.

At the same time, it should be taken into account that K. D. Ushinsky, who considered all learning as a single process, pointed out that these didactic principles cannot exist independently, in their pure form, and in the learning process they are organically intertwined with each other and determine each other.

43. Teacher in the learning process

Pedagogical science in relation to the teacher acts simultaneously in prescriptive and explanatory functions, in addition, the connecting link between them is the work in practice of the teacher himself. The success of education and training directly depends on the effectiveness of the work of those who organize and manage the pedagogical process - from teachers. In this regard, all sections of pedagogical activity are called upon to serve the teacher, giving him the means to work with students. But if we take into account that each teacher deals with many different situations and objects in their various combinations, then it is his duty to be not just a consistent executor of recommendations, but also a kind of creator of the pedagogical process. At present, a teacher cannot work, guided only by his own experience and initiative.

There are various materials, the purpose of which is to get an idea of how and what to teach - curricula, programs, recommendations for teachers, textbooks, etc.

These manuals, on the one hand, are the applied result of pedagogical science, on the other hand, they are a project of educational activities developed on the basis of many scientific works and designed to fulfill the most important goals. In addition, a significant guideline in the work of each teacher is the best experience of other teachers. From the point of view of modern didactics, the main task of the teacher in the educational process is to manage the conscious and active activities of students. Examples of such management are: planning the educational process, organizing one's own work, organizing the educational activities of students, stimulating and intensifying the work of students, monitoring and regulating the educational process, and analyzing the results of the work done.

The planning of the educational process is divided into the preparation of thematic and lesson work plans.

The overall organizational work of the teacher can be divided into two stages:

1) preparatory;

2) executive.

The preparatory stage is the preparation of visual didactic aids, handouts, the search and selection of the necessary reference literature, the preliminary preparation of tasks and exercises to test the knowledge of students and the formation of the necessary skills, the selection and involvement of students in educational work to check the quality of assimilation of the material covered.

The executive stage is the direct activity of the teacher in the lesson and the organization of the activities of students associated with it (both active and passive).

44. Planning of educational work

The essence of planning lies in the rational distribution in time of the collective and individual labor of school employees necessary to achieve the goals. It is intended to reveal the content, functions and interaction of both individual school units and the entire system of school work as a whole and indicate practical measures aimed at the implementation of the tasks set.

The effectiveness of planning and the implementation of the planned activities depend on the observance of a number of conditions, primarily on the ability to analyze the results of the educational work of the school for the previous academic year. Here, an objective assessment of the quality of students' knowledge, their upbringing, the skills and abilities of educational work and other activities, the development of intellectual forces and abilities of schoolchildren is of decisive importance. Particular attention should be paid to the analysis of students' quarterly tests, exam results, determining the level of knowledge, skills and abilities, studying the materials of methodological associations, pedagogical councils, production meetings, as well as studying the correlation of quantitative indicators with qualitative characteristics of the educational process and its results.

Long-term planning of school activities is planning for a long period. An equally important condition for effective planning is a clear idea of the prospects for the development of the school for the year and the next few years, the definition of the main goals and main tasks of the team, their real refraction on the scale of the district, city, region.

Particular attention is paid to the creation of an educational and material base for labor training and the organization of socially useful, productive work of students. When developing long-term plans, it is necessary to take into account the progressive complication of the content of all educational work and the age characteristics of schoolchildren.

The complexity of such planning lies in the fact that the educational process goes beyond the class, the lesson, receiving its logical development in various forms of extracurricular and extracurricular activities and in the independent work of students. Life dictates the need for a holistic approach to the upbringing and development of the child, the construction of a single, integrated system of educational influences of the school, family and community.

The main task of planning is the focus of the teaching staff of the school on improving the efficiency and quality of work.

45. Pedagogical diagnostics

First, the adjective "pedagogical" characterizes the following features of this diagnosis. Pedagogical diagnostics is carried out for pedagogical purposes, i.e., it is focused on obtaining new information on how to improve the quality of education and the development of the student's personality based on the analysis and interpretation of its results.

Secondly, it provides fundamentally new meaningful information about the quality of the pedagogical work of the teacher himself.

Thirdly, it is carried out using methods that organically fit into the logic of the teacher's pedagogical activity.

Fourthly, with the help of pedagogical diagnostics, the control and evaluation functions of the teacher's activity are enhanced;

Fifthly, even some traditionally used means and methods of teaching and upbringing can be transformed into means and methods of pedagogical diagnostics.

Every teacher knows that in teaching any subject there are such tasks and tasks, on the basis of which it is possible to diagnose not only knowledge, skills, but also creative abilities and other personal qualities. For example, a physics problem: come up with as many ways as possible to measure the acceleration of a car. "Justify your proposals" - has exceptionally great diagnostic power. Some students give up to ten solutions. And depending on the number of proposed solutions, originality, evidence, based on this example, it is possible to diagnose and rank the level of creative abilities of almost all students.

Along with diagnostic methods, such as purposeful observations of students, interview-type conversation, pedagogical testing has become more and more actively used in recent years.

Rules of pedagogical diagnostics:

1) indicate the school, class, number of students, subject, full name of the teacher, and the person who conducted the diagnostics, testing;

2) formulate the goals and objectives of diagnostics, testing;

3) determine the form of registration and collection of primary materials for diagnostics, testing;

4) process and present diagnostic results in the form of diagrams, tables, diagrams;

5) analyze and interpret the results obtained, explain their meaning;

6) give a general assessment, formulate pedagogical conclusions and recommendations;

7) indicate where and how the results of diagnostics, testing can be used (for students, parents, teachers, education authorities).

For pedagogical diagnostics and identification of reserve opportunities for the quality of teachers' work, various methods can be applied: conversations such as interviews, tests, systematic observations.

46. Individual approach in the system of didactic principles

An individual approach is one of the types of organization of work by a teacher. This is a type of work that takes into account the individual characteristics of students in order to involve them in the learning process. With an individual approach in the learning process, the mental abilities of students, their psychological characteristics, and physical endurance are taken into account.

Individual work with students is a laborious, but, in the end, productive activity. This work is based on a differentiated approach to students. First of all, it is necessary to find out the individual characteristics of each student, and then begin to develop various options for individual work in the lesson. In this case, the level of knowledge, skills and abilities of each student must be taken into account.

To fill gaps in students' knowledge and eliminate factual errors, it is very effective to use a variety of self-control techniques, algorithmic and programmed exercises, since in them the material is divided into logical stages, doses. In each option, the most difficult questions that can cause errors are highlighted, and the simplest ones are left for independent decision, to identify the causes of misunderstanding of the material. In the system of exercises, moving from work under the direct supervision of a teacher to partial and further to completely independent work, students gradually cope with tasks of varying degrees of complexity. At the same time, the difficulty of the task and the degree of independence of its implementation gradually increase depending on the success of the previous task. Individualized learning needs to be applied in all grades, but the younger the students, the more important individualized learning becomes.

In modern conditions of education, the study of the individual characteristics of children and the organization of an individual approach are becoming increasingly important. Modern living conditions provide a wide range of additional means, in addition to the school, to fulfill the tasks of the comprehensive development of the younger generation.

Children's radio programs, children's literature, and theater are of great cognitive importance. The culture and well-being of the family is increasing, which significantly affects the level of upbringing of children. In one family, a child is taught to be independent and discipline. In the other, the child is spoiled, does not want to do anything on his own. In the third - the child can be left to himself, and in his upbringing much depends on the group of children with whom he is friends.

47. Pedagogical tact and its role in learning, pedagogical skills

One of the features of pedagogical work is that it must protect and preserve the little person. This specific feature requires the teacher to have high pedagogical skills and a special pedagogical tact. V. A. Sukhomlinsky emphasized that there should not be a single teacher in the school who would be burdened by the work of a teacher: "... a teacher must have a huge talent for philanthropy and boundless love for his work and, above all, for children."

Pedagogical tact and mastery of teaching are made up of a number of components. What includes scientific knowledge in pedagogy and psychology, i.e., first of all, pedagogical knowledge, professional abilities, pedagogical ethics and pedagogical technique.

Pedagogical tact is such a moral behavior of a teacher, which includes high humanity, sensitivity to a person, self-control, endurance, the ability to establish friendly relations in any situation. A teacher with pedagogical tact skillfully regulates his relations with students, parents, and work colleagues. In pedagogical tact, first of all, deep respect for a person is manifested. The teacher deals with the emerging personality of the student, and all his relations with the children should be based on the principle: as much exactingness as possible to the person and as much respect for him as possible.

A number of professional skills are associated with pedagogical tact. These are the ability to assess the pedagogical situation, to take into account the characteristics of the student, to foresee the possible effect that the pedagogical impact causes. Pedagogical tact is a sign of high pedagogical skill. The teacher must learn to constantly control his actions, be able to look, gesture to show his attitude to the actions of students. That is, pedagogical tact also implies that the teacher himself has purely external skills of expressing his feelings. Such a set of skills is an integral part of pedagogical skill and is called pedagogical technique.

Pedagogical excellence is the possession of professional knowledge, skills and abilities that allow the teacher to solve pedagogical situations in accordance with the tasks that the teacher and the school as a whole face.

Pedagogical technique allows the teacher to choose the right tone in communicating with students and their parents. Tone, style of relations with children, the correct choice of diction, facial expressions, gestures - all this is included in the concept of pedagogical technology.

48. Innovation policy

In the innovation policy in the field of didactics, the following areas are distinguished:

1) forecast, analysis and evaluation of the main trends in the development of the school;

2) analysis of the content and overcoming important disagreements and problems in the process of functioning of the educational system of the school;

3) creation of a system of additional education and advanced education;

4) raising the level of educational culture of teachers in schools;

5) creation of organizational and legal acts and scientific and methodological support for the complex of targeted development programs implemented at the school;

6) creation and development of the socio-educational region of the school.

The innovative educational system involves the following tasks:

1) the formation in the minds of students of a holistic and scientifically based picture of the world - this should be the focus of the educational process and extracurricular activities;

2) the development of an active character and creativity in the younger generation;

3) the formation of civic consciousness, patriotism, responsibility for the fate of the motherland;

4) introducing students to universal values;

5) the formation of self-awareness, pedagogical support for the student's personal self-organization.

The main criteria for innovative activity in the education system:

1) free access of students to large volumes of information, familiarization with culture, creativity;

2) preservation of the physical, mental and moral health of children;

3) the ability of the education system to include social programs aimed at solving the life problems of students;

4) the ability of innovative transformations to adapt to the needs of each child, to individualize education and upbringing, to determine an approach that ensures the psychological comfort of the student in the educational process;

5) the ability of the school to provide a level of upbringing that meets the requirements of universal morality and the achievements of students, manifested in cultural self-development.

The main forms of innovation activity:

1) individual experimental and innovative activities of teachers (individual reports);

2) diagnostic plans, reports;

3) seminars, meetings of departments, centers, councils (work plans, reports);

4) planned consultations of teachers and the work of various creative groups;

5) development of new local acts, scientific, methodological and managerial support for the educational activities of the school;

6) scientific and practical conferences, open seminars, advanced training and retraining courses for teachers, etc.

49. Intensification of the learning process

With changes in society, the priorities in the education system also change. Rigid centralization, monopolization and politicization of education are being replaced by trends towards variability and individuality. Intensification is listed in the encyclopedic dictionary as "intensification, increase in tension, productivity, efficiency." Different authors of pedagogical research offer different interpretations of the concept of "intensification of education". Yu. K. Babansky understands intensification as "increasing the productivity of the teacher and student in each unit of time." S. I. Arkhangelsky defines the intensification of the educational process as "improving the quality of education and simultaneously reducing time costs." The goals of intensification must meet the following requirements:

1) be tense, focused on the maximum possibilities of students and thus should cause high activity;

2) be achievable, real; overestimated goals lead to "self-disconnection" from solving the tasks;

3) conscious, otherwise they do not become a guide to activity;

4) promising, specific, taking into account the real learning opportunities of the team;

5) plastic, changing with changing conditions and opportunities for their achievement.

The goal of intensive learning consists of specific tasks. Educational tasks are the formation of knowledge and practical skills; educational - the formation of a worldview, moral, aesthetic, physical and other qualities of a person. Development tasks include the development of thinking, will, emotions, needs, abilities of the individual. The main factors of training intensification are the following:

1) increasing the purposefulness of training;

2) strengthening the motivation for learning;

3) increasing the informative capacity of the content of education;

4) application of active methods and forms of education;

5) accelerating the pace of learning activities;

6) development of skills of educational work;

7) use of computer and other technical means.

The most important principles of the intensive learning process include:

1) the principle of motivation;

2) the principle of awareness;

3) the principle of activity programming;

4) the principle of assessing the assimilation of activities;

5) the principle of independence in cognition;

6) the principle of activity.

H. Abley believes that learning requires the release of energy and motivation. The success of training is determined by three most important factors: mental abilities, its motivation in relation to the goals of training, learning and work techniques (teaching methods).

50. Principles of designing the learning process

The main task of didactics is to search for various options for the schemes of the educational process in order to come to the most effective and theoretically justified way for students to move from ignorance to knowledge. The solution of this problem comes down to revealing the principles of designing the learning process, identifying the constituent parts - the links of the educational process with their specific functions. Note that each link implements the general tasks of learning: the assimilation of knowledge, the development of thinking and speech of students, imagination, memory, etc. At the same time, each individual link performs specific functions.

A link is a separate component of the learning process, which is a coil of its spiral movement. Each link can be characterized by a special type of cognitive activity of students in accordance with its specific functions. Full knowledge, abilities and skills, a high level of general development of students and their ideological orientation are achieved in the work of those teachers who have perfectly mastered the principles of designing the educational process and operate with options for combining its links. In general, the educational process turns out to be fruitless when an individual link is inferior, but the correct implementation of individual processes located randomly does not bring a positive effect, both in terms of the assimilation of knowledge and the overall development of students. The links of the educational process include:

1) statement of the problem and awareness of cognitive tasks;

2) the perception of objects and phenomena, the formation of concepts, the development of observation, imagination and thinking of students;

3) consolidation and improvement of knowledge, instilling skills and abilities;

4) application of knowledge, skills and abilities;

5) analysis of students' achievements, verification and evaluation of their knowledge and identification of the level of mental development.

The learning process in a particular subject area is characterized by a certain sequence, a natural transition from one facts, concepts and laws to others. The material of each individual topic, learned by students, is designed to lead them to new, more complex topics. The integrity of the educational process is supported by the unity of the leading ideas of science, which manifest themselves as new material is studied. All teaching is conducted from the contemplated to the understood, from the concrete to the abstract, from the phenomenon to the principle or law, from the facts to the theory.

51. Use of programmed learning in school

Programmed learning is defined as a didactic system in which the educational process is carried out by the teacher according to a specially designed individual program containing the planned educational material, divided into small portions and instructions on the order and nature of the actions of each student and allowing for constant monitoring of the assimilation of educational material. In program learning, the teacher reports the first part of the material and explains it, poses a control question, and reports the second part of the material. The basic ideas of programmed learning are not new. The impetus for their development and integration into a system was some discrepancy between the state of the so-called traditional teaching methods and the growth in the amount of knowledge to be mastered.

With all the effectiveness of individual learning, traditional teaching methods do not give up their positions (they are advantageous due to their mass character). In the conditions of the classroom system, the teacher does not have the opportunity to completely switch to individual learning, therefore, when building a lesson, he focuses on the "average" student. It is also not possible to monitor the gradual level of assimilation of new material. That is why it became necessary to create a new method in which the material is given not in a continuous stream, but in small, logically interconnected doses. The quality of assimilation of each such dose is checked in a timely manner. That is, speaking in terms of cybernetics, the method of programmed learning provides a stable feedback in the learning process. That is, a distinctive feature of programmed learning is the individualization of the educational process in a classroom system. Programmed learning is defined as a step-by-step controlled formation of knowledge, skills and abilities.

Like other methods, programmed learning, along with indisputable advantages, has a number of disadvantages. This type of work is not universal for each class, therefore, it requires the development of its own approach to each educational team, a careful step-by-step study of the entire course of the lesson, a clear and indisputable logic of presentation of the material. And this, in turn, requires the expenditure of not only physical strength, but also time.

The introduction of new information technologies into the teacher's practice (the creation of computer classes, the use of electronic textbooks and training programs) will allow the teacher to use programmed learning in their daily work, which will help them move on to more individual work with students.

52. Selection of material for the organization of problem lessons, requirements for it

Schoolchildren should be taught to apply their knowledge and skills, preparing them for future activities. Educational activity should be creative in nature, which corresponds to problem-based learning. Thinking always begins with a problem situation. Problem situations reflect the presence of certain contradictions of objective reality, which manifest themselves, in particular, in scientific and educational processes. From a didactic point of view, a problem situation is a means designed by a teacher and a form of learning activity organized by students that causes them cognitive difficulty, overcoming which becomes a motive for creative thinking.

In psychological terms, a problem situation is a conscious difficulty, the overcoming of which requires a creative search. Without awareness of the presence of difficulties, there is no need for search, and without the need for search, creative thinking does not develop.

The prerequisites for the ability to see and solve problems are created by the entire learning process, which ensures the assimilation of a fairly wide range of knowledge and skills. Students must learn to apply previously acquired knowledge, skills and abilities in new situations, see problems in a familiar situation, see the structure of an object (problem conditions), see a new function of an object, look for alternative solutions, combine new ones from known solutions. When studying new material, the teacher must choose which method of problem-based learning he will use. Here, the main method of problem-based learning is the research method. When using it in the learning process, the teacher includes problematic tasks of an increasing level of complexity, which students must solve on their own. The next method of problem-based learning is a problem-based presentation of the material. The problematic presentation differs from the informational presentation in that the teacher selects and sets out scientific problems, discoveries not in their completed form, but tells the process of solving the problem, the history of the discovery, briefly reproduces the path to evidence-based knowledge and the discovery of new scientific knowledge. The problem presentation makes higher demands on the teacher's knowledge in the relevant field of science. He must be fluent in the educational material, know in what ways the corresponding science came to the truth.

As a result, if the teacher has correctly chosen the material and method of problem-based learning, then all this will have a strong educational impact on students.

53. Development of cognitive independence in problem-based learning

Regardless of where informant teaching finds its application - in primary, secondary or high school - it is possible to identify characteristics that are compared with the corresponding features of problem-based learning.

Communicative teaching is based on: the transfer of ready-made information to students by teachers or a textbook, as well as the more or less effective memorization of it by students. The forms for this transmission are different: dialogue, speech, lecture, book. The second characteristic feature of communicating teaching is the emergence of gaps, unexpected difficulties. That is, students can lose their attention and miss out on some of the information. Another feature often cited when showing the negatives of informal teaching is the difficulty of applying the same pace of learning to students. It often happens that the teacher focuses on strong students, but the weak can only keep up with them. In solving problems as a whole class, there are significant difficulties in choosing the pace of work for capable, average and less capable students.

Group work also helps to check the results achieved, the group knows how all its members work, and in case of low activity of some students, they can be replaced by others.

Another characteristic feature of traditional teaching is associated with difficulties in monitoring learning outcomes. Not all students are able to learn all the information in the lesson, so they have to finish learning a lot at home on their own.

Currently, such teaching is called problematic. Problem teaching is not based on the transfer of ready-made information, but on the acquisition of new knowledge and skills by students by solving theoretical and practical problems. An essential characteristic of this teaching is the research activity of the student, manifested in a certain situation and forcing him to ask himself questions-problems, formulate hypotheses and test them in the course of mental and practical operations.

The didactic process is based here on an independent search for knowledge, both those that are the very solution of the problem, and those that are acquired in the course of formulating the problem, in the process of solving and comparing the results. The solution of the problem creates the conditions for a structural approach to the education of reality. Trying to solve the problem, the student embraces the entire structure in thought, reflects on the mutual relationship of its individual elements, and then discovers the missing elements or connections between them unknown to him and thus complements the structure.

54. Using gaming teaching methods as a means of mastering knowledge and testing it

Play is the main activity of school children. But it also occupies a large place in the lives of children of primary school age, and even forms a component in their new main activity - in education. Therefore, it is necessary not to expel the game from the school, but to organize the gaming activity of younger students, using it for the purposes of education and upbringing.

In primary education, a special place is occupied by the so-called educational or didactic games. Such games are based on one or another cognitive content, mental and volitional effort of the child aimed at solving problems, actions and rules that determine the course of the game.

The game, being interesting and similar in experience to the activities of children, contributes to the creation of a cheerful, joyful mood, the development of activity, independence and initiative of children, the strengthening of their friendship and camaraderie based on joint actions and the desire to move towards common goals. The mental effort available to the child, the activity of visual, auditory, motor analyzers, entertaining questions, surprise, appropriate jokes, imagination and the joy of movement - all this contributes to the active state of the cerebral cortex.

In the learning process, the didactic game can be applied in its various parts. Puzzle games can be used to arouse children's interest in the content of the lesson and to activate their thinking. In reading lessons, the teacher uses dramatization games that encourage children to read expressively in roles. Games with circular examples and games like loto are used as exercises in consolidating certain knowledge of arithmetic.

In the first grade, children get acquainted with such geometric shapes as a circle, square, triangle, oval, etc. Usually here, children use a description instead of an exact name, "objectify" the shapes: an oval is "it's like an egg"; triangle - "like a roof". Didactic games that challenge children in an entertaining way to find objects of a given shape among the surrounding things encourage them to look more closely at their surroundings, compare and group objects according to shape.

Games are also used in imaginary travel - travel games that help students learn geographical, historical knowledge.

Pathfinder games, for example, when studying geographical areas, aim to "find" something: one group writes down the names of minerals and places of their development, the other makes a brief description of rivers and lakes, the third makes a list of plants; the fourth - the names of animals and birds living in the area.

55. The system of teaching aids in the educational process

In the XNUMXst century the computer is gradually gaining its place in society and becoming an integral part of any educated person, it gradually enters every family and becomes as necessary a thing in everyday life as electricity, telephone or television. The effectiveness of students learning a course in any subject area largely depends on how the educational process is organized and carried out. The main components of this process are the following:

1) scientifically based curriculum of the course;

2) well-thought-out and optimal methodology for conducting classes;

3) educational and material base (EMB) corresponding to modern trends in education;

4) necessary advanced training facilities.

Without detracting from the importance of the first two components, we can absolutely say that the leading role in the study of the course by students is played by the SLM and advanced learning tools. It should be taken into account that the system of teaching aids is individual for each subject area. The educational and material base is a set of premises, sites and structures, which, in turn, are equipped with educational equipment and equipped simulators and various material training aids. They are used to impart skills and theoretical knowledge to trainees. An approximate set of TCO of a modern classroom:

1) personal computer-multimedia;

2) universal video projector;

3) video recorder;

4) a telescanner on a video camera;

5) a microphone for the teacher;

6) teacher's control TV;

7) acoustic system;

8) control unit with remote control panel;

9) printer;

10) laser pointer;

11) electronic board (smart board).

Significant financial difficulties should be taken into account due to the fact that all elements of the SMB are fully created in the basic school of the district (city), and often there is simply not enough money for this. In the future, the volume and strengthening of the SBA of all schools should be gradually increased.

Technical teaching aids (TUT) are a set of technical devices and special didactic materials, the purpose of which is to improve the quality of the educational process.

Types and classification of modern TSS. The concept of TCO includes the following components: carriers of educational information and technical devices (equipment) with the help of which this information is perceived by students. The equipment is of two types:

1) information (tape recorder, film projector, radio, TV, video recorder);

2) universal (local television systems, computer systems, simulators).

56. Independent work of students, its types

In didactics, a student's independent work is understood as his activity, which he performs without the direct participation of the teacher, but on his instructions, under his guidance and supervision. A student who has the skills of independent work, learns the educational material more actively and deeply, turns out to be better prepared for creative work, for self-education and continuing education.

Under the conditions of the scientific and technological revolution, the rapid "aging" of information necessitates continuous replenishment of knowledge. However, the spontaneous formation of rational methods of teaching proceeds slowly and ineffectively. Therefore, students need to be taught methods of independent study.

It is possible to single out such types of independent work of students as: working with a book, educational and reference literature, writing notes, solving problems and doing exercises, laboratory work and a frontal experiment, working with handouts, reviewing the answers and speeches of comrades, preparing messages and abstracts, observing experiments and drawing conclusions based on their results, thinking through and designing schemes and installations, making some instruments and teaching aids, performing practical tasks during excursions, setting up experiments and making observations at home.

According to the main didactic goal, they can be divided into three groups of works aimed at:

1) acquisition and expansion of knowledge;

2) mastery of skills and abilities;

3) application of knowledge, skills, abilities.

Like many classifications in pedagogy, this division of methods is conditional, since any independent work will include all three of the above types of work. Depending on the content of the educational material, the peculiarities of its presentation in a textbook, having equipment and other factors, the teacher plans to use certain types of independent work of students or their combination in the educational process, guided by the principles of didactics (gradual in the increase in difficulties, creative activity of students, a differentiated approach to them, etc.).

When choosing a specific method of planned independent work, the teacher must take into account the individual characteristics of students. Tasks proposed for self-fulfillment should have a clear goal, an unambiguously defined physician for its implementation and arouse their interest. The latter is achieved by the novelty of the content or form of the task, the disclosure of the practical significance of the issue under consideration, the research nature of the tasks.

Authors: Buslaeva E.M., Eliseeva L.V., Zubkova A.S., Petunin S.A., Frolova M.V., Sharokhina E.V.

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