Free technical library

Social statistics. Lecture notes: briefly, the most important

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Comments on the article

Table of contents

1. Social statistics as a branch of statistical science. The subject and tasks of social statistics
2. Population statistics
3. Structure of families and households
4. living standard statistics
5. Population income and expenditure statistics
6. Statistics on consumption of goods and services by the population
7. Statistics of housing conditions and consumer services of the population
8. Population free time statistics
9. Employment and unemployment statistics
10. Statistics of the level of education of the population and the development of the education system

LECTURE № 1. Social statistics as a branch of statistical science. The subject and tasks of social statistics

social statistics - This is a branch of statistics that studies the massive changes that occur in the social life of society over a certain period of time.

The subject of social statistics is society in all its diversity of forms and manifestations, as well as the quantitative side of social phenomena (objectively existing dimensions, levels that are in a state of continuous movement) inextricably linked with their qualitative side.

Goal social statistics - the development of such indicators that can reveal the development of social conditions of people's lives throughout the development of society. Thanks to social statistics, a complete picture of a person's lifestyle is reproduced: his way of life, living conditions in a particular historical period.

Many authors point out that social statistics as a science consists of the following sections:

1) the theory of statistics. This section deals with the subject of social statistics, basic concepts, tasks, general categories, etc.;

2) social statistics and sub-sectors of statistics. The sub-sectors of statistics include: political statistics, statistics on the standard of living and consumption, material goods and services, housing and communal services and public services for the population, public education, culture and art, health care, physical culture and social security, science and scientific services, management;

3) population statistics. This section explores the relations and processes taking place in the field of society - the number, composition of the population, birth rate, death rate, migration, etc.

Social statistics are faced with the following main tasks:

1) complete the reproduction of the model of state statistics, adapted to the conditions of the development of market relations;

2) to increase the managerial functions of state statistics bodies in general, the process of information display of social phenomena in the country; to form uniform methods and rules for sectoral systems of statistical information; ensure high efficiency and maximum reliability of statistical data;

3) develop scientifically based statistical methods and techniques similar to the needs of society at the present stage and international standards; increase the software-technological and technical level of the system;

4) organize the statistical activities of the executive authorities, create conditions for the use by these bodies of official statistical standards when they conduct sectoral statistical observations;

5) prepare statistical information, research and evaluate, draw up national reports, necessary balance calculations; guarantee the completeness and scientific validity of all official statistical information;

6) to provide users with access to open statistical information by distributing official reports on the social situation of the country, publishing statistical collections on an equal footing.

LECTURE No. 2. Population statistics

When studying any social process, it is impossible to do without taking into account the size and structure of the population groups that participate in it. This is due to the fact that only for established groups of people, the services of preschool institutions, educational institutions, employment services, family services, dispensaries of various profiles, etc. etc.), also cannot be attributed to any person or to the total number of inhabitants. Different groups of the population have significantly different volume and structure of needs. A fairly perceptible difference is observed between the way of life and the needs of urban and rural residents.

Population statistics is a science that studies the phenomena and processes in a quantitative indicator that take place in society, in constant connection with their qualitative indicators.

Population - a set of people who inhabit the earth, live in a certain territory of the continent, country, city, region, settlement. The population is the subject of research and demography, which determines the general patterns of development, exploring its life in all directions: historical, political, economic, social, legal, medical and statistical. In addition, it must be borne in mind that as knowledge about an object develops, new aspects of it are revealed, which become a separate object of knowledge.

Population statistics in specific conditions of place and time has its own object of study, revealing all new forms of its movement: natural, migratory, social.

Natural movement The population represents the change in population as a result of birth and death, i.e., changes that occur naturally. At the same time, marriages and divorces are counted in the same order with births and deaths. migratory movement (or simply population migration) is the movement, relocation of people from one territory to another across the boundaries of certain territories, usually with a change of residence for a long time or forever.

social movement - change in the social conditions of life of the population, i.e., the number and composition of social groups of people with common interests, values ​​and norms of behavior that develop within the framework of a historically defined society[1].

Population statistics solves a number of problems:

1) quantitative representation of the population. Information is often required on the population of individual continents and their parts, various states and the administrative-territorial divisions included in them. To achieve an accurate result, the count of population categories is used, therefore, the number of births, deaths, marriages, divorces, as well as the number of arriving and departing migrants is statistically determined;

2) differentiation of the population on various grounds and the establishment of demographic processes. First of all, they look at the division of the population according to sex, age, level of education, professional, industrial sign, according to belonging to any urban and rural settlement. The structure of the population by sex is characterized by: equal number of sexes, male or female predominance, the degree of predominance of one or another sex. In terms of age indicators, the structure of the population can be expressed through annual data and age groups, as well as statistics on changes in age composition. The educational structure expresses the percentage of the educated population that has a certain degree of education in different territories and in different fields.

Professional environment - an environment in which people are distributed according to the professions they have received in the course of training. Work environment - the environment in which the distribution of people is carried out by sectors of the national economy. Depending on the territorial distribution of the population or its settlement. In this case, the line of difference is drawn between the level of urbanization, the establishment of the density of the entire population;

3) the study of the relationships observed in society between its various groups, and the study of the compatibility of processes arising from the factors of the environment in which these processes take place;

4) consideration of the dynamics of demographic processes. In this case, the dynamics can be characterized as a change in the population and as a change in the intensity of processes occurring in time and space;

5) providing data on the population forecast for the near and long term.

The study of the composition of the population at this stage of the development of society is carried out by using the simplest indicators: absolute values, relative values, averages, distribution series and dynamics series. Currently, the grouping method is the most relevant. It is based on absolute indicators of the number of people in each selected group. Graphs are used. However, when the structure of the population is graphically displayed, their analytical function is very small. Thus, graphics are mainly used to popularize statistical data. An exception is the age-sex pyramids, as they have an analytical load.

Groupings are the main basis of the properties of the composition of the population, so this process should be considered in more detail. It is associated primarily with the implementation of general methodological principles, such as typological, structural, analytical. There are some principles that are necessary in the process of building population groups. The most detailed list of groups takes place if the indicated characteristic is autonomous and does not combine with other characteristics. These are groupings of the population by age, groupings of employed by professions with a detailed list of professions:[2]

1) in the case of combination groupings, coarse intervals are used to avoid excessive crushing of the material;

2) some signs are used as cross-cutting, i.e., they participate in almost all combinational groupings of the composition of the population. These are gender, age, education (quite often), as well as the division of the population into urban and rural;

3) in the distribution series, the values ​​of attribute features are given, if possible, in a ranked sequence to ensure data comparability, the grouping schemes of previous population censuses are preserved, as far as possible and appropriate, or presented in a form convenient for comparison by enlarging the intervals;

4) uniform groupings are used in the development of data for different territories of the country;

5) if after the previous census the administrative boundaries of a territory have changed, then information about this is given in the form of a note. And this information is shown in two versions - in terms of common boundaries and within the boundaries of the corresponding years.

Population censuses conducted once every ten years are presented as the main sources of information on the composition of the population in all world statistics.

In the absence of any information in the reporting or to verify its data, specially organized monitoring is carried out. One such observation is the population census.

Population census - the process of collecting information about the number, composition and condition of the object of statistical observation for a number of characteristics, repeating, as a rule, at regular intervals.

Characteristic features of the census:

1) is carried out on the entire territory included in the study, at the same time;

2) this program is unified;

3) all observed elements are registered at one critical moment of time.

Statistical observation has forms and types (Fig. 1).

Statistical observations share by the time of registration of facts to:

1) continuous (current) - changes in relation to the studied phenomena are established only as they occur;

2) periodic - data on changes in the object are collected during several surveys. They are mainly carried out according to similar programs and tools;

3) one-time - observation aimed at obtaining information about the quantitative characteristics of a particular phenomenon or process. The next registration can be carried out only after some time, which, as a rule, is not determined in advance, or may not be carried out at all.

Allocate continuous and non-continuous statistical observation.

Coverage of all units

Continuous observation - full accounting of all units of the studied population.

However, this type of observation has big disadvantages: considerable costs for obtaining and processing the entire amount of information; high labor costs; insufficient efficiency of information, since it takes a lot of time to collect and process it. No continuous observation can completely cover all units of the population. This explains the fact that a certain number of units will somehow remain unexplored.

The number and proportion of uncovered units depend on the following conditions[3]:

1) type of examination (by mail, by means of an oral survey);

2) type of reporting unit;

3) qualification of the registrar;

3) the content of the questions provided for by the observation program;

4) the time of the day or year when the examination is carried out, etc.

Discontinuous observation - observation, in which parts of the units of the population are taken into account, where there is a possibility of obtaining a generalizing characteristic of the entire population. Examples of non-continuous observation are: the method of the main array, selective observations, monographic descriptions. One of the privileges of non-continuous observations is the possibility of obtaining information in a fairly short time and with the least loss of resources than with continuous observation.

There are several types of non-continuous observation:

1) selective observation, which is based on the principle of random selection of units of the studied population, subjected to observation. Advantage: gives sufficiently accurate results, quite suitable for characterizing the entire population under study, in comparison with other types of non-continuous observation.

A variation of sample observation is the method of momentary observations. Its essence lies in the fact that information is collected by registering the values ​​of features in units of the sample population at some predetermined points in time. This type of observation is used in surveys of incomes of the population;

2) main array method. With it, the most significant, usually the largest units of the studied population, which, according to the main feature, have the largest share in the population, are subjected to examination. This type is used to organize the monitoring of the work of urban markets;

3) monographic survey, with it, individual units of the studied population are subjected to a thorough examination. It is carried out in order to identify existing or emerging trends in the development of this phenomenon. A monographic survey, limited to individual units of observation, studies them with a high degree of detail, which cannot be achieved with a continuous or even selective survey [4].

In addition to the population census, some characteristics of the composition of the population can be provided by statistical reporting, such as the number of certain categories of the population, etc. This applies primarily to such groups as: children attending preschool institutions; students of educational institutions of various types; pensioners; persons employed in various sectors of the national economy.

Such reporting includes:

1) Report on the number of pensioners and the amounts of assigned monthly pensions. Form No. 6-PF (k) (annual, postal);

2) Report on the number of military personnel, the amount of monetary support and the status of its payment. Form No. 2-VS (semi-annual);

3) A report on the activities of a concert organization, an independent professional group for the year. Form No. 12-nk (postal - annual);

4) Report on the activities of the theater for the year. Form No. 9-nk (postal - annual);

5) Report on the activities of the museum. Form No. 8-nk (postal - annual), etc.

Reporting includes information on the number of visitors to museums, entertainment institutions, the volume of passenger traffic by various modes of transport. This information has a peculiarity and limitation in that it mainly reflects the total number of persons without any characteristics of their composition.

In a broad sense, the concept of method means a set of techniques and methods for regulating relations necessary to achieve the goal. Concrete Science Method is a set of methods of theoretical and practical research of reality. Population statistics act as sectoral statistics, and the basis of its methodology is the statistical methodology.

The most important method of obtaining information about the processes and phenomena under study is statistical observation. To statistical methods also include the principle of independence of assigning each enumerated person to a specific group - the principle of self-determination. The most common method is grouping. The use of the method of groupings and classifications, which have received the name typological and structural in population statistics, is necessary for understanding the structure of the population with the identification of grouping and classification features, for example, by attributive, quantitative, productive, and factor characteristics. Thanks to these groupings, it becomes possible to build a system of equations that is necessary to find the parameters of the regression equation and determine how close the relationship is by calculating the correlation coefficients. Dynamics, graphs, index, selective and balance methods are widely used in the study of the population.

Consequently, population statistics apply all possible statistical methods and principles to study its object. In addition, methods developed only for the study of the population, i.e. methods of real generation and conditional generation, are also used. The first makes it possible to see changes in the natural movement of peers (born in the same year) - a longitudinal analysis; the second analyzes the natural movement of peers (living at the same time) - a cross-sectional analysis.

When comparing the development of relations in society, the characteristics inherent in a certain group of society, and the processes taking place in society, there are conditions for comparing data that are not the same among themselves. By means of real weighting in the calculation of generalizing averages, a standardization method was developed, which makes it possible to exclude the influence of different age characteristics of the population.

The use of abstract mathematical methods in population statistics makes it possible to statistically model the processes that occur in the population. The need for modeling appears if it is impossible to study the object itself, it is mainly used to characterize the dynamics of the population. There are exponential and logistic models. Stationary and stable population models are of particular importance in the population forecast for periods in the future, which determine the type of population that has developed under given conditions and are built on the basis of characteristics of the intensity of its development.

Many groupings include a distinction between urban and rural residents. This indicator is one of the most dynamic and information-intensive.

The most interesting are the data presented by regional statistics, since the territory of Russia is distinguished by a rare variety of natural and climatic, geographical, ethno-social, historical, cultural and economic factors. The result of this variety of factors is an extensive territorial differentiation of demographic indicators.

The demographic definition is the age and sex grouping of the population. The most characteristic are age intervals: one-year, five-year, ten-year. In addition, there are groups of people younger than working age, working age and older than working age, for which special graphs are built - age-sex pyramids (see Table 1).

In statistics, generalizing indicators of the composition of the population are also used at the level of a high degree of complexity. Of particular importance are indicators of the demographic burden of the working-age population.

The calculation of these indicators is carried out according to the following formulas:

where K₀ - total demographic burden of the working-age population;

S_{0 am - 14 pm}S_15-54(59),S_{55 (60)} - population size in respective age groups;

K_Д - demographic load of children;

K_П - the demographic burden of the elderly.

The relationship between these indicators can be expressed as follows:

With the growth of social mobility of the population, the most vital issues are the systematization of the relevant statistical indicators, which are matrices from the main social flows by direction (vertical and horizontal, intragenerational and intergenerational, etc.).

Indicators of the intensity of social mobility include:

1) the average number of movements per person;

2) the likelihood of a change in social status.

It is reasonable to set these indicators differently for individual demographic, socio-economic, territorial, ethnic groups.

The average age at the time of a certain sequence of changes in social status is also calculated [5].

Traditionally, in censuses, the ethnic characteristics of the Russian population were displayed by data on nationality, native language, and fluency in the languages ​​of the peoples of the USSR. From one census to another, there are changes in accounting for the ethnic composition of the population of Russia, which is confirmed by the Programs of the 1994 micro-census and the 2002 census. These changes are characterized by the following:

1) in addition to nationality, nationality and ethnic group are also taken into account;

2) information about languages ​​is expanding. For example, both the native language and another language that the respondent is fluent in are taken into account.

Nationality is determined mainly by the following indicators:

1) the number of persons of each nationality;

2) the number of persons of each nationality per 100 people of the population;

3) the share of indigenous people in the region;

4) the proportion of indigenous people living outside their region.

For 5 years (1989-1994) there have been significant changes in the national composition of the population of Russia[6]. The proportion of Ukrainians, Byelorussians, and Jews in the composition of the Russian population decreased by 20-30%, while the share of Armenians, Avars, Ossetians, Yakuts, and Lezgins increased by 10% or more. These changes are primarily associated with forced immigration from neighboring countries, in addition, with emigration to non-CIS countries, assimilation processes and natural population loss.

Censuses regularly record data on mother tongue. This information reflects the level of national self-consciousness, the degree of commitment to the national culture. It is also necessary when planning the work of public education, publishing, etc.

There is a fairly close relationship between socio-political processes and population migration. Consequently, the composition of the population here is significant in terms of the duration of residence in the place of permanent residence. The population census displays in more detail the migration characteristics of the population, respectively, it took into account: the place of birth, the duration of continuous residence in the place of permanent residence, and also indicated all the reasons for the last move to a new place of residence.

The 1994 microcensus program offered the following list of possible reasons for moving:

1) in connection with studies;

2) in connection with a change of place of work;

3) because of the inability to get a job;

4) it was not possible to engage in agriculture independently;

5) it was not possible to engage in entrepreneurship or self-employment;

6) because of interethnic relations;

7) in connection with the obligatory knowledge of the language of the indigenous nationality;

8) due to the aggravation of the criminal situation;

9) due to unsettled life;

10) due to climate change due to health conditions;

11) did not satisfy environmental conditions;

12) in connection with the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant;

13) unwillingness to live in a village (city);

14) due to family circumstances;

15) another reason (specify which one).

In this program, for persons without a place of residence between the 1989 and 1994 censuses, the year from which the person has lived in this place was indicated; place of his previous residence; type of settlement from where he arrived (from urban, rural); is a refugee or internally displaced person[7].

Currently, accounting is carried out according to the composition and direction of the flows of refugees and internally displaced persons. In Russia as a whole, the flow of refugees and internally displaced persons has significantly decreased compared to 1990.

The density of flows of migrants and refugees is determined using the intensity factor:

Indicators of population migration. There are the following types of migration:

1) internal - change of permanent place of residence within the country;

2) external - change of permanent place of residence through entry and exit from the country;

3) seasonal - the population changes during certain periods of the year;

4) pendulum - everyday movement of people from their place of residence to their place of work or study and back.

To assess mechanical movement, relative and absolute migration rates are used.

Absolute indicators:

1) the number of arrivals in the settlement P;

2) the number of those who left the settlement B;

3) absolute migration (mechanical) growth (P-V)[8].

Relative indicators, characterizing the intensity of migration processes:

1) arrival rate;

2) retirement rate;

3) the coefficient of migration (mechanical) growth.

The collapse of the USSR and the ongoing socio-economic changes significantly affected the resettlement of people, provoked intensive migration flows, and led to an increase in the share of refugees and internally displaced persons in the total number of migrants. Information about refugees and internally displaced persons is collected by the Federal Migration Service of Russia on the proposal of the state statistics authorities.

The increase in the number of refugees and internally displaced persons leads to great difficulties in their employment, housing, organization of social support and medical care. Under the program of the October 2002 population census, it was envisaged to make an assessment of forced migrants from a socio-demographic standpoint. This was supposed to help increase the justification for the measures that are necessary to regulate migration processes.

To determine the change in the population, both due to demographic factors (birth and death rates) and due to migration, population growth rate. It can be calculated in several ways:

When studying various processes in society, the statistical analysis of the social structure and social mobility of the population develops and becomes more complicated, the number of demographic research institutes, periodicals and international organizations engaged in the study of this social statistics is rapidly increasing. The data of population censuses form the basis of research in this area. Therefore, for the new Russia, the census in October 2002 was an extremely important event[9].

The coefficients of renewal and retirement of the population are built by analogy with the coefficients of renewal (retirement) of fixed assets.

The coefficient of renewal (withdrawal) of the composition of the j-th social group is as follows:

where N_j1, N_j0 - the number of the j-th social group at the end (1) and the beginning (0) of the study period.

If N_j1," N_j0 then Kj "0, otherwise Kj "0. When Kj ≥ 0, the composition of this social group changes significantly.

An assessment of the change in the entire social structure can be carried out using any of the indicators of the dynamics of the structure, for example, such as:

where W_j1, W_j0 - specific weights of the group in the reporting and basic structure, respectively;

m is the number of groups.

K" 3 percentage points shows the weight of structural changes.

In the case of finding the determining conditions for change and constructing an established model, with the help of which it is possible to assess the role of each of the conditions of the effect of their relationship, the problem of analyzing the composition of the population is solved.

The main demographic indicators are shown in Table 1.

LECTURE No. 3. The structure of families and households

One of the most important prerequisites for solving social problems is the study of the family and the family structure of the population. The following definition of family is generally accepted. Family - This is a small group based on marriage or consanguinity, whose members are connected by a common life, mutual assistance, moral and legal responsibility.

However, economists have added their own aspects to it, and they have such a definition. A family is a group of persons living together in the same living space, conducting a joint household and being in a relationship of kinship, marriage or guardianship[10].

In the USSR population censuses, a family was defined as a group of two or more persons related by kinship or property, living together and having a common budget. People living outside the family were divided into two categories - singles and people living separately from their families. The difference between them depended on whether the person in question had a regular material relationship with any of his relatives. People who had such a connection (although this concept was not defined) were considered members of families living separately, those who did not have it - loners.

This division was introduced during the 1939 census and was maintained until the 1989 census inclusive. It did not make it possible to single out the category of the so-called institutional population in the census materials. Two completely different categories of people were mixed and could not be separated: those living independently, forming households of one person, and those who permanently live together, but do not lead a common household, but are fully or partially supported by the state, public or religious organizations (i.e. e. in institutions such as nursing homes, homes for the disabled, orphanages, chronic hospitals, monasteries, barracks, penitentiary and other institutions)[11].

A smooth transition of statistics to the definition of a household occurred in 1994. During this period, statistics moved to criteria and definitions that correspond to international recommendations.

The following extended definition of a household was adopted: a household is a socio-economic unit that unites people through relations that arise when organizing their joint life, i.e. maintaining a common household, living together, etc. [12]

A household is:

1) several people living together in the same living quarters, who run a common household, jointly provide themselves with the most necessary things, pooling funds for running a common household;

2) one person who, accordingly, lives alone and provides for himself completely.

A household may include persons who are related by kinship, relationships arising from marriage, or who are not related at all by such relationships, or both.

If a person rents a dwelling from individual citizens, he/she is not part of the household where he directly rents a dwelling. This would be considered an independent household of one or more persons.

The recommendations of the UN Statistical and Economic Commissions define the family. Family - a married couple without children or with children of any age, or one of the parents with children of any age who are not married and do not have children of their own. The fact of cohabitation or joint housekeeping is not included in this definition.

However, a household has a number of other definitions, for example, depending on the standard of living, it can also be called a "household".

Household - a small group of people who live in the same dwelling, pool some or all of their income and property, and consume certain types of products and services in common, primarily housing services and food[13].

The functions of the family, in addition to social relations, also reflect the relationship of the family and the individual. Among the most important functions of the family are: primary socialization and upbringing of children, organization of everyday life, organization of personal consumption, psychological and material support for the elderly, disabled, disabled family members. A more complete classification of family functions was developed by M. S. Matskovsky, which is presented in Table 2.[14]

Typology of families and households

The composition of families is diverse, this difference is the number of family members, their gender and age characteristics, education, professions and occupations, less often nationalities. As a result, there is a need to systematize information about the family, achieved by classifying families. First of all, families are divided into types according to demographic composition and family size. In addition, the classification of families is carried out according to the number of employed family members, according to social and national affiliation, etc.

Classification according to the demographic composition of the family takes into account gender, age, kinship relationships. Based on the history of the development of demographic statistics, it can be seen that both Russia and abroad have a fairly rich experience in developing such classifications.

Various approaches to solving this problem were determined by the programs of population censuses, and the originality of the actual composition of the population, and the direction towards the practical use of data on the structure of families.

The classification of the family was formed according to the degree of complexity of the family structure as follows:

1) a married couple with and without children;

2) a married couple with and without children, with one of the parents of the spouses;

3) a married couple with children and without children, with one of the parents of the spouses (without him), with other relatives;

4) two or more married couples with children and without children, with one of the parents of the spouses (without him), with other relatives (without them);

5) mothers (fathers) with children;

6) mothers with children, with one of the parents of the mother (father);

7) father with children, with one of the parents of the father (mother);

8) other families.

There is also another family classification, which contains generalizing indicators:

1) complete family (married couple with or without children);

2) incomplete family (one mother or one father with children).

The classification of families according to the number of members distinguishes small, medium and large families. A combinational grouping of families is carried out according to the number of members and according to the demographic composition. This allows us to determine the average size of families in each group.

The specified typology of families and households is of great importance, as it is used in the development of materials for the population census.

However, there are also specialized groupings that are designed to study private issues.

There were types of households[15]:

1) households consisting of one person;

2) households consisting of one married couple:

a) households consisting of a married couple with and without children;

b) households consisting of a married couple with and without children, with one of the parents of the spouses;

c) households consisting of a married couple with and without children and a mother with children;

d) households consisting of a married couple with and without children and a father with children;

e) households consisting of a married couple with and without children, with one of the parents of the spouses (without him), with a mother (father) with children (without them) and other relatives or non-relatives;

3) households consisting of two married couples:

a) households consisting of a married couple with and without children and both parents of one of the spouses with and without children;

b) with other relatives, non-relatives (without them);

4) households consisting of two married couples with and without children, with relatives, non-relatives (without them);

5) households consisting of three or more married couples with and without children, with relatives, non-relatives (without them);

6) households consisting of a mother with children;

7) households consisting of a father with children;

8) households consisting of a mother with children, with one of the mother's parents;

9) households consisting of a father with children, with one of the father's parents;

10) households consisting of a mother with children, with one of the mother's parents (without him), with other relatives (without them);

11) households consisting of a father with children, with one of the father's parents (without him), with other relatives (without them);

12) households consisting of persons not related by kinship;

13) other households.

This classification of households by type and size makes it possible to study not only the structure of households, but also to characterize family units by type of household, size and number of children under 18 years of age.

In addition, in historical terms, there is a change in the approach to the development of typology and the principles of type differentiation.

Analyzing the choice of a classification option for its intended purpose, i.e., areas of practical application, one can see the peculiarity of families and households intended for housing construction design.

The use of the typology of families and households is very common in the study of fertility, where young families are usually the object of observation. At the same time, they are grouped according to such criteria as the presence of a married couple, the age of the spouses, the duration of the marriage, and the number of children.

Due to changes in the structure of the population, it is necessary to take into account the level of economic activity, employment and unemployment, etc. Due to the fact that these questions are included in the program of the population census, it is possible to calculate a number of indicators characterizing the composition of families, which include the unemployed, dependents, children under 18 years old.

Also important is the grouping of families and households by the number of employed members. This grouping, combined with data on the size of the family (household), makes it possible to determine an important indicator, which is called the coefficient of economic burden per working family member (household):

where Sp is the number of working family members (households);

S₀ - the total number of family members.

The values ​​of this indicator may vary depending on the demographic composition of the family (household). This indicator should be taken into account when solving issues of social assistance to the population, employment problems, etc.

There are also indicators of family (household) load of dependents:

1) the number of dependents per family (household) on average;

2) the number of dependents per one member of the family (household) having an independent source of livelihood;

3) the number of dependents per one employed family member (household).

Grouping of families and households according to social and national affiliation:

1) single-ethnic - a group of persons of the corresponding nationality who prevail in a certain territory;

2) nationally mixed - a group of people of different nationalities.

At present, the issue of nationality is especially topical due to the aggravation of international relations and forced migrations due to ethnic conflicts. And in ethnically mixed households, conflicts most often arise.

The main technique for analyzing the structure of households is their distribution by size and type.

To determine the influence of various factors on the structure of households, it is necessary to distribute household members according to socio-demographic characteristics (by age, marital status, number of children under 18, nationality, economic activity, employment, etc.).

The analysis of the structure of households consists of two stages:

1) determination of the list of types that should be given when classifying households;

2) selection of types, which must be established using a series of numerical indicators.

First of all, the number of households of each type and their share in the total number of households are determined. In a more detailed analysis, indicators such as the proportion of households with minor children, the average size of households, the proportion of persons living together, and the proportion of persons living separately from the household are determined. The simplest indicator is the distribution of households by number of members.

Based on this simple indicator, the average size is calculated by dividing the size of all household members by the number of households. In addition, this indicator can be found for all households in the context of their individual types, by territorial units, urban and rural population[16].

In addition to calculating the average household size, other indicators can be calculated:

1) the average number of persons under the age of 18 per household;

2) the average age of minor children; the average number of unemployed and dependents per household;

3) the percentage of unemployed in households; average number of employed per household; the percentage of men and the percentage of women among household members;

4) average and median age of household members.

These average characteristics of households can be supplemented variation indicators:

1) average linear deviation;

2) standard deviation;

3) coefficient of variation;

4) entropy of distribution.

When analyzing the structure of households, the main aspect is the study of its dynamics, where indicators of absolute growth, growth rates for a certain period of time are calculated. In addition, dynamic averages can be calculated for a separate stage of development (average level, average absolute growth, average growth rate).

The indicators can be presented graphically; to characterize the share of individual types in the total number of households, it is better to use a pie chart, where the size of each sector of the circle corresponds to the share of each type.

The most valuable information obtained by using the techniques of mathematical and statistical modeling is used to characterize the structure of households based on specially organized sample surveys, which allow a thorough analysis of changes in the structure of households over time, i.e., in the process of their development.

A demographic forecast for future years can be determined, the changes in which can be represented as indicators of the probability of a particular type of event occurring.

When making this forecast, a detailed grouping of households is required, which takes into account family relations, the age of household members and the number of generations in them. When determining the type of household with several generations, one of the generations is singled out, which is considered the main one and in relation to which the position of the rest of the household members is determined.

According to the demographic composition, several types of households are distinguished, while the same type may include households of different sizes. Consequently, it is necessary to divide each selected type into groups according to the number of members in order to obtain groups of households that are homogeneous in composition and number of people, i.e., to obtain demographic types. An example of the implementation of this approach is the forecast of the family structure of M.A. Shustova based on the materials of surveys of 567 Leningrad families for 1959-1969. During the study, 21 demographic types of families were identified, which indicates the suitability of this technique for predicting the structure of households.

The development of a forecast of the structure of households is carried out only on the condition that there are data of long-term observations (at least for 10 years) of a separate sample of households, in which all changes in the structure of households and in changes in the family status of singles are taken into account, as a result of which specifics (probabilities) are determined transition of households from one standard size to another. Extrapolation is used in a forecast based on the dynamics of the structure of households over a number of years, i.e., the continuation of existing trends in the development of the structure of households for the future. The details of the transitions are formed under the influence of both demographic and socio-economic factors. Therefore, the hypothesis about the constancy of the details of the transition from one standard size to another is equivalent to the hypothesis about the invariance of the cumulative influence of all factors on the particular transition in the future in relation to the period preceding the forecast.

For the number of households of each standard size (Ni) per unit of time, the following balance equation can be written:

Change in N_i= Growth N_i- Loss N_i (1)

In a large population of households, the change in N_i for whatever reason occurs almost continuously in time, so the left side of the equation can be written as the first derivative of N_i on time:

The right side of equation (1) can be represented in terms of the relative frequencies (particulars) of transitions per unit time.

Equations (2) with constant coefficients V_k→i and V_i are solved by the method of successive approximations and are presented as infinite time series:

The efficiency of working with series (3) depends on the rate of convergence, i.e., on the possibility of terminating the series at some term (fifth, tenth, or fifteenth) without compromising the accuracy of the calculation. Usually, the series converge quite well for small values ​​of t.

Other methods are also used with household structure planning, such as the microsimulation method. In Russia, this method was first implemented by A. G. Volkov and E. L. Soroko. The essence of this method lies in the fact that by applying the given probabilities of the occurrence of the considered demographic events, transitions from one state to another are simulated in turn for each individual. Forecasting changes in certain probabilities makes it possible to predict the dynamics of the family structure of the population[17].

Regional factors have a significant impact only on the structure of households in a given region, and only in a weakened form can this affect the demographic situation in adjacent regions. Thus, the Chernobyl accident, military conflicts in the Transcaucasus, in the North Caucasus directly deformed the demographic structure, in particular the structure of households in these regions. For other territories, these events had as their consequence mainly an increase in the influx of refugees and migrants, which led to some shifts in the structure of the population. The difficulty of studying factors is caused by the numerical measurement of their impact and the complexity of determining their interdependence and mutual influence. For example, in conditions of war, military operations serve as the initial factor, but at the same time many other unfavorable factors are activated: the severance of family ties and a decrease in the birth rate (demographic factor) due to the mobilization of men; a sharp decline in living standards (economic factor); deterioration of working conditions and conditions for raising children (social factor), etc.[18]

LECTURE No. 4. Statistics of the standard of living of the population

The standard of living is one of the most important social categories. The standard of living is understood as the level of well-being of the population, the consumption of material goods and services, and the degree of satisfaction of expedient vital needs. The standard of living of the population is determined by the level of income in comparison with the subsistence minimum and with the consumer budget, the level of wages, the development of social infrastructure, government policy on income regulation, the influence of trade unions, the level of scientific and technical progress and other factors.

The cost of living is the monetary value of goods and services actually consumed in the average household over a certain period of time and corresponding to a specified level of satisfaction of needs. In a general sense, the term "standard of living of the population" is the concept of "quality of life". Therefore, the quality of life also includes the satisfaction of spiritual needs, living conditions, work and employment, life and leisure, health, life expectancy, education, natural habitat, etc.

There are four living standards of the population:

1) prosperity (consumption of goods that ensure the complete formation of a person);

2) normal level (reasonable consumption according to scientifically proven standards, enabling a person to restore his physical and intellectual strength);

3) poverty (extremely insufficient consumption of goods for normal life);

4) poverty (the minimum consumption of goods that does not allow satisfying the most elementary physiological and social needs and makes it possible only to maintain human viability).

As a result of the transition to a market economy, there was a sharp decline in the standard of living of the population, and the differentiation of the population in terms of income increased. Raising the standard of living is a priority direction of social development.

The well-being of the people is the main criterion for progress. Since in a market economy the main condition is general consumption, the consumer is the central figure around which everything revolves. Therefore, it is impossible to produce what will not be consumed.

The most important elements of the standard of living are the incomes of the population and its social security, its consumption of material goods and services, living conditions, and free time.

Generally speaking, living conditions can be divided into working, living and leisure conditions. Working conditions include factors of the working environment and the labor process (sanitary and hygienic, psychophysiological, aesthetic and socio-psychological) that affect the worker's performance and health. Living conditions are the provision of housing for the population, its well-being, the development of a network of consumer services (baths, laundries, photo studios, hairdressers, repair shops, funeral services, rental offices, etc.), the state of public catering and trade, public transport, medical service. Leisure conditions are directly related to the use of people's free time. Free time is a part of non-working time, used completely at one's own discretion, i.e. for the development of the individual, to better meet her social, spiritual and intellectual needs.

Three aspects of the standard of living study are likely:

1) in relation to the entire population;

2) to his social groups;

3) to households with different amounts of income.

A significant role in the study of the standard of living of the population is played by social standards as scientifically based directions of social processes in society. There are the following social standards: the development of the material base of the social sphere, the income and expenditure of the population, social security and services, the consumption of material goods and paid services by the population, living conditions, the consumer budget, etc. These standards can be equal, representing the absolute or relative value of the norm. Accordingly, these norms are expressed in physical terms or percentages (permissible variants of norms: moment, interval, minimum, maximum), as well as incremental, presented as a ratio of increments of two indicators.

The consumer budget is directly related to the standard of living, which summarizes the standards (norms) for the consumption of material goods and services by the population, divided by social and age and gender groups of the population, conditions and severity of work, climatic zones, place of residence, etc. The consumer budget is minimal and rational. In addition, the main social standards include: temporary disability benefits and the minimum wage, unemployment benefits, minimum labor and social pensions for the elderly and disabled citizens, the disabled, scholarships for students, regular or one-time targeted benefits for the most financially vulnerable groups of the population (large and low-income families, single mothers, etc.).

Together they create a system of minimum social guarantees as the duty of the state to provide the population with the minimum wage and labor pension, the opportunity to receive benefits under state social insurance (including unemployment, sickness, pregnancy and childbirth, child care until they reach the age of one and a half years, for burial, etc.), a minimum set of public and free services in the field of education, health and culture. Cost of living - this is the center of social policy, which is a valuation of the consumer basket, as well as mandatory payments and fees; and all other social standards and guarantees must be linked to it.

The existing standards reflect modern scientific ideas about the needs of people in products, goods, services, things - personal needs. Services are always volatile, making it difficult to quantify them. Personal needs show the objective need for a specific set and quantity of material goods and services and social conditions that a person needs, that he wants, seeks to have and consume, use. These goods and services provide a comprehensive activity of a certain person. Personal needs are divided into: physiological (physical), intellectual (spiritual) and social.

Physiological (physical) needs are basic, as they express the needs of a person as a biological being. In their composition, natural, primary, are the needs for food, water, air, clothing, footwear, warmth, housing, rest, sleep, physical activity, as well as other needs of the body related to maintaining life and prolonging the family. These needs form the foundation of the entire human need sphere. Satisfaction of these needs is necessary to maintain a normal life.

To meet the most important physiological needs, a person must be provided with normal working conditions and wages that allow at an acceptable level to satisfy the needs for food, clothing, housing (for different people and for different countries or for different regions of the same country, this level can significantly differ).

Intellectual (spiritual) needs affect education, advanced training, creative activity generated by the internal state of a person.

Social needs connected with the functioning of a person in society - this is socio-political activity, belonging to a group, friendship, self-expression, communication with people, love, affection, approval, ensuring social rights, etc.

Since intellectual and social needs are not basic needs and their satisfaction occurs after some level of satisfaction of basic needs occurs, they have only an indirect assessment. The environment for meeting these needs depends on the time budget of the population. According to the values ​​of working, non-working and free time, an assessment is made of the effectiveness of working time and the possibility of satisfying the intellectual and social needs of a person.

Needs are also divided into: rational (reasonable) and irrational.

Rational needs - this is the consumption of those goods and services that are necessary to maintain a healthy lifestyle and harmonious development of the individual. These are socially useful needs that are difficult to quantify, determined conditionally with the help of rational norms and standards (except for rational norms for food consumption, established on the basis of nutritional science data). Irrational Needs - these are harmful needs that go beyond reasonable norms, taking hypertrophied, sometimes perverted forms, in particular in relation to nutrition.

The external form of revealing personal needs is the demand of the population, reflecting its ability to pay.

The most important task of statistics on the standard of living is to discover patterns of transformation in the well-being of the population. For this, studies are being carried out that cover both the entire country and its regions, socio-demographic groups of the population and various types of households. Accordingly, this will make it possible to trace the differences in the standard of living depending on economic, climatic, national and other characteristics, as well as on the incomes of the population. The results of research can be either general in nature, or private, combined, for example, with an assessment of the consumption of certain goods by the population and the provision of various services to it.

The tasks of studying the standard of living also include:

1) a comprehensive review of the structure, dynamics and rates of change in its indicators;

2) differentiation of various groups of the population in terms of income and consumption and analysis of the influence of various socio-economic factors on this change;

3) assessment of the degree of satisfaction of the needs of the population in material goods and various services in comparison with rational norms for their consumption and the development on this basis of general indicators of the standard of living[19].

The sources of information for solving the set tasks are: current accounting and reporting of organizations, enterprises and institutions that serve the population; data from labor statistics, population censuses, employment, employment and wages, household budgets, various kinds of logical and other surveys of social living conditions and people's activities.

A special place in the analysis of the standard of living of the population is occupied by the statistics of household budgets, which is based on daily records of income and expenses of 49 thousand households. For study by state statistics bodies, estimates of the level and dynamics of material well-being of households with different incomes are summarized and used. In general, approximately 3 thousand indicators are determined here, including those characterizing: the composition of the household by age, gender, type of activity; household income by source of enrollment; costs for certain types of services; purchase and consumption of food and non-food products; personal subsidiary plot; housing conditions, etc.

Information is determined in the territorial and federal divisions: for some categories of the studied farms; by the size of the household, by the size of the average per capita total income; the existence of children, etc. Thanks to these data, it is possible to determine the income of the population, the composition of its monetary income and expenditure, the consumption of food, non-food products and services, the elasticity of consumption, indicators of income and expenditure differentiation, etc.

There are a number of problems associated with improving budget surveys. We are mainly talking about improving the sample of households, on which the representativeness of the sample (representativeness) of the data depends, the sample must be represented by households focused on entrepreneurial income, and households of students, disabled people, households with an unemployed head of the family.

It is essential that households of all spheres of activity are represented in it, including trade, science, culture, art, public administration at all levels, defense, security and public order.

A planned rotation is also necessary (alternate replacement of leaders in order to update the managerial level and create growth opportunities for other members) of the observed households, which makes it possible to exclude a long stay in the survey of their permanent circle and thereby ensure greater adequacy of the socio-demographic characteristics of households to similar indicators for the population generally.

A comprehensive study of the standard of living of the population is possible only with the help of a system of statistical indicators. According to the general agreement of December 29, 2004 between the all-Russian associations of trade unions, all-Russian associations of employers and the Government of the Russian Federation for 2005-2007. the system "Basic socio-economic indicators of monitoring the quality and standard of living of the population" was developed.

It contains 35 indicators:

1) gross domestic product;

2) investments in fixed assets;

3) expenses of the consolidated budget of the Russian Federation for social and cultural events;[20]

4) the number of permanent population;[21]

5) life expectancy at birth;[22]

6) total fertility rate;

7) crude mortality rate;

8) natural increase (decrease) of the population;

9) cash income per capita on average;

10) real disposable cash income;

11) accrued average monthly wages (nominal, in general for the economy, by sectors of the economy, real);

12) overdue wages;

13) the share of wages of employees in the gross domestic product;

14) the average monthly amount of assigned pensions (nominal, real);

15) average subsistence level per capita, including by socio-demographic groups of the population (working-age population, pensioners, children);

16) relation to the subsistence level of average per capita income, average monthly salary, average size of assigned monthly pensions;

17) the number of people with monetary incomes below the subsistence level;

18) the ratio of incomes of 10% of the most and 10% of the least wealthy population;

19) consumer price index;

20) the share of expenditures on food in the consumer expenditures of households;

21) number of economically active population (at the end of the period);

22) the number of people employed in the economy;

23) distribution of the employed population by status, by sectors of the economy;

24) total number of unemployed;

25) the number of registered unemployed;

26) the number of unemployed per one vacancy, declared by organizations to the bodies of the state employment service (at the end of the period);

27) the number of citizens employed with the assistance of the state employment service (for the period from the beginning of the year);

28) referral to vocational training by the state employment service;

29) the number of regions with a tense situation in the labor market;[23]

30) the proportion of workers employed in harmful and dangerous working conditions, including women;[24]

31) occupational injuries, including fatalities;[25]

32) the main types of occupational diseases;[26]

33) volume of industrial production;

34) the minimum wage;

35) the tariff rate of the XNUMXst category of the Unified tariff scale.

There is a change in the system of social indicators along with the transformation of social relations. Consequently, the development of the housing market activates the need for the emergence of such an indicator as "the number of apartments that are intended for sale (in newly built houses, in houses after major repairs)"; the development of paid education also needs to be reflected in a special indicator "the share of students for a fee", etc.

One of the main tasks of social statistics is the development of a generalizing (integral) indicator of the life of the population, the need for which is beyond doubt. For all parameters, any system of indicators must necessarily be completed with a generalizing indicator, which ensures the methodological unity of all individual indicators of the system and an unambiguous assessment of the level and dynamics of the process under study.

Statistics has not yet found a rational way to combine the established indicators of the standard of living, to obtain an unambiguous comprehensive indicator.

Nevertheless, there have always been attempts to offer a generalized indicator of the standard of living of the population, and they are constantly ongoing. Specialists of the United Nations Development Program on social statistics suggested using as indicators the share of food costs in total household expenditures, national income per capita, the mortality rate found as the ratio of the number of deaths of persons aged 50 and over to the total number of deaths, average life expectancy population.

The use of aggregated (aggregated) economic indicators for this purpose suggests that countries that are most economically developed have a higher level of social development. Often comparisons between countries are based on gross domestic product or per capita national income, which is expressed in the currency of one of the countries, either in US dollars or in purchasing power parities of currencies.

It is not easy to compare the national income in different countries, since there are different principles for constructing methods for its calculation and differences in the structure of income, especially in terms of its distribution to consumption and accumulation. Moreover, the accumulation fund is not directly related to the standard of living of the population, and the consumption fund contains expenditures on science and management that are not very related to the standard of living.

Published in 2004 by UN experts, the index of countries in terms of the standard of living of the population placed Russia in 57th place in relation to 177 countries. Russia is in the ranking between Bulgaria and Libya, while the first 3 places were taken by Norway, Sweden and Australia; USA - in 8th place, Great Britain - in 12th[27].

The next two proposed indicators - the share of expenditures on food and the relative mortality rate - undoubtedly characterize the difference in living standards, but they are unlikely to be integral. Surely they are separate indicators and their place in the respective groups. In addition, life expectancy is often ambiguous in assessing the overall improvement in living standards. In developing countries, an increase in this indicator may be associated with improved sanitation, the use of modern medicines, etc., which may not be accompanied by improved nutrition, housing, etc.

Often, in the statistics of our country, one of the indicators acts as a generalized assessment of the standard of living of the population, for example, it can be an indicator of national income per capita, but with the proviso that its material and material composition (the ratio of consumption and accumulation funds) corresponds to composition of public needs. But in addition to this, it may be proposed to use the indicator of the total fund for the use of material goods and services by the population, moreover, per capita. This indicator, of course, is better than the indicators of the national income and, moreover, the social product, but even it does not show many components of the standard of living and, above all, living conditions. In addition, the dimension (rubles, rubles per person) of this indicator is not suitable for the aggregate indicator, despite the fact that the prices and tariffs used in the calculations correspond to the consumer properties of goods and services.

The indicator of free time does not have a similar drawback, but modern statistics do not provide constant monitoring of this indicator; its study is possible with the help of periodic, specially organized random checks. Therefore, the indicator of free time is not suitable for international comparisons of the standard of living of the population.

In the scientific literature, there are various proposals for collecting a generalizing indicator of the standard of living based on partial indicators.

A proposal was made to calculate an aggregate indicator in the form of a weighted average from individual indicators of the standard of living (groups of indicators). AT In this case, the weights are expert estimates of their shared importance (weight), therefore, the sum of the weights is equal to one. In addition, it is important to bring all private indicators of the standard of living to a single dimension (single scale) in advance, and this task is performed using the relative values ​​of their dynamics.

An example of such an indicator would be tension indicator.

Its components are:

1) the degree of provision with consumer goods;

2) the level of crime;

3) the degree of dissatisfaction of the population with a complex of unresolved socio-political, economic and environmental problems.

Based on these data, an index was found in more than 100 cities and in all regions of the country. The index value from 0 to 0,4 indicates social stability; from 0,4 to 0,8 - for social tension; from 0,8 to 1,4 - for local conflicts; from 1,4 to 2,0 - for social explosions in the region; over 2,0 - for massive social explosions.

Since there are many private indicators of the level and quality of life and they have different dimensions, the construction of an integral indicator implies the need to move to some unified characteristics, which can be, for example, the ranks of countries for each indicator. The countries in this case are distributed for each of the analyzed indicators from 1 to and (and - the number of countries) for the stimulant indicators (for example, average life expectancy at birth, etc.); for the determinant indicators, the distribution system is reversed, therefore, the first place is occupied by the country for which the determinant indicator has the lowest value (for example, the determinant is the infant mortality rate, the number of accidents, etc.).

Having distributed the ranks by individual indicators, they find the average rank of the country for all indicators:

According to the considered characteristics, the smaller the Rj value, the more developed the country (region).

The disadvantages of this method include:

1) mechanical connection of the initial indicators;

2) obtained average ranks that do not reflect the actual distance between the objects of study. Therefore, it is better to distribute countries according to the values ​​of the main components or main factors.

A generalizing indicator of the standard of living can also be a synthetic index built on the basis of standardized values ​​of the initial indicators:

But with this approach, difficulties arise, since the values ​​\uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbcan be both positive and negative.

In the statistics of the quality and standard of living, expert assessments can be applied, and there is also a proposal to build a general indicator of the standard of living of the population using the principal components method or its generalization - factor analysis. In accordance with the method of principal components, the generalizing indicator of the standard of living F_t acts as a linear combination of initial indicators reduced to a comparable form:

Basically, either only the first factor, or two factors - the first and second, which make the largest contribution to the total variance, is taken as a generalizing indicator of the standard of living. A rich interpretation of the selected factors is found by the values ​​of factor loadings a_ij., which measure the correlation of the selected factor F_i with initial indicators x_j.

The greatest preference is given to the assessment of the achieved standard of living of the population by comparing its actual indicators with the normative ones, respectively, according to the degree of satisfaction of the population's needs for life's goods and various services.

When using this approach to the overall assessment of the standard of living, many difficulties and shortcomings that prevail in other assessments are eliminated.

It is best to complete the specified study with a graph, on the abscissa of which the time is displayed, in addition, the ordinates show the values ​​of σ, fixing the degree of approximation of the actual indicators to the normative ones and the equalized values ​​of these approximations.

When using this approach to assessing the standard of living, the task of statistics does not include a discussion of the norms themselves - they are taken as rational, although they will be constantly reviewed and improved, and the norms are perceived not only as a goal, but also as conditions for the comprehensive development of the individual.

For a long time, mainly demographic (life expectancy of the population, infant mortality rate) and economic (gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, consumer price index) indicators were used as generalizing characteristics for a long time.

Nevertheless, the development of the world community has proved that economic growth is not always accompanied by positive social consequences. These consequences are manifested in the creation of favorable conditions for raising the level of education of the population, the development of physical culture and sports, the availability of health services, reducing the risk of unemployment, etc. As a result, a system of indicators of the standard of living of the population was gradually formed, which contains demographic and socio-economic indicators. These indicators reflected various significant aspects of human development. There was an improvement in the methods of their calculation, international classifications were developed.

In 1978, the UN developed the Living Standards Indicator System, which includes 12 groups of indicators. At the same time, there was a need to build a single integral indicator of the standard of living, which combines various aspects of socio-economic development.

For a comparative assessment of trends and opportunities for human development in various countries of the world, proposals have been made to use synthetic indices of the "quality of life" of the population, which include demographic, cultural and socio-economic components. For example, the US Overseas Development Council has developed an index of "physical quality of life" (PQLI), which combines indicators of socio-demographic development (life expectancy, infant mortality and literacy). This indicator was used to classify countries by level of development[28].

In addition, other indicators of human development have been developed. For example, within the framework of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), an index of "quality of life" was developed, which combines socio-economic and demographic indicators (employment, the level of development of health care and education, purchasing power, access to political life, life expectancy, etc.). ).

The basis of the methodology for constructing indices is in a combination of monetary indicators of well-being and indicators that directly reflect the qualitative characteristics and social conditions of life of the population[29]. In recent years, the integral indicator that summarizes the level of development and is used in international and regional comparisons is the most well-known development index human potential - HDI (English The Human Development Index - HDI). This index is proposed as the main indicator on the basis of which the countries of the world community are ranked and the rating of each country is determined.

Human potential is increasingly being used to form and implement a system of competitive advantages and extract significantly more income through the use of non-standard approaches and solutions.

A comprehensive assessment of human potential requires the use, along with cost indicators, of qualitative parameters that characterize the conditions of life and human development. A step in this direction was developed in the 1980s. United Nations Development Program (UNDP) experts and a system of indexes for comparative assessment of human development trends and opportunities in different countries of the world[30]. This new approach is more personalized.

The Human Development Index is based on the display of three aspects of human life support:

1) longevity, which is calculated by life expectancy at birth on a specific date;

2) education - by the share of the literate adult population, children and adolescents studying in various educational institutions in the corresponding age group;

3) income - by gross domestic product (GDP) per capita, taking into account the purchasing power parity of the national currency, converted into US dollars. It is used to carry out a comparative analysis of the socio-economic development of countries.

In the Russian Federation, the human development index over the years of reforms has not yet reached the level of 1990 (0,817), and in 2005 its value was only 0,766. If since 2001 the index of material well-being began to grow steadily (but at a slow pace), then the longevity index has been gradually decreasing since 2003, which confirms the low effectiveness of Russian reforms in improving the conditions and quality of life of the population[31].

The focus on the individual in the early 1990s began to "compete" with the direction of research on income growth. The GDP does not assess the aspects of human development because they are not always reflected in the System of National Accounts (SNA).

According to the theory of UNDP experts, human development is a process of increasing the opportunities for individual choice and achieving an increase in the level of people's well-being. The increase in the choice that the population has, or the possibility of using it, is quite large (virtually limitless). Due to this, this approach focuses on the main opportunities, in the absence of which people lose many life prospects: to lead a long and healthy life, gain knowledge, access to the resources required to maintain a decent standard of living.

Created on four main elements conceptual scheme of human development.

1. Productivity. People must be able to apply their knowledge and skills to improve the results of their functions (activities), fully participate in the formation of income and receive remuneration for their work.

Therefore, for the formation of man, economic growth and the dynamics of employment and income are necessary.

2. Equality. In general, all people should be given the same opportunities initially.

3. Sustainability. The probability of self-realization must be provided not only to today's, but also to future generations. This provides for the correct distribution of opportunities for formation between generations and within each generation.

4. Empowerment. This means an increase in the responsibility of people for the fate of their families, the state and the people as a whole.

When certain indexes are displayed, together with the value of the actual level of indicators, the established minimum and maximum values ​​are applied, which are called fiducial points.

For each arbitrary component of the total HDI, certain indices are found (index of the achieved level of education, index of life expectancy at birth, index of GDP per capita) according to the corresponding formula:

where fact, min and max are the actual, minimum and maximum values ​​of the indicator.

When calculating the life expectancy index, the age of 85 years is determined as the maximum value, the minimum is 25 years, for the index of per capita real GDP - 100 US dollars. education of the population, respectively - 40 and 000%. Indicators that are components of the HDI are approached on the basis of this formula to relative levels (normalized before averaging), which results in a single measurement scale.

Therefore, the HDI includes three components and is calculated using the formula of a simple arithmetic average of three indices, which confirms the equality of the components to characterize human development.

The value of the index varies from 0 to 1, moreover, the closer it is to 1, the higher the development of human potential and the shorter the path that a given country needs to go to achieve socially significant directions. Countries with an HDI value of 0,8 or more are a group of countries with a high level of development. If the HDI value varies from 0,5 to 0,8, then these countries belong to the group with an average level, and the countries with an HDI of less than 0,5 belong to the category with a low level of development.

UNDP has been steadily improving the methodology for calculating the HDI and grouping countries with different levels of development.

This indicator was determined for Russia as a whole, but due to the diversity of regional differences and the improvement of regional statistics, it became possible to use this technique to find an integral indicator of the standard of living for the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

The weaknesses of the most popular integral human development index (HDI) are extensively discussed in domestic and foreign works. Basically, they point to the inaccuracy of assessing the degree of material capabilities of people on the basis of the produced GDP. The considered factors of human potential development do not reveal the fullness, depth and quality of this significant indicator, but represent the first attempts to measure and compare opportunities for realizing the potential of the individual.

The most important shortcoming of the HDI calculation methodology stems from its reliance on averages[32]. Further development of the system of indicators should be carried out in the direction of a more complete account of the structural elements of the national human potential, characterizing the possibilities for the realization and development of human potential. They include the distribution of the potential of education and health among various categories of the population, the proportion of people with incomes below the subsistence level, involuntary unemployed and other vulnerable categories.

The HDI makes it possible to rank not only countries, but also regions according to the level of socio-economic development, evaluate its dynamics, and compare achievements. The HDI can be used to find the desired level of funding for human development programs at the national and regional levels.

Comparison of the individual components that make up the HDI makes it possible, other things being equal, to reveal the priority of the corresponding areas in social development programs. The dynamics of the HDI and its components in Russia as a whole is presented in Table 3.

The data in the tables confirm some decrease in the HDI due to the reduction in the GDP per capita index.

The way the HDI is calculated is improving all the time. For example, formulas for determining indexes by elements are being improved, and work is underway to increase the range of indicators. An essential direction for improving the HDI is its disaggregation. Since 1993, HDI values ​​for various population groups have been determined for a number of countries, for example, taking into account gender differences.

The value of the HDI in the country as a whole levels out the differences (for example, gender differences) in the level of development for certain groups of the population. Since the differences between the sexes in different states are reflected differently in the ranking (in states where women have income along with men, formation rates will be higher compared to states where there are differences in the distribution of income between men and women, etc. .), there was a need to develop a special indicator that characterizes the formation of a person in certain countries, taking into account the gender factor (GDI). This indicator was first mentioned in the 1995 Human Development Report.

This index consists of the same elements as the HDI, but with the only difference that the average indicators of life expectancy, education level received and income of each state are adjusted (adjusted) in accordance with the value of the gap between women and men. Thus, with this index, the same perspectives can be established as with the HDI, using the same variables to convey disparities in status among women and men. The greater the degree of gender inequality in the area of ​​human potential formation in the state, the lower the value of the GDI index when compared with the HDI.

Studies carried out in 163 countries have shown that the degree of achievement of women in the field of human development is significantly lower than that of men in any country, and the decrease in the GDI in relation to the HDI shows this difference.

The Women's Empowerment Indicator (GEE) is another indicator that measures the lack of equal opportunities for women to participate in economic and political life. This indicator is used to find the degree of participation of women in decision-making in professional economic and political fields. The GEM consists of three indices: representativeness in administrative and managerial positions, in positions of specialists and technical officers; representation of women in legislative bodies; share of earned income. The Women's Empowerment Index (WEM) is the simple average of the three indices listed.

Let's compare the rating of 10 leading countries (Table 4).

Thanks to Spearman's rank correlation coefficients (ρ), it can be seen that even for states with a high level of socio-economic development, aggregate indicators of human potential do not repeat each other. The maximum coherence of the ranks is noted in terms of the IRHF and HDI indicators (p = 0,6), the maximum discordance - in terms of the IRHF and PRVH indicators (ρ = 0,26) [33].

Consequently, the display of generalizing integral indicators that reproduce the level of socio-economic formation makes it possible to carry out cross-country and regional comparisons, to give a comparative assessment of all kinds of prospects for social progress. At the same time, the issues of reflecting topical trends in social development, determining social tension in the social area and developing the best scenarios for implementing and further increasing the likelihood of improving the personality and fulfilling its creative potential remain poorly developed.

A gender approach needs to be used in several ways:

1) as a research in the field of personnel management to identify the main problems;

2) to develop an optimal gender and age structure of university staff, ensuring the maximum efficiency of the process of training, education and involvement of young people in scientific work and the reproduction of highly qualified scientific and pedagogical personnel, which are necessary in modern conditions of reforming the higher education system;

3) in the direction of improving the motivation system, establishing the most favorable climate in the primary labor collectives to increase labor efficiency.

LECTURE No. 5. Statistics of income and expenditure of the population

The data of state and departmental statistics are sources of income and expenditures of the population.

State statistics has the most complete information base, obtained directly from the population and households when conducting a sample survey of households and from large and medium-sized firms that submit reports on labor and wages. In addition, periodic checks are made on wage arrears in individual sectors of the economy, as well as a study of wage differentiation in a sample of firms.

Departmental statistics summarizes information on payments made to the population, on payments received from it, on the basis of departmental reporting. Such data includes:

1) the balance of cash income and expenditure of the population, summarizing information from financial institutions and the Central Bank of the Russian Federation;

2) data on the amount of paid pensions and benefits provided by the State Pension Fund;

3) the amount of income declared by the population and the taxes paid on it according to the data of the Federal Tax Service of the Russian Federation (FTS RF). The Federal Tax Service forms a register of taxpayers, which accumulates and summarizes information characterizing the paid income, withheld taxes and large expenses that are subject to declaration in accordance with the law.

The main tasks of statistics in the study of income and expenditure of the population are:

1) characteristics of the size and composition of incomes and expenditures of the population and households;

2) analysis of the differentiation of money income and consumption;

3) study of the dynamics of cash income;

4) modeling of income, expenses and consumption of the population;

5) study of the impact of income (expenses) on consumption and other socio-economic indicators.

In modern market conditions, there is an increasing need to study the solvency of the population as one of the significant factors in the development of the market.

But, unfortunately, information on income is less reliable due to the variety of income sources, the existence of shadow income that no one takes into account, the time gap between the work performed and its payment, the presence of not only cash income, but also in-kind receipts of food and benefits provided to the population. Because of this, statistics is increasingly concentrating its attention on the study of expenditures, i.e., it studies income through the expenditures of the population.

Improving the statistical methodology for studying the income and expenditure of the population contributes to the expansion of international comparisons in this area.

The methodology for studying income in the System of National Accounts 1993 (SNA-93) is based on the concept of John Hicks. According to her income is the greatest amount of money that an individual can spend during a given week, provided that the capital value of future income in terms of money remains the same.

The peculiarity of the concept of John Hicks is that in it:

1) the definitions of "income" and "asset" are clearly separated. Consequently, not every amount of credited money is fixed as income, but only that which is spent on consumption. In addition, the amount of available capital (asset) will remain unchanged. However, the transformation of an asset, such as a savings purchase of real estate, is not treated as income;

2) the amount of savings does not correspond to the amount of growth in cash (bonds, shares and deposits in the bank), therefore, financial assets, because their growth may be the result of a change in the form of assets;

3) capital gains initiated by random factors (growth in land value, inflation) are not considered as income.

According to the concept, there are two concepts of income:

1) ex ante - expected, expected income, i.e. the amount of funds that can be spent; it is assumed that the situation will remain as good as at the beginning of the period;

2) ex post - income, including windfall gains or losses due to changes in conditions[34].

To characterize the processes of formation, distribution, redistribution and use of income at the macro level, the SNA builds and analyzes the following accounts:

1) primary distribution of income:

a) income generation accounts;

b) primary income distribution accounts;

2) redistribution of income:

a) secondary distribution of income accounts;

b) accounts for the redistribution of income in kind;

3) use of income:

a) accounts for the use of disposable income;

b) accounts for the use of adjusted disposable income.

The definition of income (income) consists of all cash receipts of a certain person or household for a specified time interval (month, year). The income of a particular household is usually divided into three groups:

1) the income received by the owner of the factor of production - labor;

2) income that is obtained through the use of other factors of production (land, capital, entrepreneurial abilities);

3) transfer payments.

The primary income of the population is an indicator of its well-being. For example, nominal income in the US consists of dividends, wages, interest, cash transfer payments such as Social Security and unemployment benefits, scholarships. This income is determined before withholding taxes, personal income tax and payroll tax have not yet been deducted from it.

In addition, income should include the provision of goods and services under a number of government programs, income from the growth in the value of bonds, stocks, real estate, support for education, subsidies for housing and food products.

By lending economic resources to organizations, households earn remuneration in the form of profits, wages, rents, and interest. These four components add up to household income.

Primary income is shown in the income generation account that is paid by employers (other than property income). The process of obtaining primary income by participants in production, in addition, the receipt and payment of income from property is reflected in the account for the distribution of primary income.

The processes of transformation of primary income and the balance of primary income from property under the influence of all kinds of transfers in cash (how the redistribution of income is carried out in accordance with the current socio-economic policy of the country) are shown in the accounts of the secondary redistribution of income. Act current transfers in cash as redistributive current payments and receipts that are not accompanied by the movement of goods. These are: payment of insurance premiums and payments from the state budget for social needs (stipends, pensions, allowances); current tax on income and property.

Primary income, modified by the balance of current cash transfers, forms disposable income:

 ∆TT_DEN - balance of current transfers in cash[35].

Disposable income is the ultimate amount of income that can be used for consumption and savings through that year's labor[36]

A separate account is used to redistribute social transfers in kind. This account identifies expenditures made by governments and non-profit enterprises for the benefit of households. Demonstrate in-kind transfers consumption of free services of culture, education, health care and other social areas. Disposable current transfers in kind form modified disposable income:

where ST_NAT - social transfers in kind[37].

The disposable and adjusted disposable income application accounts show the final use of income for household needs, general government, and non-profit enterprises that serve households and their savings. For other sectors of the economy, savings equals disposable income.

The material standard of life (personal wealth) only reveals the possibilities that a person has, but does not find application for such opportunities. As one of the components of the index of formation (development) of human potential (HDI), the index of adjusted real GDP per capita in purchasing power parities (PPP) in US dollars is used:

Index of real GDP per capita in

Cross-country comparisons of household incomes based on purchasing power parities of currencies

Comparison of the standard of living of the population of different countries by comparing household incomes is widely used by international organizations and national government bodies in the development of measures for social and economic development. Based on the International Comparison Program (ICP) GDP, which is implemented by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) under the leadership of the UN with the task of providing international comparisons of macroeconomic indicators, is the calculation of purchasing power parities of currencies.

Purchasing power parities of currencies (PPV) act as the ratio of two or more monetary units, that is, the number of currency units of different countries needed to purchase a certain standard set of goods and services. This set of goods and services can be purchased for one monetary unit of the base country (one unit of the common currency of a group of countries - US dollars, euros, Austrian shillings). Purchasing power parity (PPP) can act both as a private one, established for a certain group of goods, and as a general one, established for the entire social product. For example, if the same set of consumer goods, in particular a consumer basket, costs 600 rubles. RF or 100 US dollars, then the purchasing power parity of the ruble against the US dollar will be:

PPP \u600d 100 / 6 \u1d XNUMX rubles. for XNUMX dollar

The purchasing power parity of currencies is a kind of deflator, similar to the consumer price index, that is, an index that characterizes the change in the cost of the consumer basket of goods and services. The difference among them is that the price indices find the transformation of the purchasing power of the currency of one state over time, while the PPPs determine the transformation of the purchasing power of the currencies of different states in the same period of time. In addition, consumer price indices (the so-called national deflators) differ from purchasing power parities (PPPs) in that they allow ignoring changes in the composition of GDP over time, while when constructing a cross-country CAP, a distraction (within established limits) from differences in the structure is planned. national GDP.

The use of exchange rates for cross-country comparisons of GDP provides a less plausible picture of the actual welfare of the population than the use of PPPs. Because calculations using exchange rates reflect not only differences in the quantity of goods and services produced in a given country, but also differences in price levels between countries. PPPs are obtained by directly comparing the prices of goods and services in different countries, and when used to calculate comparable GDP figures, they more accurately reflect differences in the volumes of goods and services produced. International comparisons of specific (per capita) values ​​of GDP, which are reduced to the same price level due to the IPP, make it possible to detect differences in the degrees of economic prosperity of the population of different states, to assess the economic potential of the countries of the European and World Commonwealth based on comparisons of GDP volumes.

Comparison of the RPS with the foreign exchange rate makes it possible to obtain another indicator that is significant in international comparisons of the level of well-being of the population, namely, the comparable price level. The difference between PPP and the exchange rate is used as a measure of "cheaper" or "more expensive" states relative to another state.

Finding the purchasing power parities of currencies is a rather complicated and time-consuming process, which involves the collection and processing of a considerable amount of information about prices, volumes of manufactured and consumed products for certain groups of goods. The technology for determining purchasing power parities is as follows:

1) the GDP of any state is divided into a number of the same type of commodity groups (primary groups) in accordance with the elements of the final use of GDP;

2) within the boundaries of any commodity group, a certain number of representative goods are selected by expert means, on the basis of which national prices are registered, and then individual and group RRPs are determined;

3) group EAPs are collected in a consolidated PPP (maybe in various ways), usually by weighted averages, where the weights are part of the costs of end-use components.

The individual PPV is determined by primary commodity groups using the geometric mean formula, not weighted from partial price ratios:

i_pj - individual price index of country A to country B;

n is the number of representative products in the group[39].

PPV at the collective level is calculated using the Paasche and Laspeyres aggregate index formula, using the average group purchasing power parities and product group weights in the national currency obtained from the specified formula. When determining the PWV using the Laspeyres formula, it looks like this:

where W_B - value of commodity groups in country B (measuring country) in national currency;

1r_A/B - group average price index of country A to country B[40]

When finding the PWV using the Paasche formula, it will look like this:

where W_A - the value of commodity groups in country A (the country under study) in national currency[41].

To eliminate the popular objections that are typical for the Paagpe and Laspeyres indices, when determining the PPP, the Fisher index is used, which is defined as the geometric mean of the product of the Paasche and Laspeyres indices:

When PEF is determined, statistical practice uses the "potato is potato" principle. The essence of this belief is that identical products sold in different markets (trade organizations with different forms of ownership, territorial location, trading conditions) are studied as one and the same product in international comparisons, and the prices for this product fix all the specifics ( circumstances) sales. At the time of the last calculation of the ERP, the totals obtained for the main elements of GDP are combined. In this case, expenditure information is estimated based on key element parities in the currency of the measuring country. After that, these indices are used to convert the cost indicators of this state (GDP, household income and expenditure) into the currencies of other states. In order to conduct cross-country comparisons of the standard of living of the population, an assessment is made of specific indicators of GDP (per capita), as well as household incomes in real terms (in the national currency of the measuring country).

SRPs are determined both for comparing the standard of living for states (binary comparisons) and for a group of states (multilateral comparisons). A feature of multilateral comparisons is, in addition to the fact that they are carried out for a group of countries, also in the fact that information on prices and the quantity of products produced and consumed in these countries is considered as a whole to obtain a system of interrelated indices that meet a number of analytical requirements. There are many methods of multilateral comparisons, among which the EKS method and the Geary-Kamis method have received the maximum use.

The program of international comparisons of GDP, which is carried out by the OECD, expects to receive estimates once every 5 years, which serve as the basis for finding the RAP in the period between comparisons.

According to the US CIA in 2006, Russia's GDP in terms of purchasing power parity of the national currency was $3 trillion; EEC GDP - $11 trillion; USA -11 trillion; China - 6,5 trillion; Japan - 3,6 trillion; France - $1,66 trillion.

In 2006, the gap between the exchange rate of the ruble and the purchasing power parity of the national currency is narrowing, the tariffs of infrastructure monopolies and the share of wages in GDP reach the levels of the mid-1990s, and labor resources are no longer so cheap[42]

Since the transition to a market economy, the model of state regulation of the quality of life of people and households has begun to change. Gradually, a new model of social protection and assistance to the population and households is being developed, expressed in the state policy of helping the poor, household associations, small and medium-sized, family businesses. Accordingly, the requirements for the veracity of data that characterize the income and consumption of the population and households, both in general in Russia and at the level of individual constituent entities of the Russian Federation, are increasing.

The household budget monitoring program acts as a balance sheet system for the receipts and expenditures of funds (in cash and in kind) in a household for a calendar month and includes:

1) the address part, characterizing the administrative-territorial status of the settlement, the period and time of the observation;

2) household expenses not related to consumption (taxes, fees, loan repayment, payments, contributions, repayment of a loan or debt, expenses for the purchase of real estate, savings);

3) household expenses for maintaining a personal subsidiary plot (expenses for the purchase of a land plot, planting materials, etc.);

4) household register (main and additional employment, subsidies and benefits);

5) household expenses for conducting independent entrepreneurial activity;

6) general information about the household (number of persons, including cash, composition of household members, presence and number of children, working and non-working pensioners);

7) cash income (wages, income from business activities, pensions, scholarships, interest and winnings on deposits, dividends on securities, income from insurance, from all types of sales, from relatives, alimony);

8) the receipt and use of food products (bought, consumed and the remains of food in stocks from the population). Consumption is divided into the following groups of food products: cereals, fruits and berries, vegetables, meat products, dairy products, fish products, sugar and confectionery, eggs, vegetable oil and other fats and other products (tea, coffee, salt, etc.) ;

9) expenses for the purchase of non-food items for the following types: clothing, footwear; fabrics, television and radio equipment; leisure items; domestic electrical units; kitchenware; furniture; soap and household chemicals; perfumery and cosmetic products; pharmaceutical products; haberdashery; tobacco, building materials; vehicles; fuel, etc.; 10) monetary expenses for paying for services: household, cultural and educational, tuition fees, transport and communication services, other services (health, legal, etc.)[43]

Real disposable money income of the population of Russia, according to Rosstat, increased in March 2007 by 12,6% compared to March 2006.

You can also trace the dynamics of the income of the population of the Russian Federation from 2001 to 2005. (see table 5)

Social stratification is the central theme of sociology. It explains social stratification into the poor, the wealthy and the rich.

When considering the subject of sociology, a close connection was found between the three fundamental concepts of sociology - social structure, social composition and social stratification. The structure is expressed through a set of statuses and likened it to empty cells of a honeycomb. It is located, as it were, in a horizontal plane, but is created by the social division of labor. In a primitive society there are few statuses and a low level of division of labor, in a modern society there are many statuses and a high level of organization of the division of labor[44]

But no matter how many statuses there are, in the social structure they are equal and functionally related to each other. By filling the empty cells with people, each status has turned into a large social group. The totality of statuses gives us a new concept - the social composition of the population. And here the groups are equal to each other, they are also located horizontally. Indeed, in terms of social composition, all Russians, women, engineers, non-party people and housewives are equal.

However, it is known that in real life the inequality of people plays a huge role. Inequality is the criterion by which some groups can be placed above or below others. The social composition turns into social stratification - a set of social strata located in a vertical order, in particular the poor, the wealthy, the rich. If we resort to a physical analogy, then the social composition is a disorderly collection of iron filings. But then they put a magnet, and they all lined up in a clear order. Stratification is a certain way "oriented" composition of the population.

The question arises: what forms large social groups? It turns out that there is a division of opinion in society about the meaning and role of each status or group. A plumber or a janitor is valued below a lawyer and a minister. Thus, high statuses and people occupying them are better rewarded, they have more power, the prestige of their occupation is higher, and the level of education should also be higher. It turns out four main dimensions of stratification - income, power, education, prestige. There are no others, because they include the whole range of social benefits that people strive for. More precisely, not the benefits themselves (there may just be many of them), but the channels of access to them. A home abroad, a luxury car, a yacht, a vacation in the Canary Islands, etc. are social goods that are always in short supply (i.e., highly esteemed and inaccessible to the majority) and are acquired through access to money and power, which, in turn, achieved through high education and personal qualities.

Thus, the social structure arises in connection with the social division of labor, and social stratification arises in connection with the social distribution of the results of labor, i.e., social benefits. And it's always uneven. This is how the arrangement of social strata arises according to the criterion of unequal access to power, wealth, education and prestige[45]

Six layers can be distinguished in the social structure of modern Russia:

1) the top layer - the economic, political and power elite;

2) the upper middle layer - medium and large entrepreneurs;

3) the middle layer - small entrepreneurs, managers of the production sector, the highest intelligentsia, the working elite, military personnel;

4) the base layer - the mass intelligentsia, the main part of the working class, peasants, trade and service workers;

5) the bottom layer - unskilled workers, long-term unemployed, single pensioners;

6) "social bottom" - the homeless, released from places of detention, etc.[46] a number of significant clarifications related to the processes of changing the stratification system in the process of reforms:

1) many social formations are mutual in nature, and the transition from group to group has fuzzy, vague boundaries;

2) there is no internal unity of the newly emerging social groups;

3) there is a total marginalization of almost all social groups;

4) the emergence of a new Russian state does not ensure the security of citizens and does not alleviate their economic situation. In turn, these dysfunctions of the state deform the social structure of society, give it a criminal character;

5) the criminal nature of class formation gives rise to a growing property polarization of society;

6) the current level of income cannot stimulate the labor and business activity of the bulk of the economically active population;

7) Russia retains a stratum of the population that can be called a potential resource for the middle class. Today, about 15% of those employed in the national economy can be attributed to this layer, but its maturation to a "critical mass" will require a lot of time. So far, in Russia, the socioeconomic priorities characteristic of the "classical" middle class can only be observed in the upper strata of the social hierarchy.

A significant transformation of the structure of Russian society, which requires the transformation of the institutions of property and power, is a long process. Meanwhile, the stratification of society will continue to lose rigidity and unambiguity, taking the form of a blurred system in which layer and class structures are intertwined.

Undoubtedly, the formation of civil society should become the guarantor of the process of renewal of Russia[47]

By the beginning of 2005, the Institute for Public Design, together with the company "ROMIR-Monitoring", carried out an extensive sociological study "The Stratification of Russian Society". A survey was conducted with a questionnaire of 200 questions of more than 15 thousand people in 408 settlements. The sample included 2800 representatives of megacities, 1400 residents of cities with a population of 500 to 1 million inhabitants, 2950 residents of medium-sized cities, 2900 residents of small towns, and 5100 residents of urban-type settlements and villages. On this basis, the social stratification of the Russian population is modeled quite well, reflecting, in particular, the real incomes of the country's inhabitants:

1) managers - 7,2%. These include the first subgroup - 1,8% - top managers, owners of their own small enterprises and highly qualified specialists (68% - men, 32% - women), who work mainly in the private sector (69%), mainly in companies with up to 500 people. Declared income - 25 thousand rubles. per month, family income - 35 thousand rubles. 90% of the subgroup have a cell phone, 70% have a computer, 60% have a car. In this subgroup, 90% treat entrepreneurs well, 88% say that their acquaintances have adapted to life in a market economy.

The second subgroup - 5,4% - are middle managers and intellectual workers of high and medium qualifications (50% of men and women each), who work 50% to 50% in the private and public sectors. 80% - in organizations of up to 500 people, 60% - in organizations of up to 100 people. Declared income - 8 thousand rubles. per month, family income - 14 thousand rubles. 71% in the subgroup have a cell phone, 44% have a computer, 32% have a car. 86% of the subgroup treat entrepreneurs well, 70% say that their acquaintances have adapted to life in a market economy;

2) intelligentsia and employees - 15%. These include a subgroup - 10% - teachers, doctors, employees who work in the public or private sector of the economy. 70% are women. Claimed income - 5600 rubles. per month, family income - 12 thousand rubles. 59% in the subgroup have a cell phone, 32% have a computer, 23% have a car. In this subgroup, 89% treat entrepreneurs well, 68% say that their acquaintances have adapted to life in a market economy.

The second subgroup - 5% - nurses, nurses, primary school teachers, educators, kindergarten nannies. 75% of the subgroup work in the public (municipal) sector, 82% are women. Declared income - 2100 rubles, family income - 6500 rubles. 31% in the subgroup have a washing machine, 20% have a computer, 16% have a car. In this subgroup, 89% treat entrepreneurs well, 62% say that their acquaintances have adapted to life in a market economy;

3) skilled workers - 19%. These include the first subgroup - 2,7% of the population, 90% consists of men who are engaged in highly skilled physical labor, turning into intellectual (for example, an operator of high-tech equipment in production). 70% work in the private sector of the economy. Declared income - 15 thousand rubles. per month. 74% in the subgroup have a cell phone, 32% have a computer, 34% have a car. In this subgroup, 94% treat entrepreneurs well, 81% say that their acquaintances have adapted to life in a market economy.

The second subgroup - 5,5% - skilled workers in the private sector. 80% are men, 20% are women. Declared income - 9 thousand rubles. per month, family income - 15 thousand rubles. 54% in the subgroup have a cell phone, 22% have a computer, 26% have a car. In this subgroup, 87% treat entrepreneurs well, 72% say that their acquaintances have adapted to life in a market economy.

The third subgroup - 10,8% - industrial workers employed in the public sector. Claimed income - 5600 rubles. per month, family income - 10 thousand rubles. 40% in the subgroup have a washing machine, 20% have a car. 86% of the subgroup treat entrepreneurs well, 68% say that their acquaintances have adapted to life in a market economy;

4) unskilled workers - 14,8%. These include the first subgroup - 10% of the population. 62% - men, 38% women. Their professions are locksmith, turner, loader, builder, handyman. 55% are employed in the public sector, 45% in the private sector. Claimed income - 3500 rubles. per month, family income - 6500 rubles. 26% in the subgroup have a washing machine, 12% have a car. In this subgroup, 81% treat entrepreneurs well, 62% say that their acquaintances have adapted to life in a market economy. The second subgroup - 4,8%. 60% consists of women, the majority live in rural areas. 60% in the subgroup work in the public sector, for example, in healthcare (nurses, nurses, etc.), among them there are unskilled rural workers. Claimed income - 1500 rubles. per month, family income - 4700 rubles. 10% in the subgroup say that they do not have enough money for food 18% have a washing machine. In this subgroup, 48% believe that the transition to the market was necessary, 54% say that their acquaintances have adapted to life in market conditions;

5) the unemployed and temporarily working - 10% of the able-bodied part of Russian society - these are beggars with a personal income of 800 rubles. per month. In this group, 65% are women. The education of the group is low - 43% have a general secondary education, 9% have a lower secondary education, come from poorly educated families - 40% of the parents of the current unemployed had an incomplete secondary education. 42% - villagers, only 10% - residents of million-plus cities. 40% of poor families employ 1 person. 18% of the group say that they do not have enough money for food 41% - they do not have enough money for clothes. 19% of families have a washing machine. 80% of the poor have a good attitude towards entrepreneurs in general, 60% have a good attitude towards large entrepreneurs, 55% say that their acquaintances have adapted to life in a market economy;

6) pensioners - 31% - the largest social stratum of Russians, more than 3 times better off than 10% of Russian beggars. In this group - 65% of women. More than 1/3 have education below secondary, only 9% - higher education. The average personal income of a pensioner is 2300 rubles. per month. 17% in the subgroup have a cell phone, 17% - a washing machine, 6% - a car, 5% - a computer, housing - 24 sq. m per person. In this subgroup, 62% treat entrepreneurs well, 40% say that their acquaintances have adapted to life in a market economy, 45% believe that they have not adapted. 42% believe that the transition to the market was not needed, 34% - needed[48]

All this leads to the conclusion that the poor include up to 15% of the population (5% - women: employees, educators, nurses; 10% - men: unskilled workers in the public sector) with a monthly income of about 3000 rubles; 14,5% of the population is poor (4,8% - women working in health care in the countryside; 9,7% - unemployed, mostly women) with a monthly income of about 1030 rubles. A completely separate layer - pensioners - 31% of the population. Their financial situation is a monthly income of about 2300 rubles. - usually the same for everyone.

For any household, the level of average per capita monetary income per capita is calculated, which is equal to the ratio of the monetary income of the household to the number of living family members.

To study differentiation, the population is distributed according to the level of average per capita cash income, according to the level of average per capita cash expenditure, gross income and disposable resources. According to the indicator of average per capita income, Russian statistics distinguish intervals that are multiples of 200 and 400 rubles, and in the statistics of foreign countries, the income scale is based on intervals that are multiples of the average per capita indicator (y): 0,5y; y; 2y; 3y, etc. Modeling this distribution makes it possible to extend the results of a sample survey to the entire population of Russia or individual subjects of the Russian Federation.

The distribution of the population by the size of average per capita income is calculated as a percentage. Income up to 1000 rubles. and more than 1000 rubles. (see table 6)

Income differentiation

The most striking sign of social differentiation can be considered the differentiation of the population in terms of income.

To study the differentiation of income and consumption of the population, the following indicators are used:

1) modal Income, i.e., the income level that is more common in the population;

2) medial income - an indicator of income located in the middle of the ranked distribution series;

3) decile coefficient of income differentiation of the population, characterizing how many times the minimum income of 10% of the richest population exceeds the maximum income of 10% of the poorest population;

4) funds ratio is defined as the ratio between the average incomes of the population in the tenth and first decile groups;

5) Gini income concentration coefficient, characterizing the degree of inequality in the distribution of incomes of the population, is determined on the basis of the Lorentz curve.

Since income inequality exists, therefore, the standard of living of different strata and groups of the population also differs.

To measure income inequality, the M. Lorenz curve, reflecting the uneven distribution of the total income of society between different groups of the population (see Fig. 2).

If income equality is observed, then it is reflected by a straight line OE. If income inequality occurs, then the line ABCDE shows the actual distribution of income and is called Lorenz curve.

The Gini coefficient is determined by the formula:

where G is a measure that measures the degree of income inequality.

The greater the deviation of the Lorentz curve from the bisector OE, the greater the area of ​​the figure T, respectively, the greater the coefficient G.

In reality, the actual distribution of income is depicted by the line OABCDE. The value of G can theoretically fluctuate from 0 to 1, but in practice it does not reach these extreme values.

It is undeniable that a greater deviation of the Lorentz curve from the bisector will lead to the formation of a larger area of ​​\u1b\uXNUMXbthe figure T, and thus the Gini coefficient will begin to approach XNUMX more.

The solution of such a tense social problem as poverty is one of the activities of the state and is associated with support at the level of at least a living wage, as well as a reduction (by economic means) in the number of people who live below the poverty line.

It is also worth noting that different levels of consumption may also depend on reasons that do not relate to the internal characteristics of labor and its quality for the employee himself. These circumstances mainly include: geographical and climatic conditions, the size of the family, the proportion of working family members in relation to dependents in the family, health status, etc.

State actions to ease the sharp differentiation in incomes of the population:

1) the government makes transfer payments, distributes products and services, and also implements government measures to stabilize incomes;

2) through the channels of state support measures, the needs for the education of new members of society, the maintenance of the elderly and the disabled, the preservation of health, the provision (partially) of education are met.

Too much government intervention in redistribution processes, equalization of incomes leads to a decrease in business activity in society and a decrease in the productivity of production as a whole. However, a decrease in the role of the state in regulating the incomes of the population leads to an increase in income differentiation, social tension, intensification of social conflicts and, as a result, to a drop in production and a decrease in its effectiveness.

The poverty rate - the amount of income that provides a living wage, as a rule, is calculated either as a ratio with the average income in the country, or by direct calculation.

In 2003, with the assistance of the World Bank, Rosstat carried out a representative sample survey "The National Survey of the Welfare of the Population and its Participation in Social Programs" (NOBUS) of 44,5 thousand households-respondents, the purpose of this survey was to collect data on both employment and on household income and expenditure. The analysis of these data makes it possible to analyze in detail the level, profile, causes and factors of poverty.

Officially published poverty data are based on poverty index, which is defined in Russian conditions as the proportion of the population with incomes below the subsistence level.

The headcount index in the process of assessing cumulative progress in reducing poverty is a perfectly adequate tool of analysis. However, in some cases, as the analysis of the impact on the poor of certain policies shows, the use of the indicator of the share of the poor does not make it possible to assess the results obtained. This happens, for example, when the program is aimed at the especially poor and, as a result of its activities, the recipients of social assistance do not leave the group of the poor, but significantly increase the degree of income security. In such situations, a more accurate assessment of the dynamics is obtained from the indicator income deficit. This poverty indicator is calculated as the amount of income required to pay extra to all the poor so that they stop being similar, as a percentage of the total income of the population. Nevertheless, in the process of increasing the incomes of the middle and high-income strata of the population, this indicator will probably decrease even with the aggravation of poverty problems. For example, if the income of the poor does not change, but there is an overall increase in income, the deficit, shown as a percentage of total income, decreases.

The most informative is the per capita income deficit, which is expressed as a percentage of the subsistence minimum.

In the first quarter of 2007, the population of the Russian Federation with incomes below the subsistence minimum (3,7 thousand rubles) decreased to 16,3% of the total number of citizens. According to research by the All-Russian Center for Living Standards (VTSUZH), the level of poverty in Russia is gradually decreasing. But regional differences and income differentiation are still quite large. In general, in the Russian Federation, the population with incomes below the subsistence minimum decreased from 18,9% in the first quarter of 2006 to 16,3% in the first quarter of 2007. The subsistence minimum in 2007 amounted to 3713 rubles. The smallest number of the poor, who live on even less money, is in Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug - 7,9%, Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug - 8,6%, St. Petersburg - 10,2%.

The poverty gap between regions is still high. The situation can be called extremely acute in those regions where the number of poor reaches 30%. In 2007, the number of poor regions was 13 (in 2006 - 20). Among the poorest are the regions of Ust-Orda Autonomous Okrug, where the number of poor reaches 72%, Kalmykia - 59%. And also among them are the regions of the center - Ivanovo (41%), Vladimir (29,2%) regions.

According to Rosstat, the national average in 2006 was that the incomes of the richest 10% were 10 times higher than those of the poorest 25,3%. At the same time, the gap between the rich and the poor will not decrease: in the country as a whole, in 2004-2006, it was increased from 24,9 to 25,3 times[49]

Income indexation is a mechanism established by laws and other regulatory legal acts for recalculating and changing the monetary income of the population (salaries, pensions, scholarships), taking into account the dynamics of retail prices to fully or partially compensate for income losses due to inflation; one of the forms of social protection of the population against inflation.

Indexation provides support in preventing a decline in real wages or minimizing the extent of the decline. Not only accrued wages are subject to indexation, but also other payments due to the employee, that is, he has the right to index the amounts of delayed wages due to their depreciation due to inflation.

The legislator (executive authority, local self-government body, employer) has the right to choose any criteria for indexation and provide for any procedure for its implementation. As a rule, indexation is carried out by raising tariff rates (official salaries). The magnitude of the increase, its repeatability, minimum and maximum sizes are determined by the relevant public authority or the employer.

An increase in official salaries of employees of organizations financed from the budget is usually carried out once a year (2-3 years) and covers all employees of these organizations without exception. The size of the increase in official salaries is set as a percentage of the current salaries. New salaries are used until the next increase.

Indexation of wages of employees of organizations that do not receive budget funding, or employers - individuals is carried out according to the rules established by them.

LECTURE No. 6. Statistics of consumption of goods and services by the population

Consumption is the final stage of the reproductive process. Consumption - the use of the produced product in order to meet certain needs.

There is consumption:

1) intermediate, i.e. this is the cost of products and market services consumed and provided during a given period with the aim of producing other products and services (material products and material services, expenses of enterprises and organizations carried out in the interests of production (although they may correspond also the interests of employees), intangible services);

2) final, or own, consumption of the population - the costs of economic units for products and services used directly to meet the current individual and collective needs of people;

3) paid - is carried out at the expense of personal incomes of the population, i.e., the funds of the family budget, and therefore it can be classified as personal, it should additionally include the cost of products produced by households for their own needs;

4) free consumption of the population includes the consumption of goods and services in healthcare, educational, cultural and other institutions, as well as the consumption of goods and services by the population who are fully supported by the state (conscripts, children from orphanages, living in homes for the disabled, labor veterans and wars).

The legislation of the Russian Federation establishes measures that ensure the protection of consumer rights. These include:

1) certification of products - activities to confirm the conformity of products to established requirements;

2) standardization - activities to establish norms, characteristics of products, works and services and rules (requirements) for them, aimed at achieving orderliness in the areas of production and circulation of products and increasing the competitiveness of products, works or services. Certification can be voluntary or mandatory. Mandatory certification of products, production processes, operation, storage, transportation, sale and disposal. The Government of the Russian Federation approves a document with the relevant lists, and on the basis of this document, the Russian State Committee for Standardization and Metrology approves the range of products and services (works) for which mandatory certification is provided for by legislative acts of the Russian Federation.

Consumable goods are designed to meet certain needs of the population. Depending on the degree of importance, goods are divided into:

1) essential goods (food, housing, etc.);

2) goods less necessary (books, televisions, washing machines, etc.);

3) luxury items (delicacy foodstuffs, especially fashionable clothes, jewelry, expensive furniture, etc.).

An increasing role in the consumption of the population is played by various services, the assessment of which has its own specifics. Services is the result of an activity aimed at satisfying a specific need person and society. The time of production of services coincides with the time of their consumption.

Consumption statistics examines as an object only services that are provided to the population and satisfy human needs.

Comparison of the actual consumption of certain goods with the standard level makes it possible to determine the level of satisfaction of the population's need for this product. Accordingly, the coefficient of satisfaction of the need for the i-th product will have the form:

Since the dynamics of total and per capita consumption is studied using indices, individual indices of consumption change are calculated for certain types of goods:

1) the total volume of consumption of the i-th product:

The difference between the numerator and denominator of the indices demonstrates the absolute change in the total and average per capita consumption of the i-th product:

To determine both the total and the average per capita consumption of certain services by the population, their valuation is most often used, especially when it comes to paid (market) services.

It is possible to determine the provision of the population with services by comparing the actual consumption of services on average per capita with its normative value:

If necessary, the average standard consumption is used:

Indices of consumption of certain types of services are built identically to individual indices of consumption of goods:

2) per capita:

where i_N - index of the average annual population.

At the same time, it is necessary to ensure comparability of prices (tariffs) for services in the reporting and base periods in order to determine the dynamics of the physical volume of their consumption when paying off the effect of prices. This can be achieved with the direct use of a comparable (base) price or by recalculating the cost of the service consumed in the reporting period into prices (tariffs) of the base period. Thus, the deflation method is applied.

The coefficient of satisfaction of the needs of the population for all consumer goods and services (K_Software) in aggregate form is calculated by comparing the cost of actual consumption of these goods and services (∑ qxp and ∑ S xt) with the cost of their normative set (∑ qxp and ∑ S_H xt):

Where p is the price of the goods;

q - the number of actually consumed goods;

S - the number of actually consumed services;

t - actual tariff for a certain service;

q_H - the standard of consumption of a certain product per capita;

S_H - the standard of consumption of a certain type of service per capita;

N is the average population for the period.

When determining the cost of a normative set, average consumption rates per capita are taken into account, i.e., the norms that make up the normative consumer budget, as well as the size of the population.

The cost of the general underconsumption of goods and services in comparison with its normative level is determined by the difference between the numerator and denominator K_Software. It is possible that the consumption of some goods and services can be offset by others.

However, the result of this is a distortion of the true amount of underconsumption. Based on this, the indicator of satisfaction of needs per capita is calculated:

In addition, each actual consumption of goods and services is taken into account in a volume not exceeding the normative one, and, therefore, the comparative value of K_PDwill be 1,0. The difference between the numerator and denominator K_PDrepresents the real amount of underconsumption on average per capita compared to the normative level: multiplying this difference by the average population N, we get the amount of underconsumption as a whole. Comparing this size with the result of the previous calculation of underconsumption based on K_Softwarewe obtain the value of possible compensatory offsets in consumption.

A significant task of statistics is to study the structure of consumption of the population. Since each group of the population has its own structure and its own specific type of consumption, the following types of expenses are distinguished: food, non-food products, alcoholic beverages, payment for services.

In order to assess differences in the structure of consumer spending, we use integral coefficient of structural shifts K. Gateva (Bulgaria):

where v₁ and V₀ - shares of certain types of household expenses in the reporting and base periods.

This indicator will be equal to zero if the matched structures remain unchanged; it will be equal to one if the matched structures have completely changed, i.e. 0 ≤ K_S ≤ 1. It can also be used to characterize differences in the structure of household consumer spending determined by the differentiation of household incomes. In this case, the analyzed coefficient is determined by the following formula:

where Vi Vj- - shares of certain types of expenditures of households of two different groups of the population in one of the studied periods;

i and j are the numbers of the compared population groups by per capita income.

The volume of goods and services consumed by the population in 2006, including foodstuffs and medicines, exceeds by several times the volumes of previous decades. Every year on the eve of the New Year holidays, markets, shopping centers and shops in about 100 large Russian cities (2/3 of the country's population) are overflowing with buyers. The number of Russians vacationing abroad in 2005 exceeded 10 million people, although neither the inhabitants of Brazil nor Mexico, countries that are often placed on a par with Russia's level of economic development, can afford it. In 2006, Russians already owned more than 30 million cars, which indicates universal motorization, a phenomenon that confirms a significant improvement in people's lives, and the number of mobile phone users exceeds 80 million people. For example, in 2004, Russian buyers purchased about 2 million cars (including used cars on the secondary market), paying $16 billion for them. 2002% of car purchases, then in 40 - about 2005%, both in kind and in value terms. Over the past 60 years, more housing has been built in Russia - municipal, private, suburban - than in the previous 10 decades[3]

For the first time since 2001 in the Russian Federation in 2004, the growth of food prices accelerated, for comparison: for meat by 8,9% in 2003 and by 19,6% in 2004. But at the same time, prices for non-food products and tariffs for paid services in 2004 grew more slowly than in 2003. The exception was gasoline, which rose in price by 31,3% in 2004, which was twice as much as its rise in price in 2 (see Table 2003). )

Living wage and consumer budget

The ratio of family income and expenses, which characterizes the established standard of living of different groups of the population, represents all incomes by sources of education and expenses in their direction, as well as the sources and scales of purchases of food and non-food goods and services. Respectively, consumer budget is one of the most significant indicators of population consumption statistics and the standard of living in general.

Consumer budget - the budget of the population, a table of incomes and expenditures of the population for a certain period of time, most often for a month and a year, moreover, representing integral social standard of consumption by the population of consumer goods and services.

To justify the social policy of the state (including the establishment of pensions, allowances, scholarships, etc.), the following consumer budgets are calculated:

1) average standard;

2) actual average;

3) minimal.

The minimum consumer budget allows you to determine the minimum wage, which in the given economic conditions is necessary to meet the basic material and spiritual needs of the population necessary to restore its strength, maintain an active physical condition and normal reproduction. Naturally, its value is diverse depending on the natural and climatic conditions of habitat, sex and age of a member of society, but what is invariable is the level of minimum consumption for a person. The size of this budget, in contrast to the physiological minimum, is constantly changing both in terms of the amount and composition of the included goods and services, which is determined by the total standard of living of the population, the economic formation of society and the needs of the person himself. As a rule, the minimum consumer budget consists of cheap shoes and clothes, food at very low prices, and a minimum of services. But the minimum allowable standard of consumption, determined by its minimum norms, must be observed.

The following approaches help to find and measure the minimum consumer budget:

1) absolute;

2) relative;

3) subjective.

RџSЂRё absolute approach the value of the subsistence minimum is determined as a cost estimate of basic needs, established by the normative method with the help of scientifically developed consumption standards. The living wage determines the minimum allowable limits for the consumption of the most important material goods and services (food, hygiene items, housing and communal services, etc.). The relative approach calculates the minimum consumption budget (MCB) statistically according to actual consumption in low-income households. With a subjective approach, the level of low incomes is determined by polling public opinion[51]

The system for finding the subsistence minimum (PM) and the minimum consumer budget (MPB) includes:

1) development of a consumer basket, which is a list of goods and services necessary to meet minimum needs;

2) determination of weight coefficients for each product or service in the consumer basket (q_H0PM);

3) calculation of the cost of the consumer basket based on the monthly registration of prices for goods and tariffs for services (∑ q_H0RM. x p_i);

4) the formation of the structure of the subsistence minimum or the minimum consumer budget, i.e. the ratio in the consumption of food, non-food products and services;

5) finding the value of PM or MPB [52].

The content of the minimum set is determined taking into account:

1) scientific advice on the minimum volumes of consumption of goods and services necessary to preserve human health and ensure its vital activity;

2) the actual volume of consumption in low-income families;

3) the composition of the population, the size and structure of families and income levels;

4) objective differences in consumption in the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, determined by natural and climatic conditions, national traditions and local characteristics[53].

In order to increase the level of satisfaction of human needs, a budget of high prosperity appears, which makes it possible for a higher level of consumption, designed for expanded reproduction and corresponding satisfaction of the needs of a member of society.

Budgets of all types are compiled on the basis of the same items of expenditure, differing in various filling. This is demonstrated by individual examples in Table 8.

The consumer budget includes durable items (for example, outerwear, household appliances, housing, etc.), taking into account the period of their wear and tear or use. For example, 5 years will be the wear period of a winter coat, respectively, 1/5 of the cost of the coat is taken into account in the annual consumer budget, and 1/12 of the annual cost is taken into account in the monthly consumer budget.

The system of consumer budgets makes it possible to identify groups of the population that qualitatively differ in terms of the level of current consumption:

1) low-income: with cash incomes below the subsistence level;

2) low-income: with cash incomes from the subsistence minimum to the minimum consumer budget;

3) relatively wealthy: with cash incomes from the minimum consumer budget to the budget of high prosperity;

4) wealthy and wealthy: with money incomes above the budget of high prosperity.

The entire system of consumer budgets is being developed at the All-Russian Center for Living Standards (Moscow), and the subsistence minimum for the region is determined and established by the executive authorities on the basis of the regulatory framework. Here the main document is the Federal Law "On the subsistence minimum in the Russian Federation". In general, the cost of living in the Russian Federation is intended for:

1) assessment of the standard of living of the population;

2) justification of the minimum wage and minimum pensions established at the federal level (the Government of the Russian Federation has set the task of gradually raising the minimum wage to the subsistence minimum);

3) formation of the federal budget (clause 1, article 2 of the Federal Law "On the subsistence minimum in the Russian Federation").

In the subjects of the Federation, the cost of living, along with the functions of assessing the standard of living of the population and forming the budgets of the subjects, plays the role of a criterion for providing the necessary state social assistance.

Consequently, the subsistence minimum, on the one hand, is the minimum social standard (the lowest level in the system of consumer budgets), and on the other hand, it is an effective tool for assessing the standard of living of the population.

LECTURE No. 7. Statistics of housing conditions and consumer services for the population

The need for housing is one of the primary human needs. Dwelling place - these are buildings, panel houses, floating houses, other buildings (premises) used for housing, as well as historical monuments, identified mainly as residential buildings with residential and non-residential premises included in them, residential premises, regardless of the form of ownership, included in the housing fund and used for permanent or temporary residence, as well as other premises or buildings not included in the housing stock, but used for temporary residence. The housing stock is a generalization of all residential premises that are located on the territory of the Russian Federation (Article 1 of the Housing Code of the Russian Federation).

The main function of the dwelling - to provide a person with a favorable living environment, that is, comfortable housing is necessary for recreation, and for work, and for creating a full-fledged family. The human habitat, which determines the quality of life of a member of society, is formed by a dwelling introduced into the organization of communal and consumer services for the population.

In a market economy, housing is a durable commodity. This product provokes a large additional demand (for carpets, furniture, household appliances, dishes, etc.) and activates the formation of many sectors of the economy. Since housing is an expensive commodity, it is one of the main factors in stimulating the population's savings and the formation of investment resources.

Statistics are obliged to provide complete and objective information about the housing stock and living conditions of the population, which is necessary, in particular, for the implementation of housing policy, i.e., the development by the state of a set of measures aimed at meeting the needs for housing. The latter can be achieved by solving the following problems with statistics:

1) providing information on the provision of the population with housing, communal and consumer services; assessment of the comfort of the dwelling and its condition (degree of deterioration);

2) identification of materials on the differentiation of housing conditions of different social and demographic groups of the population, on the difference in housing conditions in different regions of the country, in cities (small, medium and large) and in rural areas; creating a basis for international housing comparisons;

3) analysis of the state and movement of the housing stock, its overhaul;

4) providing information on the development of the housing market, on the behavior of sellers and buyers on it, necessary, on the one hand, for the development of financial institutions serving the real estate market, on the other hand, for the development of social guarantees and benefits in the housing sector;

5) reflection of the relationship between the incomes of the population, housing conditions and the structure of consumption;

6) determining the development of social infrastructure and assessing the effectiveness of its functioning[54]

The importance of solving these problems is complicated by the acuteness of the housing problem in our country, since the affordability of housing directly affects the state of the country's demographic indicators.

According to the listed tasks, the statistical indicators of the housing conditions of the population and the level of its service can be divided into several groups:

1) availability, condition and movement of the housing stock;

2) housing conditions of the population;

3) maintenance and financing of housing stock;

4) development of social infrastructure and its functioning;

5) assessment by the population of housing conditions and the quality of public services;

6) development of the housing market[55]

The characteristic of housing conditions consists of the following indicators: housing stock and its changes, improvement of housing stock, major repairs, modernization and reconstruction, provision of housing for the population. Let's analyze the elements of the groups of indicators that are listed above.

Housing stock:

1) total area of ​​housing stock, m²;

2) living area, m²;

3) the share of living space in the total,%;

4) the total number of apartments - total (units), including individual, communal;

5) distribution of apartments by number of rooms, %;

6) distribution of apartments by average size, %;

7) distribution of the housing stock by ownership (municipal fund, departmental, public, private),%;

8) distribution of the housing stock by time of construction, %;

9) distribution of the housing stock according to the degree of wear, %.

According to the Tax Code of the Russian Federation, living space is the area of ​​​​living rooms in residential buildings and premises, i.e. isolated premises that are real estate and are suitable for permanent residence of citizens, meet the established sanitary and technical rules and regulations, other requirements of the law. The total (useful) area of ​​a dwelling is defined as the sum of the area of ​​all parts of such a premise and utility rooms located inside the apartments: kitchens, front corridors, internal corridors, bathrooms or showers, bathrooms, dressing rooms, pantries, built-in wardrobes, as well as attics, mezzanines, covered loggias, verandas, heated and suitable for living. Ancillary premises in hostels, in addition to those considered, are premises for medical care and cultural and community purposes.

When evaluating the comfortability of the housing stock, the ratio of residential and total areas is also important: a high proportion of living space indicates a low comfort of a dwelling, a low one can indicate both poor planning, insufficient living space, and high comfort of the housing stock.

The housing stock is accounted for by types of residential premises:

1) a residential building, part of a residential building;

2) an apartment, part of an apartment;

3) room.

House - this is an individually defined building, which consists of rooms, as well as auxiliary premises designed to meet people's domestic and other needs related to their living in this building (clause 2, article 16 of the RF LC).

Apartment is a structurally separate room in an apartment building, which provides the possibility of direct access to the common areas in this building and consists of one or more rooms, as well as auxiliary rooms, designed to meet people's domestic and other needs associated with their living in such a separate room (clause 3, article 16 of the LCD of the Russian Federation).

A room is a part of a residential building or apartment, which is intended to be used as a place of direct residence by people in a residential building or apartment (clause 4, article 16 of the LC RF).

The housing stock is accounted for by type of property (Article 19 of the Housing Code of the Russian Federation):

1) private housing stock - a fund owned by citizens and legal entities (established as private owners), including housing construction cooperatives (HBCs);

2) state housing fund - a fund owned by the Russian Federation and owned by constituent entities of the Russian Federation;

3) municipal housing stock - a fund that is owned by a district, city, as well as a departmental fund that is under the full economic jurisdiction of municipal enterprises or the operational management of municipal institutions;

4) public housing stock - a fund owned by public associations;

5) housing stock в collective property - a fund that is in joint or shared ownership of various entities, private, state, municipal property, property of public associations.

The housing stock can also be classified according to the types of settlement: housing stock in corridor-type houses, housing stock with apartment-by-apartment resettlement, housing stock in barracks, housing stock in bed-type dormitories, housing stock in basements and semi-basements.

According to the purposes of use, the housing stock is divided into (clause 3, article 19 of the Housing Code of the Russian Federation):

1) housing fund for social use - a set of residential premises of state and municipal housing funds provided to citizens under social rental agreements;

2) specialized housing stock - a set of residential premises intended for the residence of certain categories of citizens in the residential premises provided by the state and municipal housing stocks;

3) individual housing stock - a set of residential premises of a private housing stock used by citizens - owners of such premises for their residence, residence of members of their family and (or) residence of other citizens on the terms of gratuitous use, as well as legal entities - owners of such premises for the residence of citizens on the specified terms of use;

4) housing fund for commercial use - a set of residential premises used by the owners of these premises for the residence of citizens on the terms of paid use, provided to citizens under other agreements, provided by the owners of these premises to persons for possession and (or) use.

The housing stock is necessarily subject to state accounting in the manner established by the Government of the Russian Federation (clause 4, article 19 of the LC RF).

State accounting of the housing stock, along with other forms of its accounting, should provide for technical accounting of the housing stock, including its technical inventory and technical certification (clause 5, article 19 of the LC RF).

Housing stock movement:

1) loss of housing stock, m², including for reasons of retirement:

a) by dilapidation and accident rate;

b) from natural disasters;

c) in connection with the conversion of residential premises into non-residential ones;

d) in connection with the reconstruction and land acquisition for new construction;

2) housing construction:

a) commissioning of housing (total area, living area, m²);

b) the number of apartments built - total, units, including the number of rooms: one, two, three, etc.;

c) average size of apartments built, m²;

d) commissioning of housing by sources of financing, m²;

e) structure of new housing construction by number of storeys, %;

f) commissioning of residential buildings by type of ownership;

g) commissioning of residential buildings in urban and rural areas;

h) commissioning of nursing homes for the elderly, the disabled and disabled children[56]

The housing stock is distributed according to the degree of wear, i.e., the total area of ​​\u70b\u65bresidential premises with wear of more than XNUMX% - stone and more than XNUMX% - wooden, etc. is allocated; the total area of ​​emergency buildings. This indicator is very similar to the indicator "disposal due to dilapidation and accident rate".

Housing construction is a key source of replenishment of the housing stock. It is implemented by state and non-state enterprises and organizations, individual developers with the help of budget funds, mortgages, personal funds of citizens and other sources of financing. From year to year, the proportion of housing construction is increasing at the expense of the population and with the help of loans.

Capital repairs and reconstruction of the housing stock:

1) overhaul, m² total area;

2) reconstruction of the housing stock, m²;

3) sources of financing for capital repairs.

Improvement of the housing stock:

1) living area, which is equipped with: water supply, sewerage, central heating, hot water supply, gas, floor electric stoves, bathrooms, showers, % of the total area of ​​the housing stock;

2) % of residential buildings with a garbage chute;

3) % of apartments with telephones.

Provision of housing for the population:

1) average living area per inhabitant, m²/person;

2) total area on average per inhabitant, m²/person;

3) the number of the population living:

a) in a separate apartment;

b) in a communal apartment;

c) in a separate house or part of it:

d) in a hostel;

4) the same, in % of all residents;

5) average area of ​​a separate apartment, m²/flat;

6) average number of inhabitants per room, person/room;

7) the number of households registered for municipal housing (absolute and as a percentage of the total number of households);

8) the number of families of refugees and internally displaced persons who need housing.

In our country, according to the indicator "average living space per inhabitant", a value is introduced that determines the value of the hygienic standard. When making international comparisons of housing conditions, the indicator "average total area per inhabitant" is mainly used (see Table 9).

When you get a security of 20-25 m² living space per person, then each adult family member has a separate living area at their disposal, it becomes possible to have a room for communication, sharing meals, etc.

Consider the calculation of the provision and affordability of housing.

I. The level of provision of the population with housing

Methodology for assessing the effectiveness of the federal target program "Housing" for 2002-2010

When determining the value of the target indicator, information on the availability of housing for the population is used. The source of data is the state statistics agency (according to the data of form No. 1-housing fund, which was approved by the Decree of the Federal State Statistics Service of July 13, 2004 No. 26).

The results of the target indicator are annually calculated by the state statistics agency for the Russian Federation and for the constituent entities of the Russian Federation in accordance with the Methodological Provisions on Statistics. Information on the provision of housing to the population is published in statistical collections (for example, in the collections "Russian Statistical Yearbook" and "Regions of Russia").

Suppose, if at the date of finding the value of the target indicator there is no information printed in statistical collections on the provision of housing for the population, then the target indicator for the subject of the Russian Federation or on average for the Russian Federation is determined by the formula:

where OL is the level of provision of the population with housing in a constituent entity of the Russian Federation (in the Russian Federation);

AREA - the total area of ​​the housing stock in the subject of the Russian Federation (in the Russian Federation) at the end of the year;

US. - the total population in the subject of the Russian Federation (in the Russian Federation) at the end of the year.

By the end of 2007, the level of provision of the population with housing on average in the Russian Federation should be 20,9 m² per person, by the end of 2010 - 21,7 m² per person.

Methodology for assessing the effectiveness of the federal target program "Housing" for 2002-2010. 

When determining the value of the target indicator, the following data are used:

1) average market value of 1 m² housing (in rubles on average per year). It is found as the arithmetic mean of the average prices in the primary and secondary housing markets, established by the state statistics agency. The data source is the state statistics agency;

2) average per capita cash income (in rubles per month per person on average per year). The data source is the state statistics agency.

The value of the target indicator is determined as the ratio of the average market value of a typical apartment with a total area of ​​54 m² to the average annual total monetary income of a family of 3 people in a constituent entity of the Russian Federation.

The value of the target indicator is determined as the ratio of the average market value in the Russian Federation of a typical apartment with a total area of ​​54 m² to the average per capita annual total monetary income of a family of 3 people.

By the end of 2007, the average housing affordability ratio in the Russian Federation should be equal to 3,2, by the end of 2010 - 3[57]

(Methodology for evaluating the effectiveness of the federal target program "Housing" for 2002-2010)

When determining the value of the target indicator, the following data are used:

1) average market value of 1 m² housing (in rubles on average per year). It is defined as the arithmetic mean of average prices in the primary and secondary housing markets. The source of information is the state statistics body;

2) the share of borrowed funds in the cost of purchased housing (in %). It is calculated on the basis of average lending conditions for banks and other organizations that provide mortgage loans for the purchase of housing in the market of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation. The source of information is the administration of the subject of the Russian Federation. In situations where the open joint-stock company "Agency for Housing Mortgage Lending" refinances a significant share of mortgage loans and loans issued in a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, a part of the borrowed funds under the Agency's program can be used as the middle part of the borrowed funds;

3) interest rate on a loan for the purchase of housing (in % per year). It is calculated on the basis of the average rates in the market of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation for mortgage housing loans and loans in rubles. The source of information is the Central Bank of the Russian Federation (form 0409302, which was approved by the instruction of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation dated June 27, 2004 No. 1481-U). In situations where the Agency refinances a significant share of mortgage loans and loans issued in a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, the Agency's program interest rates may be used as average interest rates;

4) the term of the loan for the purchase of housing (in years). It is calculated on the basis of the average terms of lending for housing mortgage loans and loans in rubles in the market of a constituent entity of the Russian Federation. The source of information is the Central Bank of the Russian Federation (form 0409302, approved by the directive of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation dated June 27, 2004 No. 1481-U). In situations where the Agency refinances a significant share of mortgage loans and loans issued in a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, the terms of lending under the Agency's program can be used as average lending terms;

5) part of the payment on a mortgage loan in the income of the borrower with co-borrowers (in %). It is calculated on the basis of average conditions in the market of the constituent entity of the Russian Federation in terms of payment in income. The source of information is the administration of the subject of the Russian Federation. In situations where the Agency refinances a significant share of mortgage loans and loans issued in a constituent entity of the Russian Federation, a part of the payment in income under the Agency's program can be used as the average part of the payment in income;

6) division of households according to the level of average monthly income. The source of information is the state statistics agency. In a situation of absence, it is allowed to use other sources of information on the distribution of the population by the level of average per capita monthly income with an appropriate reference to the source of information;

7) the number of families in a constituent entity of the Russian Federation. The source of information is the state statistics agency[58]

The minimum total family income required to purchase a home that meets housing standards (54 m² for a family of 3), at the expense of own and borrowed funds, is found by the formula:

where TI is the minimum total family income (in rubles per month);

LTV - the share of borrowed funds in the cost of purchased housing (in%);

P - average market value of 1 m² housing (in rubles on average per year);

i - interest rate on the loan (in % per year);

t - loan term (in years);

PI is the share of payment on a mortgage housing loan in family income (in %)[59]

The proportion of households with a total income above the minimum (TI) is based on information on the distribution of households by average monthly income. In the absence of information on the distribution of households by the level of average monthly income, it is allowed to use information on the distribution of the population by the level of average per capita monthly income with a corresponding footnote. In this case, the minimum total family income (TI) is divided by the average family size (3 people) and the resulting minimum income of 1 person is compared with data on the distribution of the population by average per capita monthly income to determine the proportion of the population with incomes above the minimum.

The value of the target indicator on average for the Russian Federation is determined by the formula:

where DS_common- the share of families that have the opportunity to purchase housing that meets the standards for providing living quarters, using their own and borrowed funds, on average in the Russian Federation;

DS_i - the proportion of families in one subject of the Russian Federation that have the opportunity to purchase housing that meets the standards for providing living quarters, using their own and borrowed funds;

KC_i - the number of families in one subject of the Russian Federation. 

By the end of 2007, on average in the Russian Federation, the share of families that have the opportunity to purchase housing that meets the standards for providing living quarters, using their own and borrowed funds, was 17%, by the end of 2010 it should be 30%[60]

In order to carry out housing and communal reforms and ensure a decent standard of living for the population, indicators of maintenance and financing of the housing stock are of particular importance. The indicators of this group include:

1) the share of expenditures on the maintenance of the housing stock and utilities in the total amount of expenditures of the budget of the administrative unit,%:

2) the number of families that receive subsidies to pay for housing and communal services;

3) the same, as a percentage of the total number of families living in the given territory;

4) the share of expenses for the maintenance of the housing stock in the total amount of expenses of the population, %;

5) the share of personal expenses of the population for the maintenance of housing in the total cost of providing housing services,%;

6) indices of the cost of housing services.

In general, two possible directions of housing policy can be considered: liberal and paternalistic (from Latin paternus - "paternal, paternal"). With a liberal housing policy, housing is provided mainly as a durable commodity and the focus is on the housing market, its condition, factors affecting its development, social assistance is relegated to the background. In the paternalistic direction, housing is considered not as a commodity, but as the most important social benefit; it is provided at the expense of the state budget and the funds of enterprises and is distributed free of charge among the population. In this case, the rent covers only a small part of the state's expenses for the maintenance of the housing stock. This direction of housing policy found its way into life in the socialist countries, where the rent compensated for only about 1/3 of the cost of maintaining housing, subsidies for housing came from the state budget.

In developed countries, the liberal direction of housing policy is not expressed in its pure form: usually, in the conditions of market relations, measures are introduced to limit the rent (rent); there is a system of allowances and benefits for paying for housing, preferential loans and subsidies for the purchase of housing, real estate tax incentives; cheap, low-rent public housing is being built, the maintenance of which is dated by local authorities or the state, and concessional loans are allocated for the purchase. Programs aimed at the construction and commissioning of inexpensive housing and benefits for its purchase are quite popular in European countries, such as France or Sweden.

The metamorphosis of the housing and communal services into a break-even sector of the economy is possible only due to the absolute coverage of the costs of the housing and communal services sector by appropriate payments from the population. Within the framework of the housing and communal reform, the program of housing subsidies (compensations) for paying for housing and utilities is of considerable importance.

The maximum allowable expenditure of a family to pay for housing acts as a new social standard for our country. Its adoption means the implementation of a policy of social protection in the housing and communal area of ​​low-income citizens. The introduced system of subsidies is declarative, i.e., for its registration, the applicant is obliged to document all types of income received. The right to receive subsidies must be periodically confirmed during recertification (usually once every six months). In accordance with the ongoing housing and communal reform, the rates of payment for housing and tariffs for utilities are increasing. In the absence of a clear target for the growth of real monetary incomes of the population, the growth in housing and communal services creates difficulties for the middle-income strata of the population, who cannot count on subsidies for paying for housing and communal services.

With the development of market relations, differences in the housing conditions of the population will probably increase, to a greater extent under the influence of rising rents and the impact of the latter on the provision of housing. This process can be quantified by measuring the relationship between the level of housing payment and housing supply, as well as methods of multivariate classification of households. based on the following features:

1) the level of housing provision;

2) the amount of per capita monetary income;

3) socio-professional group of economically active members of the household;

4) number of dependents, or family load factor, etc.

Housing policy must include the organization of assistance for the maintenance and repair of housing to families in need of it.

Statistics play a central role in detecting the differentiation of the living conditions of the population, finding the categories of residents who need support from the budget. But at the same time, housing maintenance fees for all residents should be increased in stages to a level where costs are fully covered, in parallel with a corresponding increase in direct targeted social transfers to designated groups. In the future, it is likely that the maintenance of the housing stock will be completely removed from the control of the regional authorities, the cessation of direct subsidies for organizations involved in the repair and maintenance of housing, an increase in direct payments to less well-to-do categories and pensioners due to an increase in the cost of maintaining and repairing housing, the creation of a special regional fund reconstruction and maintenance of housing.

Tariffs for utility services must be based on pricing laws under conditions of normal monopolies, which in the Russian Federation are gas, water, energy supply, etc. It is likely that tariffs will also be affected by some structural adjustment by separating individual elements from natural monopolies in order to develop competition, slowing down the growth of tariffs, the corporatization of some utilities with the approval of a clear control over their work. The most significant function of municipal services is the disposal and processing of household waste, cleaning of territories and stairwells, and organization of burials. Thus, in the budgets of German cities, financing of these types of activities is on average 12%. Information on the results of the activities of public utilities is contained in the reports they submit.

It is necessary that there be an organization to provide information on regions and municipalities in order to solve the problems of servicing and financing the housing stock.

Statistics must reflect the development of competition in the field of servicing the housing stock, the creation of true contractual relations in the housing and communal services.

The ever-increasing influence of social infrastructure on various aspects of social life, the increasing importance in the reproduction process makes it a means of intensifying social production. Consequently, the issues of increasing the efficiency of functioning not only of individual sectors of the social sphere, but also of its entirety as a whole are gaining more and more relevance. The level of formation of social infrastructure is measured by the number of institutions of education, culture, consumer services, trade per thousand inhabitants or per unit area (for example, per 1 m²). The elements of social infrastructure include: a transport network (intracity and between settlements), communication facilities, urban greening (which is of considerable importance for improving the environmental situation), rural infrastructure, etc.

The development of transport is determined by the number of its types in a given territory, the length of the routes of each type. Significant indicators are also such indicators as the number of stops of vehicles of any type of transport, the compatibility of these elements, but they are not recorded by state statistics. A significant component of social infrastructure is the provision of conditions for the use of cycling, which is mainly characterized by the existence and length of cycle paths in cities and outside urban areas. In large cities, the impact of such a factor as urban transport is significant; its share is significant in the expenditure part of the city budget.

An increase in the cost of public transport services should be compared with an increase in prices for other types of paid services to the population, for consumer goods, with an increase in wages and monetary incomes of the population. For regional management measures, it is necessary to compare the following indicators: the amount of revenue for services rendered; the number of passengers carried; the number of persons who have feed-in tariffs; the possibility of free transport. Which is one of the real measures to provide targeted social assistance to those in need, mainly pensioners.

Official statistics are rather laconic about the work of passenger urban transport, there is only information on the types of transport, on the passenger-kilometers performed, on the number of passengers transported. Departmental statistics contain more detailed data on the number of routes for each type of transport, on the traffic schedule along the route, and the length of each. Significant information for social statistics is information on disruptions in the system of transport services for the population, on the division of vehicles according to their service life, accidents in transport, comparable characteristics of the filling capacity of transport at rush hour and outside this time. Of great social importance was the development of a network of paved roads. Statistics must reflect not only their length, but also their quality.

The process of privatization in our country has mastered mainly the sphere of consumer services and public catering. Social statistics has a task, which is to give a relative description of the supply of the population with paid services of enterprises of various organizational and legal forms, including retail stores of various forms of ownership. Retail trade statistics significantly supplements the data of population budget statistics in terms of the share of the ratio of food and non-food products in the total volume of trade.

If to determine the level of infrastructure formation, indicators of saturation with its components of some territory, mainly cities, are enough, then to find the level of consumption of services provided by institutions and organizations of social infrastructure, such indicators are significant as:

1) the average number of visitors per unit of time (for a year, quarter, month) served by a dry-cleaning establishment, a hairdresser, a bathhouse, a cafe, a restaurant;

2) the total amount of revenue, thousand rubles;

3) average revenue per employee of a given type of institution, rubles;

4) revenue by types of services, thousand rubles.

These indicators are not enough to characterize the availability of services, their quality, and satisfaction of needs. Such information can only be obtained through special surveys. The implementation of federal and regional social programs in the proportion of assistance to the homeless (refugees, forced migrants, the homeless) leads to the emergence of such elements of social infrastructure as doss houses. New organizational forms of cultural activity appear, for example, people's houses. All this needs to be reflected in the statistics. Statistics need to have information about post offices and their work, about the number of residential premises that have not only telephones, but also fax and e-mail communications. In addition, information is needed on the number of street pay phones, including long-distance and international ones (per 1000 inhabitants). The indicators of social statistics should include information on the prevalence of insurance companies, notary offices, branches of Sberbank, branches of commercial banks per 1000 inhabitants, ATMs, that is, all those units on which the comfort of people's lives depends.

The provision of the people with things of cultural and everyday use for long-term use is increasing, which forms the basis for the formation of a service area (studio, photo and film workshops, car service, workshops for repairing household appliances, etc.).

In cities, another element of social infrastructure is parks, squares, the presence of which is measured by the total area of ​​green spaces (m²) and the area of ​​green spaces per thousand inhabitants (m²/ person).

Also, statistical indicators should reflect the development of the infrastructure of the village. These indicators include:

1) commissioning of water supply networks in rural areas (km);

2) sewer networks (km);

3) gas networks (thousand km);

4) ATS (thousand public numbers);

5) power lines with a voltage of 0,4 kW, 6-20 kW (thousand km);

6) paved roads (thousand km), including local, departmental and private roads.

The main importance is attached to the assessment of the interconnectedness of the formation of social infrastructure. To solve this problem, it is worth assigning a rank to each territorial unit (oblast, city, district) according to the value of each of the social infrastructure indicators and determining the relationship between the ranking of objects according to k characteristics. The rank assigned to each district reflects its place in the formation of this infrastructure component.

The lack of some infrastructure elements can be compensated by the development of others. These examples prove rather the trend of complex development. To quantify this process, you can calculate the Spearman rank correlation coefficients between each pair of ranks, then determine the average of them. The number of such coefficients is equal to the number of combinations of k by 2 - C²_k|, and the operation becomes quite tedious. It is easier to find the Kendall concordance coefficient, which is the average of the pairwise correlation coefficients between ranks. The concordance coefficient is determined by the formula:

where S is the sum of squared deviations of the sum of ranks for each object from the average sum of ranks:

where Rj is the rank of the jth region;

k is the number of rows of ranks (in our example, this is the number of indicators by which the districts were ranked);

n is the number of ranked objects.

LECTURE No. 8. Statistics of free time of the population

One of the main cumulative characteristics of the circumstances for the formation of a person and the provision of his needs is the time budget of the population. The topical task of social statistics and sociology is the disclosure of its expedient composition, the relationship between the population's time budget and the budget of its income and expenses, the ratio of working and non-working time. For this purpose, it is necessary to discuss the program of surveys of the time budget of the population, population censuses, current accounting and reporting and one-time surveys (for example, surveys of working hours) conducted in the country by statistical and sociological departments, as well as a program for the development of materials for these surveys. One of the most important generalizing characteristics of the conditions for the development of a person and the satisfaction of his needs is the time budget of the population.

Population time budget acts as the distribution of the fund of time (most often daily) of the entire population or its individual socio-demographic groups according to the directions of its application. It makes it possible to determine the time spent on the implementation of various types of human (family) activities; moreover, it can be presented both in absolute and relative terms.

The main source of data on the population's time budget is sample surveys periodically conducted by state statistical agencies and sociological groups.

In accordance with the generally accepted classification in the daily fund of time, the following elements should be distinguished:

1) working time and time that is directly related to work;

2) housekeeping time;

3) the time of work in a personal subsidiary plot, on a garden, dacha or other land plot;

4) the period of raising children;

5) unoccupied time;

6) time to satisfy physiological needs (such as, for example, sleep);

7) other expenses of time.

Working time and work-related time includes working hours for core activities, overtime and additional work, as well as travel time to and from work, including waiting for transport, commuting time and walking.

Household time spent consists of:

1) the cost of housework (cooking, washing, ironing, sewing, caring for clothes, shoes, knitting, cleaning the apartment, repairing household appliances, furniture, housing, heating, childcare, other types of domestic work, such as making items household items for personal needs, food processing, etc.);

2) time spent on the purchase of products, non-food products and services (time spent on buying goods in stores, stalls, markets, receiving services in ateliers and workshops for tailoring and repairing clothes, shoes, repairing and manufacturing furniture, repairing household appliances, religious goods and others, at dry-cleaning and dyeing enterprises, in laundries, baths, showers, expenses for visiting clinics, housing offices, banking institutions and other organizations). In this group of costs, it is supposed to allocate from the total time the costs of moving to the place of receiving services and the time for waiting in line.

The greatest weight in all time is received by the costs of satisfying physiological needs, which consist of time for sleep (night and daytime), eating, personal care, etc.

The definition of "other time costs" as part of non-working time is characterized with the practical impossibility of a detailed account of all types of time costs in their classification. We are talking about costs that are atypical or, for one reason or another, can be hidden by the respondents (idle pastime, satisfaction of imaginary needs, antisocial acts). But despite this, their study is necessary, and special surveys are needed to take them into account.

A peculiar place in the structure of non-working time and in the general time budget of the population receives free time - time free from work and other compulsory activities and affairs, used completely at its discretion, i.e. for cultural, intellectual, physical development and recreation of the population. Its significance, proportion and composition for all groups of the population are largely determined by the value of working time and time associated with work, in addition to spending time on physiological needs, purchasing goods and receiving services, and servicing the household. In this sense, it has a "residual" character.

The organization of accounting for the time budget of the population, in addition to the classification of time costs, also includes the solution of issues:

1) about the moment of his observation;

2) on the representation in the totality of the surveyed different types of families (single persons, families consisting of two, three, four or more persons) and various industries, various territories, etc.[61]

The probability of placing different types of activities at the same time is taken into account - for this, the questionnaire provides for the allocation of off-balance sheet time.

The time budgets of the population are developed according to social groups, age and gender characteristics, the level of education of the subjects, sources of livelihood, etc. The structure of the time budget of the population is determined by whether the observation day is working or non-working, a vacation day, a pre-weekend or a weekend. As a rule, the time budgets of population groups on weekdays and weekends are included separately in the compilation of sample survey data.

The free time of the population acts as part of its non-working time, that is, the time during which the employee is free from the performance of labor duties and which he can use at his own discretion. Its value will increase with the development of society. It is organically combined with working hours. Being the established result of social development and the action of the impartial law of saving labor time, it also represents the cause of this formation. Nevertheless, the structure of the above law satisfies only the saving of working time, which, in turn, does not yet give the possibility of its conversion into free time. This time can pass into surplus labor time without going beyond the limits of economic activity. Society itself decides how the saved working time will actually be used. To find an answer to this problem, it may be necessary to use the normative method in the field of free time and include an indicator, the so-called free time norm.

Free time is a social category that is directly related to the formation of personality and is perceived as a time for the noble employment of a person, that is, it represents the wealth of society. The main thing is that this wealth should be used qualitatively, for its intended purpose and contribute to self-education. In its structure, socially useful time costs should prevail, time, including elements of mental, social, physical activity, recreation and entertainment.

Types of rest time: breaks during the working day (shifts), daily (between shifts) rest, days off (weekly continuous rest), holidays, non-working holidays. During the working day there should be a break for rest and meals (not included in working hours) from 30 minutes to 2 hours.

The classification of the use of free time spending now distinguishes the following free time spending: visiting theaters, cinemas, concerts, sports and other entertainment events; reading newspapers, magazines, fiction; walks and sports; watching TV, listening to the radio; meetings, visits, games, other types of recreation: socio-political activities, rallies, meetings, religious activities.

Free time is different for men and women. For example, in men it is 2 times more than in women. However, in both cases it is reduced. Thus, the time spent on housekeeping and on work in personal subsidiary plots, on summer cottages, gardens and other land plots has increased. In addition, the free time of the population is reduced with age. Consequently, in women aged 45 and older, it is 16 times less than in women aged 19-1,7.

The overall pattern in the use of working time by working family members approaches the fact that most of it is used inactively, mainly for watching television and listening to the radio. Consequently, on working days, men and women spend 60% of their free time on this, and an average of 10% on reading. On weekends, free time is spent more diversely. The number of inert rest is reduced by an average of 40%, and the time spent on visits, meetings, visiting cafes, games, etc. is increasing.

Statistics makes it possible to detect features of the time budget in different groups of the population. For example, according to our state statistics, the part of free time for various groups of the population varies from 5 to 34% of the daily time fund.

In addition, the seasonal factor affects the time budget of the population. Therefore, the time budget in general and, in particular, non-free time are studied separately for the summer (April to September) and winter (October to March) periods - for men and women, taking into account the social or socio-professional group.

The study of the structure of free time in certain social groups, gender and age categories of the population, urban and rural residents, seasonal and territorial differences is the key task of statistics on the population's time budget. It is determined using various kinds of groupings and known statistics. When assessing the differences in the composition of time costs for specifically defined groups and categories of the population, it is possible to use indicators of the average linear and root mean square structural differences, which are constructed similarly to the construction from variation indicators.

In this case, the differences are used not between the options and the average value, but between the structural components of the time budget of the two compared sets.

The most universal indicator summarizing the differences in the structure of time costs is the A. Salai coefficient:

This indicator receives values ​​in the range of their differences.

Mastering the structure of the population's free time, it is important to single out the share of its socially useful costs, removing from its total value the costs of meetings, visits, restaurants, cafes, etc.

In the statistics of free time, indicators of the structure of the surveyed population of certain social groups that have certain time costs, as well as indicators of the duration of a particular type of activity, both for all respondents and for that part of them that have these costs in their budget, can be freely used. free time, etc.

Time use statistics are closely related to the study of the social and demographic structures of the population. Belonging to one or another group can significantly affect the time spent on the established type of activity, the overall structure of the time budget. Confirmation of the significance of differences in the average time spent on reading, education, housework and other activities for different population groups can be obtained by applying the Student's t-test or Fisher's F-test, as well as the nonparametric chi-square test.

Data on the specifics of the use of free time by various types of households is needed for the development of the education system, the recreation industry when choosing to focus on the development of individual forms of recreational activities for people of different age groups or on joint recreation of family members of different composition: with young children, with adolescent children, etc. d.

LECTURE No. 9. Employment and unemployment statistics

Employment is an extremely important phenomenon in the socio-economic life of society. It includes the rational use of labor, ensuring a decent standard of living for the working population, meeting the needs of the country's economy in the labor force, taking into account its quantity and quality, and also includes unemployment problems.

Employment - this is a human activity, combined with the satisfaction of personal and social needs, which do not contradict the law and bring income. Employed persons include persons aged 15 to 70 who are employed or part-time for remuneration, alone or self-employed or for individual employers, in their own or family businesses, and unpaid household members. employed in personal subsidiary farming, agriculture, temporarily absent from work.

able-bodied population - this is the population that is capable of working, regardless of age, that is, the part of the population that potentially has the ability to work, in other words, has the necessary physical development, mental abilities and knowledge to do the job. The working-age population includes the working-age population within working age, employed and unemployed, as well as the population beyond working age, potentially able to work.

The economically inactive population includes:

1) persons studying in general education institutions and full-time students;

2) non-working pensioners due to age or disability;

3) non-working population, receiving income from securities, shares, and those who receive material assistance from societies, organizations and individuals;

4) persons providing voluntary free services and persons of working age who can work, but do not seek work for objective and subjective reasons.

A common feature of the information that makes up statistics is that they always refer not to one single (individual) phenomenon, but to their overall complexity.

The tasks of employment and unemployment statistics are as follows:

1) collection of information on the number of employed and unemployed as components of the labor force;

2) measuring the level of employment and unemployment in order to study the state, trends in the labor market;

3) study of employment of the population to assess the situation in the labor market and its forecasting;

4) study of the composition of the employed and unemployed in order to develop an employment program;

5) study of the relationship between employment, income, maintenance and other labor incentives in order to obtain an employment program.

The solution of these problems forms the conditions for measuring the supply of labor and its actual use. Their implementation is based on a combination of a number of data sources.

In Russia, to calculate the total number of employees by region during the year, current labor reporting data are used: form 1-T "Information on the number and wages of employees by type of activity" (annual), unified reporting form No. P-4 "Information on the number , wages and movement of employees" (monthly - with an average number of more than 15 people, quarterly - with an average number of up to 15 people). All enterprises report on these forms. The number of employees for small enterprises can be obtained from the quarterly one-time report No. PM "On the main indicators of the activity of a small enterprise." The study of the composition of the employed by branches of the national economy, sectors of the economy is carried out according to the balances of labor resources compiled for the middle (July 1), end (beginning - January 1) of the year and on average for the year.

An essential source of information on the number of unemployment is the data of the employment services, which in 1991 connected the previously operating centers and employment offices for citizens. Employees of the employment spheres fill out the primary accounting documentation on employment and employment of the population, containing a personal record card of a citizen who is looking for a job, No. 1 and a card of the person who applied to the employment service for advice No. 2, in addition, they send a monthly "Employment Report" to the state statistics authorities and employment." However, not everyone who needs a job turns to the services of employment services. They indicate only the number of officially registered unemployed (at the end of the period: month, quarter, year). Together with current reporting information, since 1992, materials from a sample analysis of the population on employment issues have been used to measure the total number of unemployed: since 1999, they have been carried out quarterly in the last week of the second month of the quarter. 60 citizens aged 15-72 are examined within a week. The highest upper age limit makes it possible to clarify the probable participation of pensioners in the labor market, while the lower one - adolescents. The results of the survey make it possible to estimate the number of unemployed, their distribution according to the circumstances of unemployment, according to the methods of finding work. Ways to find a job are especially important, as the labor market can function in both an organized and unorganized way.

The use of sample surveys in combination with current reporting information to find the number of unemployed is recommended by the ILO and practiced in many countries.

Sample surveys of enterprises can also provide some assistance in collecting information on employment. Since 1991, the Russian Economic Barometer (REB) organization has been conducting monthly monitoring of enterprises and banks in our country. To date, REW is the only organization that analyzes the economic situation in Russia on the basis of conventional methods of survey statistics.

Since the level of unemployment is widely used in international practice as a general indicator of the current state of the country's economy, then, of course, it is necessary to include in the survey information programs questions that clarify the situation on the labor market and allow it to be predicted. Due to the importance of this information, on March 22, 1995, the Government of the Russian Federation approved the Regulations on All-Russian Monitoring of the Social and Labor Sphere. The organization and monitoring of the social and labor sphere is carried out by the Ministry of Labor of the Russian Federation and the State Statistics Committee of Russia with the participation of the Ministry of Economy, the Ministry of Social Protection of the Population, the Federal Migration Service of Russia, and the Federal Employment Service.

The situation on the labor market in a number of areas is regularly monitored by research centers for employment of the population, for example, thanks to telephone surveys of the population of the city on employment and quality of life, the socio-economic situation and the state of the labor market are monitored. The direction of the population in the labor market is the object of an international comparative survey conducted within the framework of the project ISSP (International Social Science Program).

Employment is the activity of the population, which is associated with the satisfaction of personal and social needs, does not contradict the law and, as a rule, brings earnings, labor income.

Unemployment is understood as a socio-economic situation in which the share of the enterprising, able-bodied population is not able to find work that these people can do. Unemployment is defined as the excess of the number of people seeking to find a job over the number of available jobs that meet the profile and qualifications of applicants for these places. The unemployed are able-bodied citizens who are looking for work, are on the labor exchange and do not have a true opportunity to get a job according to their education, work skills, profile. In many countries of today's world there is an unemployment rate of about 5% of the total number of employed.

According to the recommendations of the ILO, statistics consider the number of employed and unemployed as two components of the economically active population, i.e., the labor force. Its measurement makes it possible to carry out macroeconomic monitoring and develop an employment strategy.

Under the labor force (economically active population) refers to the part of the population of working age from 16 years old to the accepted retirement age, employed or unemployed, with the exception of the incapacitated. It provides labor supply for the production of goods and services and is included in the UN System of National Accounts. A distinction is made between the general labor force, which includes persons in military service, and civilian, minus persons in true military service.

The number of economically active population is determined in relation to the established time and includes the employed and the unemployed, and is also estimated from the data of sample analyzes of the population on employment issues. When measuring the economically active population, international standards recommend specifying a minimum age. It can be taken at the level of 6 years (Egypt), 10 years (Brazil) and increase up to 16 years (USA, Sweden). In many countries it is 14-15 years. In some countries, two minimum limits are considered: a lower one for obtaining data on economic activity and a slightly higher one for classifying the economically active population: for example, in Canada - 14 and 15 years, India - 5 and 15, Venezuela - 10 and 15, in Russia - 15 and 16 years.

In addition to the minimum age, in a number of countries a maximum age is defined, i.e. persons older than it are excluded from the calculation of the economically active population. For example, in Denmark, Finland, Sweden, Norway, the upper limit is 74 years, and in Russia they are limited to 72 years. At the same time, when further classifying the population into employed and unemployed, as in most countries, the age limit is not set. To get an idea of ​​the level of economic activity of the population of a country (region), the share of the economically active population in the total population is determined. In 2006, according to the published annual report of the International Labor Office "Global Trends in Employment", the number of unemployed on a global scale was 195,2 million people, or 6,3% of the total number of people of working age. Consequently, in the total population on a global scale, 2903,2 million people, or 93,7%, are residents who provide labor supply.

The most reliable level of economic activity of the population is found as the ratio of the economically active population to the population aged 15 to 72, due to the fact that this age group participates in sample surveys. People of working age have the greatest labor activity (in Russia, women aged 16-54 and men aged 16-59). Therefore, the level of economic activity of the population of working age is also found as the ratio of the economically active population of working age to the population of working age.

Each age group has its own level of economic activity, i.e. the desire to work regularly increases until the age of 35-39 years (in some years up to 40-44 years) and then gradually decreases.

Although age affects the level of economic activity, it remains quite high for men and older age groups. According to this, the age variation in the level of economic activity among men is lower by 10 percentage points.

The calculation of the coefficients of variation is carried out according to the formula:

Where x is the average level of economic activity in general for all age groups;

σ - standard deviation characterizing fluctuations in the level of economic activity by age.

The correct definition of the economically active population depends on the accuracy of finding its two components: employed and unemployed.

The employed population are men and women aged 16 years and over, as well as persons of younger ages who, during the study period:

1) carried out work for hire for pay (on the terms of full or partial working time), as well as other income-generating work (independently or for some citizens);

2) were temporarily absent from work due to injury, illness, leave, and other reasons;

3) worked without remuneration in a family enterprise.

The unemployed population are persons aged 16 and older who, during the study period:

1) did not have a job (profitable occupation);

2) searched for work (applied to the administration of the enterprise, to the employment service, used personal connections, placed advertisements in the press, etc.) or took steps to organize their own business;

3) were ready to start work.

When classifying as unemployed, all three criteria listed above must be present. The unemployed also include persons who are trained by the employment services or perform paid public work received through the employment services.

The unemployed, according to the ILO methodology, can also include students, students, the disabled and pensioners, if they were looking for work and were ready to start it.

The unemployed include persons who are not employed, registered with the employment service as job seekers, and also defined as unemployed.

To characterize the state of the labor market, statistics mainly provide data on the absolute number of employed and unemployed in the country and by region. For Russia in the 1990s XNUMXth century was characterized by a decrease in the number of employed people. This directionality is well approximated by an exponential curve of the form:

y = 76,07x0,981^t,

where t takes the values ​​1,2,3,…,10.

The situation on the labor market is assessed not only through the absolute number of employed and unemployed, but also through the unemployment rate and employment rate, which are found as the proportion of the corresponding category of labor force in the economically active population at the beginning (end) of the period or on average per year:

The employment rate can also be found as the proportion of employed people in a given age group. These two indicators of employment are interconnected:

The level of employment determines the degree of employment of the able-bodied population in the sphere of socially useful labor. The value of this indicator reflects the formed economic situation in the country, which depends on the formation of scientific and technological progress in society, productive forces, and the level of welfare of the population. Employment is full, part and hidden.

Full employment counts on the formation of such living conditions that give every active person the opportunity to choose if he wants to be employed or unemployed. Full employment does not mean that the entire working-age population of working age must necessarily be employed. Based on a number of circumstances, some active persons may not participate in the labor process (people who do not work only because they want to change their profession; women caring for children, etc.). Full employment is quite rare in a market economy and is obtained when the demand for labor coincides with its supply.

Part-time work acts as a predetermined work during a part-time, part-time work week. It is characteristic of countries with a high level of economic development, where the level of science creates economic conditions for part-time employment.

Part-time work (a week) can be used more widely in our country, especially among women, not as a forced, but as a consciously chosen form of labor organization.

Particular attention deserves hidden employment (potential unemployment), in which workers do not work at will in part-time employment, take leave on the initiative of the administration without pay or with partial pay. This visible underemployment understates the actual number of unemployed.

Employed and unemployed (economically active population) determine the constituent part of the region's labor resources. As a result, the print media often calculate the levels of employment and unemployment as the share of the employed and the share of the unemployed in the total labor force. The indicators of employment and unemployment levels obtained in this way turn out to be lower in their values ​​than those analyzed earlier (in % of the economically active population). Between them there is approximately the following relationship:

The considered interrelations of indicators are true only in general. In some situations, they are likely to be violated if the unemployed include a huge proportion of people of incapacitated age (for example, pensioners who are looking for work and ready to start it), since the age limits for the categories of "labor resources" and "economically active population" do not coincide. Nevertheless, in most cases the considered equalities hold.

The economically inactive population of working age, that is, the population that is not part of the labor force, includes:

1) pupils and students, listeners and cadets attending daytime educational institutions and not engaged in any activity other than studying;

2) persons engaged in housekeeping, caring for children, the sick, relatives, etc.;

3) persons who have stopped looking for a job, having exhausted all the possibilities of obtaining it, but they are able and ready to work;

4) persons who do not need to work, regardless of the source of their income.

The economically inactive population, according to the methodology of the International Labor Organization (ILO), includes two more categories that are not part of the labor force:

1) persons receiving pensions (for old age, on preferential terms, for the loss of a breadwinner) and not engaged in any activity;

2) disabled people receiving pensions and not engaged in any activity.

Since the number of economically active population, the number of employed and unemployed are related, the dynamics of these indicators is determined as follows:

where K_Э - growth rate of the number of economically active population;

К_Зand K_Б - coefficients of growth in the number of employed and unemployed;

Y_З and Y_Б - levels of employment and unemployment in the base period.

It is possible to establish a change in the unemployment (employment) level in places based on the model of the dynamics of the economically active population:

where ∆Y_Бis the absolute change in the unemployment rate, expressed in percentage points.

It is necessary to distinguish between actual unemployment, which is calculated according to the methodology of the ILO on the basis of sample surveys, and officially registered with the State Employment Service of the Russian Federation.

There are three groups of citizens who applied to employment services with a request for employment:

1) workers, but seeking to change their place of work or work part-time in their free time from their main job;

2) students of general education schools and other educational institutions, students who want to work in their free time from studies;

3) free at the time of job search.

To optimize the degree of unemployment in the region, the third group of citizens who applied to the employment service with a request for employment is of maximum interest. The bulk of these citizens are officially recognized by the legislature as unemployed.

Basically, the unemployment rate, found according to the sample survey, is 3-6 times higher than the level recorded in the bodies of the State Employment Service of the Russian Federation. The difference between these indicators is even more noticeable if we take into account the composition of the unemployed by gender.

The significance of the gender difference in the proportion of unemployed who applied to the employment service can be assessed using Fisher's F-test:

where D_fact and D_0CT. - factorial and residual dispersion per one degree of freedom.

To find these variances, the following formulas can be used, which take into account the rule for adding variances of an alternative attribute:

where k is the number of population groups by sex;

pj is the share of the unemployed who applied to the employment service in the total number of unemployed (separately among men and among women);

p is the average share of the unemployed who applied to the employment service, as a whole for the survey;

nj - the number of unemployed - separately for men and women;

n is the total number of unemployed.

Information from the current statistics of the employment service on the employment of the population is used to estimate the total number of unemployed in the periods between surveys of the population on employment problems. To determine the number of unemployed in the months between the two analyzes, an interpolation of the ratio of the number of unemployed, which is obtained from the study, and the number of unemployed population, which is taken into account in the employment service on a certain date, is used. The method of similar calculations may be different depending on the adopted construction of the interpolation.

Initially, the ratio of the total number of unemployed, which was obtained according to the survey, and the number of unemployed people registered with the employment service, is found, as has been transformed over the time between the last two analyses. Suppose that according to the latest survey, the number of unemployed in the region was 240 thousand people (x_п), in the employment service at the end of the month of the survey there were 30 thousand people (at_п). Thus, the ratio of the number of unemployed according to the two sources of information was 8:1 (C_n).

Similarly, according to the results of the previous survey, the number of unemployed 200 thousand people (x₀), at the end of the month in which the survey was conducted, 50 thousand people were in employment services (in₀), the ratio of these data is 4 (C₀). The change in these ratios between the last two surveys:

where t is the number of months between two adjacent surveys.

If a survey is conducted once a quarter, then t = 3 and ∆ = 4/3 = 1,333. If we assume that this ratio increases by the same value every month, then the total number of unemployed at the end of the analyzed month will be formed as:

х₁ =Y_t x (C₀ + ∆ x t),

where t is the serial number of the month after the date of the previous survey;

Y_t - the number of unemployed population registered with the employment service at the end of the month t under consideration.

Another method of interpolating the number of unemployed between two dates of the survey is also possible, if we assume that the monthly analyzed ratio of the two sources of data on the number of unemployed changes not in arithmetic, but in geometric progression (by the same number of times). To this end, we find the overall growth factor of this ratio:

i.e., the growth rate of the ratio of information for the period between two related surveys. In our example, it will be₀ = 8 / 4 = 2.

The average monthly growth rate of this ratio can be found as:

Both variants of interpolation are theoretically equal, although in practice the first method is preferred as it is simpler.

Both employed and unemployed citizens apply to the bodies of the Federal Employment Service in search of work. To assess the situation on the labor market, the number of citizens registered by the State Employment Service of the Russian Federation who are not employed is mainly determined. Along with this, when assuming what the state of the labor market will be, information on the number of citizens engaged in labor activities, but striving to change their place of work, who, for example, are afraid of a potential layoff in their organizations and, in connection with this, are sent for help to employment. Statistics examines, in addition to the number, and the structure of those who applied to the State Employment Service of the Russian Federation for help in finding employment in the following categories:

1) employed in labor activity;

2) students;

3) not engaged in labor activity;

4) pensioners.

With the increase in economic instability in the country, an increase in the number of people who are employed, but seek to change their place of work, is possible. Consequently, the number of pensioners who wish to improve their financial situation in the field of work may also grow.

Statistics examines the structure of the population that is looking for a job and applied to the employment service, by age, sex and education, where more than half are women. Their share is highest among those who are not employed, as well as among pensioners. Of the total number of applicants, there are young people under the age of 30, among which the proportion of women dominates.

As a result of the activities of the employment service, the number of citizens employed by its bodies in the total number of applicants is found. To date, there has been an increase in the number of employed persons among those who applied in search of work to the employment service, mainly among students.

Citizens who are free from labor activity as persons in particular need of assistance, as well as a very large percentage of youth employment, have the maximum share among the employed.

Data on people in need of work are provided in the context of industries and sectors of the economy, which makes it possible to study labor supply: intersectoral and intersectoral. To study the change in employed people by sectors of the economy, table 10 is formed.

Among the sectors of the economy there are: state and municipal enterprises and organizations, public organizations and foundations, private enterprises, joint ventures, enterprises of mixed ownership.

Most often, citizens who previously worked in the public and private sectors of the economy apply to the bodies of the State Employment Service of the Russian Federation, which is determined by the predominance of enterprises of these forms of ownership in the national economy. The vast majority of those who previously worked in the public sector are also employed in the public sector through the employment service. In other words, the composition of the employed by sectors of the economy is slightly changed by the places of former employment of persons.

The division into those employed and those who applied for employment assistance by spheres of the economy makes it possible to see to what extent the increase in the number of personnel occurs primarily due to the intra-sectoral influx of labor and due to the inter-sectoral mobility of personnel. Maximum probabilities for employment through the employment service in the 1990s. had citizens who used to work in transport, in trade and public catering, construction, in the field of management, in industry, and those who retired from science and scientific services had the minimum.

The intersectoral flow of personnel, citizens who are employed through the employment service, often happens in consumer services for the population, housing and communal services and in management.

Structural adjustment associated with the formation of market relations in the economy has led to the transformation of demand and supply for labor both in the sectoral section and in the spheres of the economy. A variety of organizational and legal norms of enterprises (state, joint-stock, private, etc.) provide various opportunities for solving the problem of employment: they are differentiated by the degree of production efficiency, reserves for its growth, income of workers, and, consequently, by development prospects.

The prepared report on the employment of citizens registers the number of persons sent for vocational training from the share of those free from work and not yet employed, as well as the number of citizens who received advice: on vocational training, on choosing a profession, on changing jobs, on legislation on labor and employment, etc.

The statistics examines the duration of the job search. For this purpose, according to the personal records of citizens who applied for support in finding employment, the total duration of employment of citizens (man-days) can be established. The duration of employment is determined for all citizens employed in the reporting year, based on information on the date of deregistration due to employment and on the day of registration of the applicant for employment. According to this indicator, it is possible to find the average duration of employment of citizens per year, using the formula:

Similarly, for all unemployed employed in the reporting year, the total duration of employment of the unemployed (man-days) is determined. In addition, the duration of the job search for any citizen is calculated from the day a person is recorded as unemployed until the moment he is deregistered upon employment. Further, this indicator can be used to calculate the average duration of employment of the unemployed in days (by dividing it by the total number of unemployed employed in the reporting year).

For the purposes of the proposed calculations of the number of unemployed, the degree of appeal of citizens to employment services is considered. The tension in the demand for labor force will be estimated through the number of requests for employment per 1000 people of the able-bodied population of working age, i.e.:

The effectiveness of the work of the employment service bodies for the employment of the population largely depends on the reliability and timeliness of data from enterprises on the need for labor, on job vacancies. Now, by regions of Russia, the load of the unemployed population per one vacancy is established:

However, in reality, this indicator is higher, since not all citizens who have lost (did not have) a job apply to employment centers. This indicator fixes the scale of tension in the labor market.

The social composition of the unemployed is obtained by means of statistics when analyzing information from a sample study on employment problems and from the employment service bodies according to the annex to form No. 1-T (employment) "Report on employment and employment of the population" for the year. This Report contains data on the qualitative composition of the unemployed (their distribution by sex, age, level of education, presence of children, reasons for dismissal, profession, specialty). The study of the qualitative composition of the unemployed helps to develop a more effective employment policy (subsidies for expanding jobs, a system for training and retraining the workforce, encouraging entrepreneurial activity, etc.).

In order to correctly assess the situation on the labor market, it is necessary to consider the reasons that led citizens to the status of unemployed.

Among the reasons for the loss of work, a significant role was played not only by the release of workers in connection with the reorganization of production, but also by their dismissal of their own free will, which often hides not only dissatisfaction with the content and conditions of work, its payment, but also structural changes in production. The proportion of people who quit for other reasons that are not revealed by statistics to date is also huge.

Among the unemployed registered with the employment service, women prevail, while in the total number of the childless, as determined by the methodology of the ILO, men prevail. For reasons of unemployment among men, voluntary dismissal is more common.

In Russia, the educational level of the unemployed is one of the highest in the world. Unemployed women generally have a higher level of education than men. The difference in the proportion of people with higher education in the economically active population - employed and unemployed - is significant. Therefore, education is an important factor in employment.

At the same time, in Russia education is not a factor of social protection against unemployment. Subsequently, one can expect an increase in the stability of the position of an employee in production with an increase in his educational level. This trend can be noted in Western countries.

From the standpoint of the professional direction of the unemployed, it is necessary to study their age composition. The main part of the unemployed in Russia are people of mature age. Age may also be taken into account when determining direct measures to assist the unemployed.

In a number of regions of the country, youth labor exchanges, as well as the Interregional Employment Center, are taken on a par with the State Employment Service of the Russian Federation.

The service of temporary staff, which has gained considerable popularity over the past few years, although it does not completely solve the problem, it gives young people the opportunity to try their hand, gain some experience in a particular company. This is an hourly rate. The term for the implementation of an order for the temporary staffing service can be a matter of hours. Actually, during this time, the provider - a specialized recruitment agency - is obliged to provide the client with personnel for a short period of time.

In the West, the practice of attracting temporary staff is legally fixed. There are clearly defined legal provisions that designate and regulate the relationship of the parties when hiring temporary staff[62]. Therefore, foreign companies widely use the practice of hiring temporary staff, the so-called contractors. In some firms, especially Japanese, temporary staff can be up to 90% of all employees of the company. In Russia, there is no legislative framework for attracting temporary staff to a company; the service for providing temporary staff is just beginning to develop as a business practice. Clear terms for this kind of phenomena are also not yet provided. These issues are discussed both in the State Duma by representatives of the AKPP - the Association of Recruitment Consultants, and in the literature. But still, the market for temporary staff services is growing at a rapid pace.

To predict employment and unemployment, you need data on the duration of unemployment. Similar information is used in most countries of the world. A significant proportion of people who have not had a job for less than 1 month means that unemployment does not lead to social explosions in society. On the contrary, a high percentage of people with unemployed status for more than 1 year is one of the symptoms of chronic unemployment.

On the basis of the analyzed distribution of the unemployed, it is possible to approximately establish the average duration of unemployment as a weighted arithmetic mean:

where T_i - time of absence of work in the i-th group;

N_i - the number of unemployed in the i-th group.

Since the time of absence of work is specified in intervals, the middle of the interval, i.e. 0,5, is used as the calculation; 2,0; 4,5; 7,5; 10,5 and 13,5 months. Since unequal time intervals are used as a weight for calculating the average duration of unemployment, it is more correct to use not the initial information on the number of unemployed in each group, but relative distribution densities, i.e., the percentages of unemployed recalculated by groups for the same unemployment time interval e.g. 1 month. It is possible to establish comparative division densities, providing for 4 months, therefore, only the percentage of the unemployed of the first and second groups will be recalculated. However, due to the huge "weight" for the last group with an open interval, this calculation gives an inaccurate result.

If, however, we use the initial information of the variational series as a "weight", therefore, the average duration of unemployment will be equal to 9 months, which is slightly lower than its actual value of 9,7 months. The median duration of unemployment is 11,2 months, while the median is calculated according to the formula:

where x₀ - the lower limit of the median interval, i.e. the first interval with an accumulated frequency of 50% or more;

i - the value of the median interval;

N_Mе - ordinal number of the median;

S_{Me-1 -}accumulated frequency of the premedian interval;

f_Me - local frequency of the median interval.

Job search time is quite closely related to the age of the unemployed and differs significantly by gender. A longer average job search time is seen in the unemployed of older age groups. The strength and tightness of this relationship also differ by gender.

Correlation coefficients indicate a fairly close relationship, since their values ​​are close to 1 (especially in women). The coefficients of determination show that 89% of the variation in the average job search period for women depends on changes in age, and this indicator for men is lower - 75%. Regression coefficients also differ by gender: with an increase in age by 1 year for men, the average duration of unemployment increases by 0,064 months, i.e., by 1,9 days, for women - by 0,093 months, or 2,8 days.

The significance of these differences is confirmed by the value of Fisher's F-test, which for all equations is higher than the tabular value. The F-criterion is calculated according to the formula:

where n is the number of age groups.

Finding the value and constructing the regression equation is carried out in accordance with the methods set forth in the theory of statistics.

Similarly, it is possible to examine the composition of the unemployed by the duration of receiving unemployment benefits.

Since 1994, statistical reports contain data on the duration of unemployment of the disabled as one of the socially unprotected segments of the population, requiring a kind of care from the state. The average stage of unemployment for the disabled is longer than for the entire population of the unemployed as a whole. In order to provide real assistance to disabled people in finding employment in many countries (France, Germany), enterprises must provide a certain part of jobs to disabled people (job quotas) or deduct the appropriate amount to the fund for helping disabled people. In Russia, enterprises in which the disabled account for at least 50% of the workforce enjoy some tax benefits[63]. When employing people with disabilities, it is necessary to take into account both their state of health and the labor recommendations of the ITU. In addition, in the organization where the disabled person is sent, working conditions should be organized that contribute to his rehabilitation. At the same time, the work shown to a disabled person for health reasons must be combined with measures of a therapeutic and restorative nature in order to achieve his professional rehabilitation in the initial account.

In Russia, the rule previously contained in the Federal Law "On the Social Protection of Disabled Persons in the Russian Federation" on the payment by the employer of a mandatory fee in case of non-fulfillment or impossibility of fulfilling the quota has now been cancelled. The payment of a mandatory fee is not defined by the Law on Employment. At the same time, in many constituent entities of the Russian Federation (for example, in the Krasnodar Territory, Bryansk, Arkhangelsk, Vladimir, Vologda, Irkutsk, Novgorod, Tambov, Tver, Chelyabinsk and other regions, the cities of St. the rule on mandatory payments in case of non-fulfillment or impossibility of fulfilling the quota established for organizations.

International law provides for assistance in the employment of persons with disabilities both in the open (free) labor market and in the closed one (in specialized organizations designated for persons with disabilities).

The ILO provides recommendations on the formation of employment opportunities for persons with disabilities in the free labor market, including financial incentives for entrepreneurs to motivate their activities in the organization of vocational training and subsequent employment of persons with disabilities, the rational adaptation of workplaces, labor operations, tools, equipment and work organization to facilitate such training and employment for persons with disabilities, as well as government assistance in the establishment of specialized enterprises for persons with disabilities who do not have a valid opportunity to get a job in non-specialized organizations.

The UN General Assembly in December 2006 adopted a comprehensive and unified Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Rights and Dignity of Persons with Disabilities, which has been open since March 30, 2007 for signing and approval (ratification) by member states and should become the first international human rights treaty in XNUMXst century According to this act, discrimination on the basis of disability means any distinction, exclusion or restriction on the basis of disability, the purpose or effect of which is to diminish or deny the recognition, application or exercise, on an equal basis with others, of all human rights and fundamental freedoms in political, social, economic, cultural or any other area.

According to official information, the number of disabled people in Russia exceeds 11 million, and only 15% of disabled people of working age are "involved in professional activities." Based on the system of multidisciplinary rehabilitation of disabled people in the Federal Target Program "Social Support for the Disabled for 2006-2010." it is planned to slow down the process of disability of the population, to return about 800 thousand disabled people to professional, social, household activities, while during 2000-2005. 571,2 thousand people were rehabilitated. It is planned to increase production capacities, strengthen the material and technical base and technical re-equipment, modernize the enterprises of the All-Russian Society of the Disabled, the All-Russian Society of the Deaf, the All-Russian Society of the Blind, the All-Russian Organization of the Invalids of the War in Afghanistan, the creation of at least 4250 workers at enterprises owned by All-Russian organizations of the disabled. places at the expense of the federal budget and extrabudgetary funds.

Considerable experience has been accumulated in statistics in studying the composition of the employed. It mainly analyzes the sectoral composition of the employed both in the country as a whole and in some of its regions. For this purpose, the total number of people employed in the economy is taken as 100% and the share of the number of people employed in the relevant industries is determined.

The intensity of structural shifts can be determined using the quadratic coefficient of absolute structural shifts, which is calculated by the formula:

where W₁ and W₀ - specific weights of the number of people employed in certain sectors of the national economy for the reporting and base periods;

k is the number of groups accepted in the industry classification.

When examining the composition of the employed, statistics follow the International Classification of Status in Employment (ICSE).

Employment status is for the economically active population, i.e. for both the employed and the unemployed. For the unemployed who previously had a job, status is determined by their previous employment.

The ICHA groups certain individuals according to their actual or future connection to the work. It was adopted by the International Conference of Labor Statisticians and consists of the following groups:

1) employees;

2) employers;

3) persons who work at their own expense;

4) members of production cooperatives;

5) helping family members;

6) workers not classified by status[64].

According to the ICSE, the Goskomstat of Russia approved and put into effect on June 1, 1993, the main methodological provisions for the classification of statistical information on the composition of the labor force, economic activity and status in employment. In him grouping by status in employment includes the following categories:

1) employees;

2) persons working on an individual basis;

3) employers;

4) unpaid family workers;

5) members of collective enterprises;

6) persons who cannot be classified by status.

Now in Russia, 93% are employees, i.e. employees who have entered into an employment contract, a contract with the head of an enterprise or an oral agreement with an individual on the conditions of work and the amount of wages. This also includes persons who are appointed to a paid position, including heads of enterprises and organizations.

Persons who work on a personal basis include citizens who independently perform income-generating work without using hired labor (an exception is casual or seasonal work).

Employers include persons who manage their own private (family) enterprise, farm or work independently, but constantly use the labor of hired workers. In the total number of entrepreneurs who implement their business, men prevail, although gradually women are increasingly involved in it, that is, "there are no men and women in business, there are only business partners."

Unpaid family workers are people who work without pay in a private family business owned by a relative.[65]

Members of a collective enterprise are persons who work at this enterprise and act as owners, its co-owners. They are directly involved in resolving all issues related to the activities of the enterprise, the division of its income among the members of the team.

Persons who cannot be classified by status in employment are persons about whom there is insufficient data and (or) who cannot be assigned to any of the listed categories.

Statistics for wage earners assimilates the social structure of the employed, dividing the employed into workers and employees.

working - employees employed specifically in the course of the formation of material assets, as well as carrying out the movement of goods, passengers, repair work, and the provision of material services.

Among employees, the following three groups are distinguished: managers, specialists and other employees. The division of workers into these groups at the enterprise level is carried out on the basis of the All-Russian Classifier of Occupations, Positions, and Wage Categories (OKPDTR).

Leadership Group includes employees who hold positions of heads of enterprises and their structural divisions. This group has code 1 in the classifier and covers heads of administrations, ministers, directors, managers, chiefs, managers.

Group of specialists consists of those employed in agronomic, engineering and economic work. It includes: engineers, accountants, economists, dispatchers, mechanics, teachers, doctors, etc. The group contains OKPDTR code 2.

Group of other employees includes persons who prepare and draw up documents, perform accounting, housekeeping, control. These include: agents, archivists, clerks, attendants, secretaries-typists, cashiers, commandants, caretakers, statisticians, stenographers, timekeepers, accountants, draftsmen. The group is listed in the classifier under code 3.

All employees according to the type of work performed and skill level are distributed in the study of the composition of employees by type of occupation in accordance with the All-Russian Classifier of Employment (OKZ), developed on the basis of the International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO).

According to the OKZ, it is possible to obtain information that makes it possible to introduce international comparisons in the field of employment. This classifier is different from OKPDTR the fact that it covers not only citizens who are employed, but also acting as employers, independently employed, members of production cooperatives, as well as unpaid family workers. OKZ consists of 9 enlarged groups.

According to the presence of possible unemployment, statistics fixes primary and secondary employment. Now there is a secondary employment of the population, that is, the number of people who are not limited to only one place of work.

One of the circumstances of the formation of the level of employment is the content of labor, which prepares the satisfaction of workers in work. If quite recently, in the late 1990s, wages, confidence in the future and social protection took the highest positions in the hierarchy of labor motivation of the Russian population, now the content of work and the possibility of professional and career development have already come to the fore. growth. Even in the absence of work, the majority of citizens, having a certain level of security in the family, are not looking for work in general, but for places to apply their forces according to their specialty, profession, qualifications, and also spiritual needs. This form of employment is the most rational, since knowledge is in demand, for which the material and spiritual forces of society have been spent, its intellectual potential has been precisely used.

The content of labor embodies a complex of characteristics of a certain useful labor, which are associated with its technological basis, with the conditional saturation with labor tools, the degree of mechanization and automation of labor functions and the organization of production. The modification of the content of labor is directly related to the development of the productive forces of society and depends on three groups of factors:

1) production technology;

2) mechanization and automation of production;

3) organization of production.

The definition of "content of labor" is joined by another that is essential for characterizing specific labor functions, - labor content. They are interconnected as general and particular. The content of labor conveys a generalized idea of ​​labor as a labor process in general and a specific area of ​​human activity. The meaningfulness of labor is a characteristic of the work of certain categories of workers: the operator, foreman, foreman, and perhaps the production team. Evaluation of the content of labor is a detailed examination of the functions performed by employees, the data they use. To study specific technical innovations, taking into account their impact on changes in labor functions, priority should be given to the study of the content of labor.

The concept of "content of labor" as a socio-economic category is multilateral and in terms of capacity approaches such concepts as "standard of living", "way of life", reflecting the content side of a particular labor that forms specific use values, a set of characteristics included in the concept of "content of labor". ".

This includes:

1) labor functions;

2) methods of their execution (manual or mechanized);

3) complexity of labor;

4) its severity;

5) monotony;

6) tension;

7) intensity;

8) organization.

These components are interconnected with each other. The essence of the content of labor is revealed directly through the functions of labor (management, control, auxiliary work, etc.). At the same time, scientific and technological progress transforms not only the functions of labor, but also its parameters such as severity, complexity, and intensity. Forms of labor organization also have a significant influence on the combination of labor functions of workers.

The changes that are taking place with the functions of labor mean a shift in the professional and qualification structure of the employed towards dividing them into types of labor with diverse content: manual - mechanized, physical - mental, heavy - not heavy, monotonous - diverse. The study of rational structural correlations in the composition of the employed by types of labor and acts as a task of social statistics in the study of the content of labor.

The study of transformations in the professional, functional, qualification composition of workers, as well as in their division by type of labor, acts as the essence of a statistical study of transformations in the content of labor. The object of accounting in this case is not a labor process, but a generalization of workers and workplaces where they work.

The set of needs that people strive to satisfy at work can change not only depending on the professional group, external conditions, but also on the age of the employee, his marital status, career stage. If at the first stage of work in an organization for an employee, the motives associated with orientation in work, with the establishment of personal contacts with colleagues, may come to the fore, then later, when the newcomer has fully acclimatized, the importance of motives associated with the need for career and professional growth. Similarly, the growth of wages, the improvement of social conditions can significantly affect the hierarchy of labor motives of workers.

A comparison of the needs of workers at the beginning and in the middle of a career is shown in Table 11.

Watson-Wyatt, a leading compensation consulting firm, surveyed various groups of employees about the benefits they prefer. The results are presented in table 12. For example, it turned out that for those over 50, the total income (salary plus bonus) that exceeds the average level is in the first place. Those under 30 value the potential for professional growth, skill development and flexible working hours most of all. So, it is clear that these preferences change over time, as well as depending on the economic and personal circumstances of workers.

The content of labor is not the only factor in the formation of the level of employment in the territory. The state of the labor market is characterized by dependence on the well-being of citizens, on the level of income they receive for the corresponding work. Accordingly, the low level of remuneration for labor determines secondary employment and leads to low labor intensity.

LECTURE No. 10. Statistics of the level of education of the population and the development of the education system

Education is the most important component of the quality of human life. The governing bodies of the educational system, both in the Russian Federation as a whole and in the constituent entities, are obliged to provide a single educational space with the appropriate quality and accessibility, which will make it possible to improve the standard of living of the population.

The main source of data on the level of education of the population is the census. The census program involves obtaining information about the state of education of any person, about the types of educational institutions in which he studied or graduated from it.

Significant attention is paid to the study of training and advanced training of the employed population. Such a study was carried out on the basis of one-time records of both workers and specialists with secondary specialized and higher education. Information about the level, profile of education and professional training is included in the programs of periodic sample surveys of the unemployed population, which have been conducted by state statistics services since 1992.

The main source of data on state educational institutions remains the state statistical reporting, which is submitted once a year. The reporting program includes: data on the number, composition and movement of students, professional training of teachers and the duration of pedagogical work; information about the financial viability and financial performance of educational institutions. Various information is collected in selective studies of students, which are conducted not only by statistical services, but also by teachers, sociologists, doctors and other specialists. Least of all is the study of the standard of living of teachers and vocational masters, teachers of schools, secondary specialized and higher educational institutions.

With the development of a market economy, paid services have appeared, including in the field of education, a network of private educational institutions is being intensively created, training is being developed according to the programs of foreign universities, and a system of distance learning is being formed. It is difficult to collect statistical information on the work of private educational institutions in the form of systematic reporting. To study their activities, it is rational to conduct special surveys.

Currently, there is a growing need for specialists who have a wide range of professional competencies.

Therefore, the improvement of the education system should contribute to the solution of the main task of providing continuous formation of the professional level of a citizen that meets the modern requirements of society.

Studying the education system of Russia and a number of foreign countries, we can draw the following conclusion:

1) it is necessary to reconsider the boundaries and forms of state influence;

2) it is necessary to expand organizational and economic autonomy in the education system;

3) bring the system of vocational education closer to the needs of the economy of the state and a separate region in personnel.

Undoubtedly, in the education system, the state is entrusted with quite specific functions that other entities cannot perform. Both in Russia and abroad, the state determines or recommends lists of specialties within which the so-called educational goods are formed and the basic features of their assortment are created[66]. The state carries out certification and state accreditation of manufacturers of educational goods, promotes the creation of a state system of certification and diagnostic centers, thereby acting as a guarantor of the quality of educational goods, their compliance with the level of national educational standards.

State regulation of the education system also relies on providing data to manufacturers of educational goods. Along with other entities, state bodies establish an information and consulting base for the functioning of the education market for specified periods of time. In addition, the state acts as an investor in the formation and development of the education system, and also provides guarantees to other subjects of long-term investments.

The growth in the number of private producers imposes on the state an obligation to protect consumers of educational goods, i.e. the state is obliged to support the policy of accreditation of manufacturers of educational goods and certification of educational programs. Undoubtedly, national certification systems reduce uncertainty for future consumers, as well as for employers, regarding the level of competence of employees, promote the development of professional mobility of citizens, and also prevent the emergence of low-quality educational products. Along with this, it is very important when the state does not have a monopoly on certification and accreditation of manufacturers of educational goods. For these purposes, it is rational to involve non-state structures. This is the case, for example, in the UK and Germany.

Thus, in areas where the state is not predominantly the sole supplier of educational goods, it is obliged to reserve the right to determine and maintain national standards of educational goods, as well as to provide equal access to these goods for the population, specifically by forming an appropriate legal and regulatory framework.

At the same time, the organization of the regulatory framework should be carried out in two directions:

1) development and implementation of amendments and additions to existing documents;

2) development and implementation of new documents at various levels.

Accordingly, two most important fundamental approaches are distinguished, taking into account which the regulatory and legal framework that serves the education system should be built:

1) it is necessary to develop the foundations of the state policy of the Russian Federation in the field of permanent professional education, when the functions of the center and the regions should be clearly distinguished. Now in our country there is no unified system of continuous education, according to studies, this leads to an imbalance in the levels of education and, as a result, to a decrease in its quality in general;

2) an essential condition for the development of the regulatory framework is the development of appropriate documents to regulate the rights and obligations of financial support for educational institutions at various levels, their interaction with each other, as well as with the labor market and enterprises, control and management of this area[67].

To date, in our country, most educational institutions have been given the right to provide educational services on a paid basis. This led to an increase in their off-budget income. Consequently, if in 1999 the extrabudgetary income of educational institutions in the system of the Ministry of Education of Russia amounted to 11,5 billion rubles, then in 2005 the total amount of extrabudgetary revenues amounted to about 45 billion rubles [68]

According to the Budget Code of the Russian Federation, all funds earned by an educational institution are considered state income and are subject to transfer to the budget.

Rightly based on the experience of organizational and economic autonomy in education, which has been accumulated both in Russia and abroad, the following measures can be proposed as priority areas for improving the education system:

1) creation of conditions for the normalization of budget financing of educational institutions;

2) streamlining property relations in the education system;

3) stimulation and creation of favorable conditions conducive to the development of contractual relations between educational institutions and organizations of various organizational and legal forms of ownership, aimed at expanding the training of workers and specialists on orders from legal entities with payment by them of the cost of education;

4) improving the mechanism of interaction between federal and regional educational authorities, as well as sectoral authorities on the basis of interrelated programs for the development of vocational education;

5) monitoring the development of the education system;

6) expansion of the rights of educational institutions to dispose of financial resources;

7) transparency and accessibility for public and state control of all financial activities of educational orientation, including the development of uniform reporting forms and the annual publication of financial reports[69].

The approval of these approaches will not only spread the beliefs of organizational and economic freedom to all educational institutions of the country, but also eliminate the contradictions between "budgetary" and economic independence of educational institutions. In addition, this mechanism will help stabilize the economic situation of educational institutions by streamlining the funds raised in the education system.

Along with this, the issue of expanding the organizational and economic autonomy of the education system will be open in our country if the totality of professional educational institutions that produce educational goods is left unchanged.

The current system of training workers and specialists in single-profile vocational schools, technical schools, lyceums, colleges and universities does not correspond to the idea of ​​continuity, in its essence it is discrete, self-closed. The content, forms and methods of teaching have not been coordinated in an appropriate way, and a qualitative transition from one educational level to another has not been formed. There is a duplication of educational material, the growth of the level of education of young people is poorly stimulated at each stage, which ultimately negatively affects the quality of training of workers and specialists, slows down the process of their further growth[70]

To eliminate these obstacles, it is reasonable to move to the creation of educational institutions of continuous education. Their functioning should be based on the integration of various levels of vocational education, which will help to eliminate the disproportion between the structure of training workers and specialists and their demand in the labor market. At the same time, the main principle is the development of diversity (variability) of educational programs within the structural divisions of educational institutions. As a result, they are formed into multifaceted aggregates that provide permanent education with maximum resource mobilization.

Along with this, the activities of educational institutions of continuous education must be formed in accordance with state standards of the corresponding level of education.

Consequently, the experience gained abroad and the customs that have developed in the Russian education system, in combination with the demands of society for the professional level of citizens, indicate the need to choose the initial provisions for improving the educational system as a whole:

1) implementation of state regulation of the education system based on the principles of efficiency and economic justice;

2) increasing the interest of state and regional authorities in the development of the education system;

3) stimulation of the production infrastructure to invest in the education system;

4) ensuring organizational and economic autonomy in the education system;

5) a combination of budgetary and extrabudgetary financing of the activities of an educational institution, which comprehensively reflects its target orientation;

6) ensuring a balance between different levels of education in accordance with the needs of citizens and the economic development of a particular region;

7) development of new organizational forms for the provision of educational services based on the principles of continuity[71]

In addition, it is essential to eliminate the existing fragmentation in the organization of work on the training of workers and specialists. Currently, there is an opinion about the need to combine the efforts of various interested structures in this field of activity, which will make it possible to mobilize funds (federations, regions, enterprises of the state and non-state sectors, various associations), technical training areas, qualified teachers.

Based on the census materials, two types of generalizing indicators are created. The first type includes indicators of the state, characterizing the share of the population that has a certain level of education, and the duration of education. The most popular metrics here are:

1) the percentage of literates among the population aged 15 and over;

2) adult literacy rate;

3) the number of persons who have higher, incomplete and incomplete higher, specialized secondary and secondary (complete and incomplete) education per 1000 population aged 15 years and over (or per 1000 employed population);

4) the number of people with higher education per 1000 people aged 15 and over;

5) average level of education in years of study; at the same time, the presence of primary education is equated to 4 years, higher - to 15[72]

Aggregate indicators of the second type consist of the characteristics of the process, determined by the ratio of the number of the contingent that is trained at this stage to the number of the population of a certain age. Similar indicators can be determined on the gross (the numerator shows the number of students without regard to age, including repeaters) and on the net (in the numerator - the number of students in the age interval corresponding to this stage of education) bases.

The most commonly used of these indicators include:

1) gross recruitment rate in general and by levels of education - the proportion of children of the corresponding age enrolled (enrolled) in various levels of education;

2) coverage (general and private, gross and net) - the ratio of students at a certain level of education to the population in the age group corresponding to a given level of education;

3) the proportion of students at a given level who have completed their education in full, relative to the number of students at this level of education. For example, the proportion of primary school children who completed 3rd grade relative to the number of primary school students. To determine the accessibility to the Internet computer network, the indicator of the number of users (Internet users) is calculated according to subscriber data[73]

Let us examine the methods of studying generalizing indicators of the level of education and enrollment of young people in education. Population census data make it possible to analyze the structure, dynamics and differentiation of the levels of education of the urban and rural population, men and women, employed and unemployed population.

The close relationship between the level of education and the age structure of the population requires a certain application of the listed indicators in the study of dynamics, as well as in interregional comparisons. The growth in the structure of the population of the number of persons aged 25-45 who have a high level of education has an impact on the aggregate indicator. On the contrary, the increase in the number of young people aged 15-20 who do not yet have a higher education slows down the changes in the aggregate indicator. Accounting for the findings is achieved by comparing the level of education for homogeneous socio-demographic groups. The comparability of generalizing indicators is ensured by weighting indicators of the level of education by groups by the standard age structure of the population:

There are two options for comparative analysis. The first is contained in the standardization of gender and age indicators of education for a single (standard) age structure of the population. The second is to decompose the general indicator of the level of education into indices of variable, permanent composition and structural changes.

The development of the global Internet and related technologies has reached such a level that most enterprises can no longer do without e-mail, web advertising and web representation, online communication.

A successful professional career requires a quality education. In order to get an additional special or second higher education, like it or not, you have to turn to paid courses. To date, distance learning through the global Internet is widespread. In addition, the student has the opportunity to acquire knowledge from anywhere in the world. All you need is a computer with Internet access. Therefore, you can listen to and watch lectures, complete lab and course assignments, and, most importantly, even take exams.

Distance learning is completely individual, there are no fixed deadlines for admission: when it is convenient for the student, then he can start studying. All students, according to their abilities, employment, study the same material for all with different speeds and degrees of understanding. Each student works at a speed that is acceptable to him, spending as much time as he needs to study the material. The time of classes is also not rigidly fixed, you can do it during the day, you can do it in the evening, every day or once a week. Everyone chooses their individual plan, which courses they will listen to. Possible restrictions only on the terms of certification.

In distance learning, it is convenient to use videoconferencing, when an unlimited number of people can participate in communication at the same time. Undoubtedly, there are certain technical limitations, but all the same, the number of potential participants is much more than two, and these limitations are decreasing every year, the equipment is getting cheaper. In addition, communication can be carried out not only through voice communication, but also using video, multimedia and other modern technologies provided by the global Internet.

The maximum role is played by the "one-to-many" videoconference mode. A lecturer or consultant simultaneously conducts a lesson with several connected listeners. An interactive system will be extremely advantageous, when each listener can ask a question and get an answer online.[74]. Accordingly, if the response is sent later via email or some other form of one-on-one communication, the sessions will be less effective.

The use of widespread e-mail may include the following: sending out lectures, assignments for standard calculations, laboratory and coursework, receiving completed assignments, sending test results. This method is very similar to distance learning, but you do not need to come to the institute. The personal presence of the trainee is obligatory only when the documents are drawn up and during the exams, at least final or entrance exams. An electronic message can be sent by any person who signed up as a student, and during the exam, the identity of the examiner must be verified by photographs in the institute documents and passport.[75]

Of course, working only by e-mail is not always convenient, it is better to post reference data, public lectures, assignments on the site, and by mail only receive work done by students and answer questions[76].

It is a good idea to create a chat, for example, for each of the subjects, where you can ask the teacher a question, as well as chat with other students. The teacher can technically, just as he writes on a regular board, conduct his lecture in this chat, consistently explaining to everyone, as in a regular audience[77] Only he does not see those who listen to him, and how they perceive him .

In addition to the public chat, you can use a program specially written for distance learning. This program is based on client-server technology, all students receive client software with which they can observe the actions of the teacher who works on the server. Those working in this program see every movement of the mouse and every phrase typed by the teacher.[78].

Notes

1. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics, 2001.

2. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics, 2001. P. 15.

3. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics, 2001. P. 17.

4. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics, 2001. P. 17

5. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics, 2001. P. 26.

6. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics, 2001. P. 26.

7. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics, 2001

8. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics, 2001. P. 44.

9. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics, 2001. P. 44.

10. Dobrenkov V. I., Kravchenko A. I. Sociology: Textbook. M.: Infra-M, 2007. S. 624.

11. Instructions on the procedure for conducting the 1989 All-Union Population Census and filling out the list of those living in the premises and the census forms. In: All-Union population census of 1989. M.: Finance and statistics, 1987. S. 48.

12. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics, 2001. P. 45.

13. Goskomstat of Russia. Methodological provisions on statistics. Release the first. Moscow: Logos, 1996, p. 74.

14. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics, 2001. P. 46

15. Statistics: Course of lectures / Kharchenko L. P., Dolzhenkova V. G., Ionin V. G. and others; / / Ed. k. e. n. Ionina V. G. Novosibirsk: Publishing House of NGAEiU, M .: Infra-M, 1998.

16. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics, 2001. P. 46.

17. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics, 2001.

18. Zaslavskaya T. I. Social transformation of Russian society: Activity-structural concept. M.: Delo, 2002

19. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. manual for universities / Eliseeva I. I., Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. Eliseeva I.I.M.: Finance and statistics, 2002. P. 75.

20. Yearly

21. Yearly

22. Yearly

23. Yearly

24. Yearly

25. Yearly

26. Yearly

27. Oleinik P.V. Participation of business in the modernization of the budgetary system of medical care // Accounting in budgetary and non-profit organizations. 2005. No. 9. P. 14.

28. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. manual for universities / Eliseeva I. I., Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics, 2002. S. 70.

29. Korolev O., Yantsov M. Human capital in the system of competitive advantages of an industrial organization // Personnel Management. 2007.

30. Korolev O., Yantsov M. Human capital in the system of competitive advantages of an industrial organization // Personnel Management. 2007.

31. Korolev O., Yantsov M. Human capital in the system of competitive advantages of an industrial organization // Personnel management. 2007. No. 8. S. 11.

32. Korolev O., Yantsov Human M. Capital in the system of competitive advantages of an industrial organization // Personnel management. 2007. No. 8.

33. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. manual for universities / Eliseeva I. I., Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics, 2002. S. 70.

34. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. allowance for the day of universities / Eliseeva I. I., Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics, 2002. S. 71

35. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. manual for universities / Eliseeva I. I., Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics, 2002. S. 72.

36. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. manual for universities / Eliseeva I. I., Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics, 2002. S. 72.

37. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. manual for universities / Eliseeva I. I, Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics, 2002. S. 72.

38. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. manual for universities / Eliseeva I. I, Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics, 2002. S. 72.

39. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. manual for universities / Eliseeva I. I., Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics, 2002. P. 73.

40. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. manual for universities / Eliseeva I. I., Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics, 2002. P. 73.

41. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. manual for universities / Eliseeva I. I., Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics, 2002. P. 73.

42. Goncharova M. V. Increasing real incomes of the population as a financial basis for minimizing benefits // Accounting in budgetary and non-profit organizations. 2006. No. 19. P. 44.

43. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. manual for universities / Eliseeva I. I., Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics, 2002. S. 75.

44. Ilyin VI The main contours of the system of social stratification of society// Frontier. 1991. No. 1. S. 15.

45. Ilyin VI The main contours of the system of social stratification of society// Frontier. 1991. No. 1.S. 15

46. ​​Komarov M. S. Social stratification and social structure // Sociological research. 1992. No. 7. S. 9.

47. Political science / Ed. prof. M. A. Vasilika. M., 1999. S. 5.

48. Gurova T., Ivanter A., ​​Naumshn A. The Evil Evil of Inflation//Expert. 2005. No. 16. S. 19-20.

49. Kommersant. 2007. April 20. No. 67 (3643).

50. Goncharova M. V. Increasing real incomes of the population as a financial basis for minimizing benefits // Accounting in budgetary and non-profit organizations. 2006. No. 19.

51. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. manual for universities / Eliseeva I. I., Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics. 2002. S. 76.

52. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. manual for universities / Eliseeva I. I., Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics. 2002. S. 76.

53. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. manual for universities / Eliseeva I. I., Vasilyeva E. K., Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics. 2002. S. 76.

54. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M: Finance and statistics. 2001, p. 47.

55. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M: Finance and statistics. 2001, p. 47.

56. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M: Finance and statistics. 2001, p. 48.

57. Federal target program "Housing" for 2002-2010.

58. Federal target program "Housing" for 2002-2010.

59. Federal target program "Housing" for 2002-2010.

60. Federal target program "Housing" for 2002-2010.

61. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics. 2001, p. 48.

62. Manukov B. A unique opportunity for young people: to learn and earn money // Kadrovik. Personnel management. 2007. No. 7. S. 23.

63. Okhlopkova MN Features of the preferential procedure for taxation of enterprises using the labor of disabled people // Auditorskie Vedomosti. 1999. No. 2. S. 23.

64. Workshop on social statistics: Proc. allowance for the day of universities / Eliseeva I. I., Vasilyeva E. K, Gordeenko N. M. and others; Ed. I. I. Eliseeva. M.: Finance and statistics. 2002, p. 78.

65. Chernova TV Economic statistics: Proc. allowance. Taganrog: Publishing house of TRUTH. 1999, p. 50.

66. The state is the guarantor of the quality of education // Kadrovik. Personnel management. 2007. No. 4. S. 8.

67. The state is the guarantor of the quality of education // Kadrovik. Personnel management. 2007. No. 4. S. 6.

68. The state is the guarantor of the quality of education // Kadrovik. Personnel management. 2007. No. 4. S. 6.

69. The state is the guarantor of the quality of education // Kadrovik. Personnel management. 2007. No. 4. S. 8-9.

70. The state is the guarantor of the quality of education // Kadrovik. Personnel management. 2007. No. 4. S. 8-9

71. The state is the guarantor of the quality of education // Kadrovik. Personnel management. 2007. No. 4. S. 8-9.

72. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics. 2001, p. 76.

73. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics. 2001, p. 76.

74. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics. 2001, p. 77.

75. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics. 2001, p. 77.

76. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics. 2001, p. 77.

77. Eliseeva I. I. Social statistics. M.: Finance and statistics. 2001, p. 77.

78. Problems of information security in remote learning via the Internet // Financial newspaper. Regional release. 2007. No. 31.

Author: Sherstneva G.S.

We recommend interesting articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets:

▪ Inheritance law. Lecture notes

▪ National history. Lecture notes

▪ Internal illnesses. Crib

See other articles Section Lecture notes, cheat sheets.

Read and write useful comments on this article.

<< Back

Latest news of science and technology, new electronics:

Artificial leather for touch emulation 15.04.2024

In a modern technology world where distance is becoming increasingly commonplace, maintaining connection and a sense of closeness is important. Recent developments in artificial skin by German scientists from Saarland University represent a new era in virtual interactions. German researchers from Saarland University have developed ultra-thin films that can transmit the sensation of touch over a distance. This cutting-edge technology provides new opportunities for virtual communication, especially for those who find themselves far from their loved ones. The ultra-thin films developed by the researchers, just 50 micrometers thick, can be integrated into textiles and worn like a second skin. These films act as sensors that recognize tactile signals from mom or dad, and as actuators that transmit these movements to the baby. Parents' touch to the fabric activates sensors that react to pressure and deform the ultra-thin film. This ... >>

Petgugu Global cat litter 15.04.2024

Taking care of pets can often be a challenge, especially when it comes to keeping your home clean. A new interesting solution from the Petgugu Global startup has been presented, which will make life easier for cat owners and help them keep their home perfectly clean and tidy. Startup Petgugu Global has unveiled a unique cat toilet that can automatically flush feces, keeping your home clean and fresh. This innovative device is equipped with various smart sensors that monitor your pet's toilet activity and activate to automatically clean after use. The device connects to the sewer system and ensures efficient waste removal without the need for intervention from the owner. Additionally, the toilet has a large flushable storage capacity, making it ideal for multi-cat households. The Petgugu cat litter bowl is designed for use with water-soluble litters and offers a range of additional ... >>

The attractiveness of caring men 14.04.2024

The stereotype that women prefer "bad boys" has long been widespread. However, recent research conducted by British scientists from Monash University offers a new perspective on this issue. They looked at how women responded to men's emotional responsibility and willingness to help others. The study's findings could change our understanding of what makes men attractive to women. A study conducted by scientists from Monash University leads to new findings about men's attractiveness to women. In the experiment, women were shown photographs of men with brief stories about their behavior in various situations, including their reaction to an encounter with a homeless person. Some of the men ignored the homeless man, while others helped him, such as buying him food. A study found that men who showed empathy and kindness were more attractive to women compared to men who showed empathy and kindness. ... >>

Random news from the Archive The submarine will go to Titan 24.02.2015 NASA will send a submarine to Titan. The mission of the submarine will be to explore the hydrocarbon sea of ​​Saturn's largest moon. Titan is the only satellite with a dense atmosphere and the second celestial body in the solar system after Earth to have seas and lakes of liquid hydrocarbons. The largest of the seas of Titan is the Kraken Sea, located in the northern hemisphere of the satellite. Its area is about 400 thousand square kilometers, and the depth reaches 300 meters. A promising submarine will move with the help of an electric motor and reach speeds of up to 1 m/s. During the 90-day mission, the submarine will cover a distance of about two thousand kilometers, filming the surroundings of Titan on the onboard camera. The radioisotope Stirling generator, which will be installed on the ship, will provide the submarine with the necessary energy and save the electronics from freezing. Unfortunately, prototypes of the high-tech generator are expected to be ready no earlier than 2040, so the mission is unlikely to start earlier.

News feed of science and technology, new electronics

Interesting materials of the Free Technical Library:

▪ section of the site Radioelectronics and electrical engineering. Article selection

▪ article Steam turbine. History of invention and production

▪ article Which famous actress had a double row of eyelashes due to a genetic mutation? Detailed answer

▪ article Siberian larch. Legends, cultivation, methods of application

▪ article A device for listening to the noise of car mechanisms. Encyclopedia of radio electronics and electrical engineering

▪ article Focus with a folding box. Focus Secret

Leave your comment on this article:

All languages ​​of this page

Arabic	Hebrew	Polish
Bengali	Hindi	Portuguese
Chinese	Italian	Spanish
English	Japanese	Turkish
French	Korean	Ukrainian
German	Malay	Vietnamese

Home page | Library | Articles | Website map | Site Reviews

www.diagram.com.ua
2000-2024