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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Regional studies. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
1. The concept of the course "Regional Studies". Economic zones. economic region Regional studies - the field of scientific knowledge that studies the territorial organization of the economy. The subject of regional studies are economic regions of all levels - economic zones, enlarged regions, large economic regions, middle-level regions, industrial hubs, industrial centers, agglomerations, territorial production complexes, branch industrial and agro-industrial complexes, free economic zones. Regional studies studies intra-regional and inter-regional economic relations, as well as the course of economic reforms in the regions in the context of the formation and development of market relations. Regional studies reveals the concepts of all forms of territorial organization of the economy. Economic zones are groups of enlarged regions. Currently, two economic zones are distinguished - Western and Eastern. The most important significance of these zones for the development of Russia lies in the rationalization of economic proportions. The role of the Western zone is growing mainly in the development of mechanical engineering, complex, highly skilled industries that ensure scientific and technological progress. The eastern zone is the main resource and energy base of the country, and in the future the fuel and energy complex, the development of forest resources, energy and water-intensive industries will remain a priority. Major economic region - this is an integral territorial part of the national economy of the country, which has its own production (market) specialization and strong internal economic ties. A large economic region is inextricably linked with other parts of the country by the social division of labor. In each large economic region, there are three groups of industries interconnected with each other - industries of market specialization, industries that complement the territorial complex, and infrastructure industries. Currently, there are 11 large economic regions - Northern, North-Western, Central, Central Black Earth, Volga-Vyatka, Volga, North Caucasian, Ural, West Siberian, East Siberian and Far East. Large economic regions are subdivided into middle-level regions, or meso-regions. These include the republics, territories and regions that are part of Russia. The objective of the course "Regional studies" is the study of the natural resource potential of economic regions of all ranks, the problems of the population and labor resources of each region, regional environmental problems. Regional studies studies the sectoral and territorial structure of the economic complexes of the regions of Russia, the main forms of territorial organization of the economy, intra- and inter-regional economic relations, as well as the course of economic reforms in the regions in the context of the formation and development of market relations. 2. Methodology, scientific methods of the discipline "Regional studies" Methodological base regional studies are modern scientific theories of economic zoning, the results of a study of the structure of regional complexes, targeted federal programs for the development of Russian regions, theoretical aspects of the formation of territorial production and sectoral complexes, patterns and principles for the distribution of productive forces of economic sectors and economic regions, provisions of regional policy and strategy. In its research, regional studies use various methods - balance, index, economic-statistical, historical-comparative, cartographic, methods of economic-mathematical modeling when choosing the optimal options for locating production in the regions, the method of system analysis, etc. All methods of research and indicators of territorial programs and forecasts are aimed at revealing the reserves for the growth of production in economic regions, the proportionality, efficiency and dynamism of their development. Thus, the balance method makes it possible to choose the optimal ratio between the sectors of market specialization, sectors that complement the territorial complex, i.e., providing both the needs of leading industries and the needs of the population, and sectors of the service sector. Balances are also necessary for the development of rational interregional and intraregional ties. Economic justifications for the location of enterprises: the choice of a region and a place for the construction of an enterprise, calculations of its availability with raw materials, fuel, energy, water, labor and other resources - all this is the content of the balance method. Compilation of sectoral and regional balances makes it possible to establish the level of complex development of the region, to identify the presence of disproportions in its development. A specific method of studying regional studies is the cartographic method. The map is a source of knowledge, a source of enrichment with information on the location of productive forces in each region. It allows you to visualize the features of the placement. Thanks to maps, maps, cartograms, cartograms, not only the features of the location, but also quantitative indicators characterizing the levels of development of the regions are better perceived and remembered. The map is, as it were, a figurative model of the territory, on which, with the help of conventional signs, objects and phenomena are displayed in their interconnection. The index method is widely used in regional studies. To quantify the level of specialization of economic zoning, the coefficient of localization, the coefficient of per capita production and the coefficient of inter-district marketability are used. 3. Coefficient of localization, coefficient of production of the region's products per capita, coefficient of inter-district marketability Localization coefficient of a given production ( L ) is the ratio of the share of a given industry in the production structure to the share of the same industry in the country. Its calculation is made on the basis of gross marketable output, fixed industrial assets and the number of industrial and production personnel. where xj is the share of the j-th region in the total volume of the factor attribute; yj - the share of the j-th region in the total volume of the resulting phenomenon (in this case, the turnover); n is the number of j-th regions. Per capita production rate ? ? is calculated as the ratio of the share of the region's economic sector in the corresponding structure of the country's industry to the share of the region's population in the country's population. where Dj - commodity turnover per capita of the j-th region; D - average turnover per capita in all regions; Sj is the population of the j-th region; m is the number of j-th regions. Regional marketability coefficient (KMT) is calculated as the ratio of the export of this product from the region to its regional production. where Pij , is the price of the i-th product in the j-th region; S is the number of inhabitants of the j-th region; n is the number of i-th goods; m is the number of j-th regions. If the calculated indicators are greater than or equal to one, then such an industry is an industry of market specialization of the region. 4. Indicators that determine the effectiveness of district specialization One of the most important criteria for the location of economic sectors in a particular territory of an economic region is index their economic efficiency . To determine the economic efficiency, the main criterion for obtaining the intended products at the lowest cost is adopted. As indicators of the efficiency of production location, the cost of production is taken, taking into account its delivery to the consumer, specific capital investments per unit of capacity and profit. Along with these indicators, for each branch of production in the region, a system of technical and economic indicators its placement. This system includes: 1) specific costs of the main types of raw materials, fuel, energy, water per unit of production; 2) the output of industrial waste per unit of production; 3) labor costs per unit of output; 4) specific costs of fixed assets. The use of performance indicators for the rational distribution of industries in the region contributes to the establishment of optimal proportions between them. The most important research method in regional studies is system analysis , allowing to study the complex development of the region, internal communications and their interaction. System analysis is a comprehensive analysis that uses the principle of stages, starting from setting a goal, defining tasks, formulating a scientific hypothesis, and comprehensively studying the features of the optimal production location option. In this case, the criterion is the greatest satisfaction of the needs of the population. At present, especially in the period of the formation of market relations, the problems of location are becoming more and more complex, and sectoral and territorial ties are becoming more and more difficult to manage. Therefore, there is a need to apply a new research method - economic and mathematical modeling. This method allows determining the territorial proportions of the development of the Russian economy, compiling a model for the optimal location of economic sectors, and compiling a model for the formation of economic complexes of regions. The use of this method with the use of a computer makes it possible to process huge arrays of initial data with minimal labor and time and choose the best solutions in accordance with the goal. 5. Tasks of the scientific discipline "Regional studies" The most important task regional studies is the development of theoretical foundations for the formation and development of economic regions in the conditions of the formation and development of market relations, the development of programs for the development of economic regions in a market environment. At the same time, the main guidelines, especially in the development of entrepreneurship, the creation of social infrastructure, the protection and rational use of natural resources, are: 1) taking into account the specifics of each region in the implementation of structural, investment, financial, social, foreign economic restructuring; 2) transfer of the main directions of market reforms to the regional level. One of the tasks in carrying out regional economic reforms is the development of measures for the spatial integration of the Russian economy, the creation of a mechanism for vertical and horizontal interactions between government bodies, the development of measures to overcome the collapse of interregional economic ties, and the preservation of a single market space. The main goal of regional policy - Ensuring a decent level of well-being in each region. The following should be highlighted strategic objectives regional development. For old industrial areas and large urban agglomerations, the main task is to convert defense industries, modernize infrastructure, establish a variety of forms of ownership, and improve the environmental situation. For the regions of the Non-Black Earth Region, the Southern Urals, Siberia, and the Far East, it is most important to overcome the crisis in the agrarian sector, the revival of small towns and villages, the development of industrial and social infrastructure, and the development of abandoned lands. It is necessary to develop programs for the self-sufficiency of the population with food. For the extreme regions of the Far North and mountainous regions, the most important tasks are the stabilization of the socio-economic situation, the creation of conditions for the revival of small peoples with solid state support. For all regions of Russia, the most important task is to stimulate the development of export and import-substituting industries, the formation of free economic zones, the creation of technopolises as regional centers for introducing the achievements of domestic and world science, accelerating economic and social progress. For border areas, programs are needed for respecialization, accelerated development of infrastructure, taking into account potential migrants, and redeployment of military units. An important task of regional studies at the present stage is the development of measures to overcome the excessive lag in the level and quality of life of the population of individual republics and regions of Russia. 6. Primordial features of the regional development of Russia Aboriginal features (cultural, natural) 1. Huge territory - Russia is still the largest country in the world. 2. harsh nature - Russia is located in the harsh northeastern corner of Eurasia, three-quarters of its territory is covered with tundra and taiga on permafrost, only a fifth is suitable for plowing, and half of this part lies in the zone of risky farming. Almost all the surrounding seas freeze, almost all borders are deserted, pass through mountains and dense forests, so that the country looks isolated from its neighbors by nature itself. 3. Placement contrasts - 3/4 of the population is concentrated in the European part, which makes up only 1/4 of the country's territory, and only a quarter of the population falls on the vast expanse from the Urals to the Far East. The main part of the resources, the abundance of which Russia is so famous for, is located far from the main economic centers, and even in areas of Siberia and the Far North that are difficult to access for development. 4. "One-dimensionality" - the developed part of the country is squeezed to the southern border and stretches for tens of thousands of kilometers from west to east. 5. Geography controversy - the diversity of nature coexists with the monotony along the inhabited strip; the absence of mountains that impede communication - with the unfortunate "transversity" of rivers and ridges, like the Urals in this strip; the diversity of nations coexists with the overwhelming majority of one of them in number; rigid state centralism - with the traditional autonomy of remote outskirts, and disproportions in the level and nature of economic development (from post- to pre-industrial) - with the widespread dominance of the most specific Soviet heritage. 6. The complexity of the territorial structure - coexistence of simplicity and randomness. There are two rules here. First, there is a clear pattern "center - periphery" - the concentration of life in the largest cities, the decline in population density, economic activity, innovation and much more as you move away from these centers. This is especially pronounced on the scale of the country with a distance from Moscow, however, it is often reproduced on other scales - both within the region and within a separate district. Therefore, the overall picture becomes mosaic, disorderly. Secondly, there is often no mesoscale: it is easy to distinguish large parts on the territory of Russia, like Siberia or the Urals (macroscale), each inhabitant knows his area of \u10b\u20bresidence well (microscale), but distinguishing regions of the middle level, like Meshchera or Pomorye, is extremely rare. This rule is sometimes reproduced on other scales (it is easy to single out two or three large parts and many peculiar quarters in Moscow, but it is difficult to divide it into XNUMX-XNUMX distinct parts). All this greatly complicates the territorial organization of public life. 7. Transitional features of Russia's regional development They are predetermined, first of all, by the seventy years of domination of Bolshevism, as well as by the events after 1985, and especially by the reforms of 1992-1993. 1. Gigantism, hyper-concentration - Emphasis on giant enterprises, major centers, major locomotive regions, the desire to achieve success through scope and scale. It is based on ideological motives hidden by economic rhetoric (construction of communism, etc.). The consequences are the monopoly of superfactories, the lengthening of ties, the country's dependence on two or three centers of production of most goods, the hypertrophy of capital cities, the crisis of small ones, and the decline of the countryside. And against the same background, vast areas actually remain unaffected by the reserve of development in breadth. 2. Hyper-specialization of regions and centers on a narrow set of types of economic activity, exacerbated by the rickety of the service sector, which could diversify the structure of each district and center. Because of this, structural and sectoral shifts quickly develop into regional ones, and the regions become highly dependent on supplies from outside. 3. Indivisibility of industries and the social sphere - an abundance of enterprises with their own housing stock, social infrastructure, etc., in connection with which sectoral restructuring is impossible without serious social consequences. Many centers are turning into "milltowns" - cities attached to factories, where the executive functions are actually performed by the heads of enterprises, and all public life is permeated with paternalism. Another phenomenon of the same order is the abundance of artificial formations, such as "closed cities", isolated elite settlements, for the most part associated with branches of the military-industrial complex and isolated from the environment. Under these conditions, "purely economic" reforms inevitably cause severe social consequences that hinder the processes of reform and distort their meaning. 4. Ossification of administrative-territorial boundaries - the squeezing of all types of public life within the borders of regions and republics, the transformation of these borders into a kind of "Chinese walls". 5. Strong territorial contrasts literally in all spheres - economic, social, and even political. In 1990, on the eve of the reforms, the per capita national income aimed at consumption fluctuated from 4 thousand rubles. in Moscow to 1,3 thousand in Dagestan. Gaps of 3-4 times in key social indicators were common. This is not surprising for a country with a market economy, but hardly justified in a country whose rulers proclaimed equality as the main slogan of the state. The contrasts in the economy were also enormous: in the efficiency of production, in welfare, investment, militarization of production, etc. 8. Processes of regionalization in modern Russia The 1992-1993 reforms had a complex impact on regional development. The collapse of economic ties between the republics of the former USSR caused a widespread decline in the level of production, which affected primarily industrial regions with a high concentration of specialized industries and military-industrial complex enterprises. At the same time, the reorientation of economic ties to Russian suppliers and consumers began, which objectively contributes to the strengthening of the country's single economic space. As early as 1993, the negative potential of the process of disintegration of ties turned out to be largely exhausted. Price liberalization put an end to years of subdued inflation. Inflation has generated a number of negative processes in the economy of the regions: 1) there were serious price distortions, as a result of which interregional differences in living standards increased even more; 2) in some regions, the authorities used inflation as a pretext for conserving elements of the old economic system (rationed distribution of goods, strict price controls, etc.); 3) general financial difficulties gave rise to a cash crisis and a vicious circle of mutual non-payments of enterprises; 4) incentives for long-term investment turned out to be undermined, which exacerbated the difficulties of industrial regions that provide material content for capital investments; The main geographical result of the first period of reforms was the rapid growth of inter-regional disproportions. Another geographical outcome is the uneven course of economic reform across the regions of the country. In some regions, reforms are being accelerated, in others, predominantly in raw materials, they are guided by the maximum use of the benefits from exports. There are republics, territories, regions that build their prosperity on various kinds of benefits received from the federal government. There are regions where they are trying to preserve elements of a centrally planned economy. In terms of the scale of market transformations, the republics lag noticeably behind the territories and regions. Therefore, today we need an effective reform management system, determining the place of central and local authorities in this process. There is not a single problem-free region in Russia now. This is connected not only with the difficulties of the transition period: there is also a noticeable trend towards economic disintegration, manifested in the desire of a number of regions to unilaterally use their export advantages, erect barriers to the movement of goods and capital, limit the participation of other regions in privatization, secure exclusive ownership of natural resources, do not fulfill obligations to the federal budget. An exceptionally deep territorial division of labor has developed in the country, and not a single, even the largest, region is able to exist in the regime of absolute autonomy. Ill-considered actions of local authorities not only violate the integrity of the country's single economic space and hinder market reforms. It is also a matter of social justice. The wealth of the regions was created by the labor of many generations of Russians, and any of them, wherever they live, has the right to their share. These principles form the core of Russia's regional problems. 9. Regional problems of modern Russia Regional problems cannot be solved once and for all, but their severity should be minimized with the help of a regional strategy - a system of measures to influence the territorial structure of society for the sake of socially significant goals. Objectives of the regional strategy should lie outside the actual regional problems. The main objectives of the regional strategy are: 1) the well-being of citizens, which is understood not only as property well-being, but also political and socio-economic stability, the guarantee of ensuring human and civil rights throughout the country; 2) territorial justice as ensuring the equality of citizens regardless of their place of residence; 3) maintaining the integrity of the state, the unity of its constitutional, legal, economic and social space. The solution of the problem of regional development develops into a problem due to a number of objective contradictions. First, there are objective and indestructible contradictions between the country and the region; what is beneficial for a particular region is not always beneficial for other regions or for the country as a whole, and vice versa. Secondly, there is an equally objective contradiction along the lines of "efficiency - equality." The mechanism of this contradiction is quite simple: the desire solely for economic efficiency leads to a deepening of inequality in the development of different regions. Thirdly, due to the centuries-old domination of the centralized state in Russia, civilized mechanisms for settling various kinds of contradictions, especially political ones, have practically not developed, and therefore, in parallel with the improvement of purely managerial mechanisms, it is urgent to master conciliation mechanisms. The regional problem clearly falls into three parts : 1) socio-economic issues (regional policy in its traditional sense); 2) political issues (federalism); 3) cultural issues (regionalism). These components have a different nature in many respects, and measures to reduce the severity of each of the aspects of the regional problem should also be different. Different tasks should be solved by methods adequate to these aspects. Crossing and overlapping of these methods, i.e., solving, for example, economic problems with the help of social measures, should be avoided. 10. Historical sketch of the administrative structure of Russia The vast territory of Russia, even in the early stages of the formation of the Russian state, required a territorial study of its features, natural resource potential, the creation of administrative bodies to collect taxes and manage all socio-economic processes. Therefore, it became necessary to divide Russia into separate administrative units. In Russia, after the liquidation of specific principalities, there was a division into voivodeships, camps, counties. Governing them was at the same time "feeding" their rulers. Creation of the Russian state in the XVIII century. (with command management) required the formation of homogeneous administrative "units" - provinces. Their main tasks are recruiting for the army, collecting taxes and police inspection. Under Peter I in 1708 the country was divided into eight large provinces, while the provinces were divided into counties. In 1727, an intermediate unit between provinces and counties was singled out - a province. Regiments were assigned to each province, their recruitment was carried out at the expense of the population of the provinces. Petrovsky provinces existed for almost seventy years, until 1775; their number during this time grew to twenty. In 1775, by decree of Catherine II, a new administrative reform was carried out. There was a disaggregation of the provinces, they became 40, and then 68. Each province was to have at least 300-400 thousand people, with the number of men of military age from 20 to 30 thousand people. This administrative division remained unchanged until the October Revolution. The southern territories of Russia were essentially colonies of Russia, and in form they were considered military regions ruled by governors-general. They were also called military districts. For example, the Turkestan military district, controlled by the governor general; The Caucasus was ruled by the Caucasian governor. Poland and Finland were part of pre-revolutionary Russia as self-governing units. 11. Formation of administrative-territorial division after the revolution After the abolition of serfdom in 1861, another administrative lower unit took shape - the volost. The formation of the post-revolutionary administrative-territorial division of our country began in 1917. On November 7, 1917, the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic was formed. In December 1917 - the Ukrainian SSR in January 1919 - the Byelorussian SSR. In 1918, as a result of the struggle of the revolutionary and opposition forces in Transcaucasia, the state independence of Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan was proclaimed, but the internal struggle continued. In 1920-1921. three Soviet socialist republics were established in Transcaucasia - Azerbaijan, Georgian, Armenian, which in 1922 were merged into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic (ZSFSR). In 1924, the Turkmen, Uzbek, Tajik Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republics were created; in 1926, the Kirghiz ASSR (which since 1924 was called the Karakirghiz Autonomous Region). In December 1922, the formation of the USSR took place. It originally included: the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR, the Transcaucasian SFSR. In 1924, the Turkmen and Uzbek republics entered the Union. In 1929, the Tajik ASSR was transformed into a union republic and also became part of the USSR. In 1936, the Kazakh SSR separated from the Kirghiz SSR and also became part of the USSR. In 1940, Soviet troops were introduced into the territory of the Baltic States and Moldova in accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, where 4 more union republics were formed, which also became part of the USSR - the Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian and Moldavian SSR. By the end of the 1930s. the modern political and administrative division of the USSR was formed, which lasted until the 1990s. During this period, there were 15 union republics: the RSFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Byelorussian SSR, the Estonian SSR, the Latvian SSR, the Lithuanian SSR, the Moldavian SSR, the Georgian SSR, the Armenian SSR, the Azerbaijan SSR, the Turkmen SSR, the Tajik SSR, the Kirghiz SSR, the Uzbek SSR and the Kazakh SSR. The union republics included 20 autonomous republics, 8 autonomous regions and 10 autonomous districts. established by the early 1990s. the political and economic environment led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. This process is due to a number of reasons, the main of which is the dominance of the totalitarian system, the concentration of all power structures in the hands of the CPSU. Soon there was a collapse of the empire, which was accompanied by a financial, economic, political crisis. First, 6 union republics declared state independence - Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Moldova, Georgia, Armenia. It was supposed to change the name of the country - the Union of Soviet Sovereign Republics. However, its signing was thwarted by a coup d'état organized by the State Emergency Committee in August 1991. 12. The collapse of the USSR. Formation of new states In August 1991, the State Emergency Committee organized a coup d'état. And although the putsch was suppressed by the democratic forces of Russia, its consequences led to the further collapse of the USSR and the aggravation of the political and economic situation in the country. Ukraine, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan and other republics declared full independence in this situation. The process of nationalization of all-Union property began. The fragile balance of the republics, although confirmed by bilateral economic agreements, has been upset. At present, the former Soviet Union has completely collapsed and sovereign states recognized by the world community have formed on the site of a huge empire: Russia (Russian Federation), Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan , Tajikistan and Turkmenistan. All these state-republics in the form of state structure are basically presidential republics. On the initiative of Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was created, the purpose of which is to create a single economic space and establish mutually beneficial ties, as well as joint management of strategic defense, establishing contacts on the operation of a single transport system, a communications system, a single power supply. The CIS currently includes 12 former Soviet republics of the USSR, although the agreement on the creation of the CIS has not been ratified by parliaments in all of them. There was a modern administrative-territorial division of Russia. The Russian Federation includes the following republics: Republic of Adygea, Republic of Altai, Republic of Bashkortostan, Republic of Buryatia, Republic of Dagestan, Republic of Ingush, Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Republic of Kalmykia - Khalmg Tangch, Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Republic of Karelia, Republic of Komi, Republic of Mari El , Republic of Mordovia, Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Republic of North Ossetia, Republic of Tatarstan, Republic of Tuva, Udmurt Republic, Republic of Khakassia, Chechen Republic, Chuvash Republic. At the same time, it should be noted that Chechnya has declared full sovereignty outside the Russian Federation and does not intend to sign the Federal Treaty, while at the same time, the Law of the Russian Federation No. outside the Federation of the Chechen Republic. The Russian Federation includes one autonomous region - Jewish, 7 autonomous districts: Aginsky Buryatsky, Koryaksky, Nenets, Ust-Ordynsky Buryatsky, Khanty-Mansiysk (Yugra), Chukotsky and Yamalo-Nenets, 7 territories - Altai, Krasnodar, Krasnoyarsk, Perm, Primorsky, Stavropol, Khabarovsk and 48 regions. 13. Economic zoning The first attempts at economic zoning and the first publications on zoning issues provided an initial orientation to the economic differences in individual parts of the country. Since the economic life of Russia in the pre-revolutionary years was determined mainly by agriculture, climatic and other zonal natural conditions were taken as the basis for zoning. These first attempts at economic zoning were predominantly natural-economic or agricultural zoning. During the period of development of capitalism in Russia, with the strengthening of the territorial division of labor and economic ties, new tasks arose before agriculture and industry in Russia. This required the deepening of work on the basis of statistics on population, industry, agriculture, and transport. Particularly distinguished are the works on the economic zoning of Russia by a well-known statistician and geographer P. P. Semenov-Tyan-Shansky . In the middle of the last century, he carried out the zoning of the European part of Russia into the so-called 14 natural regions. The second zoning was carried out by him at the end of the 12th century, as a result of which XNUMX regions of the European part of Russia were identified. These areas were presented as compact, unique in their natural and economic conditions of the territory. At the end of XIX - beginning of XX centuries. a number of works on the economic zoning of Russia appear. However, all the experiments in pre-revolutionary zoning were not of sufficient practical importance, they were mainly of an educational nature. In 1920, the GOELRO plan for the electrification of the country was developed. According to the GOELRO plan, 8 districts were distinguished: Northern, Central Industrial, Southern, Volga, Ural, Caucasian, West Siberian, Turkestan. This was the first experience of Soviet economic zoning. In 1921 the Gosplan prepared the zoning project; According to this project, the territory of the USSR was divided into 21 economic regions. It reflected a combination of sectoral and territorial sections of the plan. In 1938-1940. The State Planning Committee of the USSR developed a new grid of economic regions. According to this grid, the territory of the USSR was divided into 13 large economic regions. In 1963, the State Planning Committee of the USSR proposed dividing the territory of the USSR into 18 large economic regions, taking into account their natural and economic features. In the RSFSR, 10 large economic regions were identified: Central, North-Western, Central Black Earth, Volga-Vyatka, Volga, North Caucasus, Ural, West Siberian, East Siberian and Far East. In 1982, the North-Western region was divided into two regions: North-Western and Northern. Thus, the last grid of regions of the USSR included 19 large economic regions, 11 of them on the territory of Russia. 14. Methods of economic zoning 1. Method of energy production cycles (EPC). N. N. Kolosovsky gave the following definition to this method: "... the energy production cycle is understood as the entire set of production processes that are consistently deployed in the economic region of the USSR on the basis of a combination of a given type of energy and raw materials, from primary forms of extraction and upgrading of raw materials and energy and the rational use of all components of raw materials and energy resources... The cycle must be understood as a historical category unfolding in time" (Regional Studies / Edited by T. R. Morozova). The EPC method takes into account precisely the sequence of production stages that must be carried out to produce a product, and "builds" this sequence "from the extraction of raw materials." N. N. Kolosovsky outlined 8 generalized cycles: 1) pyrometallurgical cycle of ferrous metals; 2) petrochemical; 3) a set of hydropower industrial cycles; 4) a set of cycles of the processing industry; 5) forest energy cycle; 6) the totality of industrial and agricultural cycles; 7) irrigation and drainage; 8) industrial-agrarian cycle. In addition, he outlined the ninth cycle - atomic energy - as promising. 2. Method of intersectoral complexes Interindustry complexes (IOCs) are an efficient combination of enterprises in industries involved in the production of a certain type of product or service from an economic point of view. There are three groups of industries, distinguished depending on the detail of the product analysis: 1) branches of the national economy (mining industry, manufacturing industry); 2) industries (fuel, engineering, etc.), agriculture (livestock, crop production), transport (railway, road, river, etc.); 3) industries are divided into sub-sectors (for example, the textile industry is divided into cotton, wool, silk, linen, knitwear); 4) the branches of agriculture, transport, etc. are also subdivided into sub-sectors. Depending on what rank of branches is considered in the intersectoral complex, one can also speak about the rank of the complex itself. In addition, intersectoral complexes, like the EOC, differ in their specialization and territorial significance. 3. Method of coefficients. To solve inter-district and intra-district problems, some researchers also use the method of coefficients, trying with their help to determine the specialization, completeness and efficiency of the development of the economy of the regions. 15. Basic principles of zoning 1. Economic principle , considering the region as a specialized part of a single national economic complex of the country with a certain composition of auxiliary and service industries. According to this principle, the specialization of the region should be determined by such industries in which the costs of labor, funds for the production of products and their delivery to the consumer will be the smallest in comparison with other regions. 2. National principle , taking into account the ethnic composition of the population of the region, its historically developed features of work and life. 3. Administrative principle , which determines the unity of economic zoning and the territorial political and administrative structure of the country. This principle creates conditions for the effective independent development of regions and the strengthening of their role in the territorial division of labor in Russia. These principles are fundamental to the modern theory and practice of Russia's economic zoning. In modern conditions, the allocation of large economic regions is dictated by the development of scientific and technological progress. Modern economic zoning of Russia includes three main parts: 1) large economic regions; 2) districts of the middle link - territories, regions, republics; 3) grassroots areas - administrative and economic areas, urban and rural areas. Major economic regions - these are clearly specialized and relatively complete territorial economic complexes that play an important role in the all-Russian division of labor. Having a large territory, a large population, a diverse natural resource potential, large economic regions have a clearly defined specialization (up to 5-7 industries). The larger the territory of a large economic region, the wider its production profile, the more complex the economic complex. middle link zoning is used to guide some sectors of the economy within the region, territory, republic. Its role in the management of agriculture and the service sector is great. Grassroots economic regions represent the primary links in the taxonomy of economic zoning. On their basis, initial specialized territorial production complexes are formed. The lower regions play an important role in the development and implementation of long-term and annual programs for the development of the regional economy and socio-cultural construction, in the location and specialization of enterprises for the production and processing of agricultural products, local industry, consumer services, trade and public catering. 16. Composition of large economic regions of Russia Exist two economic zones - Western (European part of Russia and the Urals) and Eastern (Siberia and the Far East). There are three enlarged regions in the Western zone - the North and the Center of the European part of Russia, the Ural-Volga region and the European South. There are two enlarged regions in the Eastern zone - Siberia and the Far East. Currently in Russia are 11 major economic regions (regions): Northern, Northwestern, Central, Central Black Earth, Volga-Vyatka, Volga, North Caucasian, Ural, West Siberian, East Siberian, Far East. Moscow and St. Petersburg have the status of self-government. Today, in the conditions of market development, one can single out three types of Russian regions : 1) labor surplus - the republics of the North Caucasus, the Stavropol and Krasnodar Territories, the Rostov Region; 2) military-industrial - St. Petersburg, Moscow, Nizhny Novgorod region, the Urals, industrial hubs in the south of Siberia; 3) diversified and depressive - a significant part of the zone of the North. For the first group of regions, every possible encouragement of the small-scale commodity way of life is recommended both in cities and in villages. For the regions of the second type, it is envisaged to attract foreign capital, in the regions of the third type - the creation of a particularly favorable regime for entrepreneurial activity due to partial exemption from taxes and other factors. To improve the financing of the regions, market infrastructures are being created - housing funds, pension funds, insurance funds, stock exchanges, associations. Currently, the most difficult situation is in the regions where heavy industry is developed, especially coal and metallurgical industry, with large monopoly enterprises - Kemerovo, Chelyabinsk, Yekaterinburg, Rostov, Tula, large cities of the Krasnoyarsk Territory, as well as regions where defense industry enterprises are concentrated. complex, - Moscow and St. Petersburg, Moscow, Leningrad, Chelyabinsk, Nizhny Novgorod, Yekaterinburg, Perm, Tula regions, Udmurtia and individual industrial units with a narrow production base, mainly in the north. In the context of structural restructuring, the threat of a sharp decline in production, mass unemployment and aggravation of social tension is especially real for the regions. Therefore, the existence of these regions requires benefits on federal and local taxes, loans, tax breaks from the profits of commercial banks, the expansion of the rights of local authorities and social protection of the population. Individual enterprises in these regions will be given loans to maintain production and re-profiling to produce socially oriented products. 17. Strategic objectives of regional development The strategic objectives of regional development are as follows: 1) reconstruction of the economy of old industrial regions and large urban agglomerations through the conversion of defense and civilian industries, modernization of infrastructure, improvement of the environmental situation, privatization; 2) overcoming the crisis in the agro-industrial regions of the Non-Black Earth Region, the Southern Urals, Siberia, the Far East, the revival of small towns and the Russian countryside, the acceleration of the restoration of the lost living environment in rural areas, the development of local industrial and social infrastructure, the development of abandoned agricultural lands; 3) stabilization of the socio-economic situation in regions with extreme natural conditions and predominantly raw material specialization, creation of conditions for the revival of small peoples (primarily the regions of the Far North, mountainous regions); 4) continuation of the formation of territorial production complexes and industrial hubs in the northern and eastern regions of Russia through non-centralized investments and with the priority development of industries for the integrated use of extracted raw materials in compliance with strict environmental standards; 5) stimulating the development of export and import-substituting industries in regions that have the most favorable conditions for this; formation of free economic zones, as well as technopolises as regional centers for introducing the achievements of domestic and world science, accelerating economic and social progress; 6) respecialization of new border regions, creation of jobs in them and accelerated development of social infrastructure, taking into account potential migrants and redeployment of military units from the countries of Eastern Europe and the former republics of the USSR; 7) development of interregional and regional systems - transport, communications, informatics, providing and stimulating regional structural shifts and the efficiency of the regional economy; 8) overcoming the excessive lag in terms of the level and quality of life of the population of individual republics and regions of Russia. The policy of eliminating Russia's dependence on food imports will require the accelerated intensification of agriculture in the Non-Black Earth and southern regions of Russia. Most of the tasks of Russia's regional policy will be shifted to the level of regions. A socio-economic mechanism will be created that combines state regulation with regional self-government. 18. Free economic zones Free economic zones (FEZ) have firmly entered the world economic practice and operate in various countries. Now in the world, according to various sources, there are from 400 to 2000 free economic zones, but not a single Russian one can rightly be included in this list, since those entities that are called "free economic zones" in Russia do not meet international requirements for such zones. In accordance with the documents of the International Convention on the Simplification and Harmonization of Customs Procedures (Kyoto, May 18, 1973), a free zone (or "free zone") is understood to be a part of the country's territory in which goods are considered as objects outside the national customs territory (principle of "customs extraterritoriality") and are therefore not subject to normal customs control and taxation. In other words, the SEZ is a part of the country's territory with a special operating regime. The special legislation expressing this regime, which regulates the activities of economic entities in the FEZ, covers the following range of issues: customs regulation; taxation; licensing; visa processing; banking; property and mortgage relations. Note characteristic features of SEZ : 1) the use of various types of benefits and incentives, including: a) foreign trade (reduction or cancellation of export-import duties); b) fiscal related to tax incentives for specific types of activities. Benefits may affect the tax base, its individual components (depreciation, wage costs, R&D and transport), the level of tax rates, issues of permanent or temporary exemption from taxation; c) financial, including various forms of subsidies provided both directly - at the expense of budgetary funds and preferential state loans, and indirectly - in the form of setting low prices for utilities, reducing rents for the use of land, etc.; d) administrative, simplifying the procedures for registering enterprises, the regime of entry and exit of foreign citizens. As a result of the application of incentives, the rate of return in SEZs is 30-35%, and sometimes more: for example, multinational companies receive an average of 40% of profits per year in Asian SEZs. Significantly reduced (by 2-3 times) the payback period for capital investments (it is considered normal for SEZs when these periods do not exceed 3-3,5 years); 2) the presence of a local, relatively separate zone management system, endowed with the right to make independent decisions in a wide economic spectrum; 3) comprehensive support from the central government. 19. Creation of free economic zones Creation of SEZ - an effective direction for the development of the economy of individual territories and regions, focused, as a rule, on the solution of specific priority economic tasks, the implementation of strategic programs and projects. At the same time, as practice shows, the system of benefits established in the FEZ is sufficiently individual and is closely related to the programs implemented on its territory. According to world economic experience, the initial goals and objectives declared during the creation of the SEZ almost always do not coincide with what happens as a result of actual development. Based on the tasks set during the formation of a particular zone, there are corresponding requirements for its placement. The most common of these include: 1) favorable transport and geographical position in relation to the external and internal markets and the presence of developed transport communications; 2) developed production potential, availability of production and social infrastructure; 3) a significant natural resource potential in terms of reserves and value (reserves of hydrocarbon raw materials, non-ferrous metals, forest resources, etc.). Therefore, the territories most favorable for the placement of SEZs, as a rule, have a border position in relation to foreign countries, and also have commercial sea ports and a backbone transport network. The practice of creating existing and projects of future SEZs in Russia show that, depending on the goals and objectives, they can be divided into the following main types : 1) complex zones of industrial nature; 2) foreign trade (free customs zones); 3) functional, or industry (technological parks, technopolises, tourism, insurance, banking, etc.). Complex zones are multi-profile. They create conditions for attracting large capital with the obligatory development of the necessary infrastructure. Most of the SEZs created in Russia, including the SEZs in Nakhodka, the Kaliningrad Region, St. Petersburg, etc., can be classified as complex zones. Foreign trade zones provide foreign exchange earnings, including through consignment warehouses, leasing premises, exhibitions, transshipment of goods and their transit. Foreign trade zones include, in particular, the Sherri-zone free trade zone (near Sheremetyevo airport), free customs zones Moscow Free Port (near Vnukovo airport), Free Port Terminal (on the territory of Moscow Western River Port). Sectoral zones contribute to the acceleration of scientific and technological progress in certain industries based on the intensification of foreign economic cooperation, the introduction of the results of domestic science, as well as the development of high technologies, new types of finished products and the expansion of exports. The industrial zones of a scientific and technical nature include the SEZ in Zelenograd. 20. Economic regions of modern Russia There are 11 economic regions on the territory of Russia. Northern Economic Region Composition: Arkhangelsk region, including the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, Vologda region, Murmansk region, Republic of Karelia, Komi Republic. Northwest economic region Composition: St. Petersburg, Leningrad region, Novgorod region, Pskov region. After the collapse of the USSR, the Kaliningrad region, previously located in the Baltic economic region of the USSR, was included in the region. Central Economic Region Composition: Moscow, Moscow region, Bryansk region, Vladimir region, Ivanovo region, Tver region, Kaluga region, Kostroma region, Oryol region, Ryazan region, Smolensk region, Tula region, Yaroslavl region. Central Black Earth economic region Composition: Belgorod region, Voronezh region, Kursk region, Lipetsk region, Tambov region. Volga-Vyatka economic region Composition: Nizhny Novgorod Region, Kirov Region, Republic of Mari El, Republic of Mordovia, Chuvash Republic. North Caucasian economic region Composition: Krasnodar Territory, Republic of Adygea, Stavropol Territory, Karachay-Cherkess Republic, Rostov Region, Republic of Dagestan, Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, Republic of North Ossetia-Alania, Chechen Republic and Ingush Republic. Volga economic region Composition: Astrakhan region, Volgograd region, Samara region, Penza region, Saratov region, Ulyanovsk region, Republic of Kalmykia, Republic of Tatarstan. Ural economic region Composition: Kurgan Region, Orenburg Region, Perm Region, including Komi-Permyatsky Autonomous Okrug, Sverdlovsk Region, Chelyabinsk Region, Republic of Bashkortostan, Udmurt Republic. West Siberian economic region Composition: Altai Territory, Altai Republic, Kemerovo Region, Novosibirsk Region, Omsk Region, Tomsk Region, Tyumen Region, including the Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug and the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug. East Siberian economic region Composition: Krasnoyarsk Territory, including the Taimyr (Dolgano-Nenets) Autonomous Okrug and Evenk Autonomous Okrug, Republic of Khakassia, Irkutsk Region, including Ust-Ordynsky Buryat Autonomous Okrug, Chita Region, including Aginsky Buryat Autonomous Okrug, Republic of Buryatia, Republic of Tyva. Far Eastern economic region Composition: Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), Primorsky Territory, Khabarovsk Territory, including the Jewish Autonomous Region, Amur Region, Kamchatka Region, including the Koryak Autonomous Okrug, Magadan Region, Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Sakhalin Region. 21. Fuel and energy complex of Russia Fuel and energy complex (FEC) is a set of industries associated with the production and distribution of energy in its various types and forms. The fuel and energy complex includes industries for the extraction and processing of various types of fuel (fuel industry), the electric power industry and enterprises for the transportation and distribution of electricity. The importance of the fuel and energy complex in the economy of our country is very high. And not only because it supplies fuel and energy to all sectors of the economy, not a single type of human economic activity is possible without energy, but also because this complex is the main supplier of currency (40% - this is the share of fuel and energy resources in Russia's exports). ). An important indicator characterizing the work of the fuel and energy complex is the fuel and energy balance (FEB). Fuel and energy balance - the ratio of the extraction of various types of fuel, the energy generated from them and their use in the economy. The energy obtained by burning different fuels is not the same, therefore, to compare different types of fuel, it is converted into the so-called standard fuel, the calorific value of 1 kg of which is 7 thousand Kcal. When recalculated into standard fuel, the so-called thermal coefficients are used, by which the amount of the recalculated type of fuel is multiplied. So, if 1 ton of coal is equated to 1 ton of standard fuel, the coefficient of coal is 1, oil - 1,5, and peat - 0,5. The ratio of different types of fuel in the fuel and energy balance of the country is changing. So, if until the mid-1960s. coal played the main role, then in the 1970s. the share of coal decreased, while oil increased (deposits of Western Siberia were discovered). Now the share of oil is declining and the share of gas is increasing (because it is more profitable to use oil as a chemical raw material). The development of the fuel and energy complex is associated with a number of problems: 1) stocks of energy resources are concentrated in the eastern regions of the country, and the main areas of consumption - in the western. To solve this problem, it was planned to develop nuclear energy in the western part of the country, but after the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant, the implementation of this program slowed down. There were also economic difficulties with the accelerated extraction of fuel in the east and its transfer to the west; 2) fuel production is becoming more and more expensive, and therefore it is necessary to increasingly introduce energy-saving technologies; 3) the increase in fuel and energy complex enterprises has a negative impact on the environment, therefore, during construction, a thorough examination of projects is required, and the choice of a place for them should take into account the requirements of environmental protection. 22. Metallurgical complex of Russia. Ferrous metallurgy The metallurgical complex includes ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, covering all stages of technological processes: from the extraction and enrichment of raw materials to the production of finished products in the form of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and their alloys. Metallurgical complex is an interdependent combination of the following technological processes: 1) extraction and preparation of raw materials for processing; 2) metallurgical processing - the main technological process with the production of cast iron, steel, rolled ferrous and non-ferrous metals, pipes, etc.; 3) production of alloys; 4) recycling of waste from the main production and obtaining various types of products from them. Ferrous metallurgy. The role and importance of ferrous metallurgy are determined primarily by the fact that it serves as the foundation for the development of mechanical engineering. Ferrous metallurgy covers the entire process: from the extraction and preparation of raw materials, fuel, auxiliary materials to the production of rolled products with products for further processing. It includes: mining, enrichment and agglomeration of iron, manganese and chromite ores; production of cast iron, blast-furnace ferroalloys, steel and rolled products; production of electroferroalloys; secondary redistribution of ferrous alloys; coal coking; production of refractories; extraction of auxiliary materials (flux limestone, magnesite, etc.); production of metallurgical products for industrial purposes. The eight largest enterprises - Magnitogorsk, Nizhny Tagil, Chelyabinsk and Orsk-Khalilovsky (Urals), Cherepovets (North), Novolipetsk (Central Chernozemny region), West Siberian and Kuznetsk (Western Siberia) plants - produce 9/10 of all pig iron, over 4/5 of steel and over 4/5 of rolled products. These enterprises process more than 9/10 of iron ore and 2/5 of secondary raw materials. Combines - the main type of ferrous metallurgy enterprises in most industrialized countries. In Russia, enterprises with a full cycle produce approximately 9/10 of iron, steel and rolled products. The most typical satellites of ferrous metallurgy : 1) thermal power industry, primarily installations that are part of metallurgical plants and can operate on secondary fuel (surplus blast-furnace gas, coke, coke breeze); 2) metal-intensive engineering (metallurgical and mining equipment, heavy machine tools, metal structures, locomotives, etc.). 23. Features of the location of ferrous metallurgy enterprises The main resources of iron ore are concentrated within the KMA (21,6 billion tons), where such deposits of world importance as Lebedinskoye, Stoilenskoye, Mikhailovskoye and Yakovlevskoye are located. Great iron ore resources of the Urals (almost 7,5 billion tons), within which the Kachkanar group of deposits stands out (3,5 billion tons). In third place is Eastern Siberia (5,3 billion tons) with the Korshunov and Rudnogorsk deposits in the Angara-Ilimsk basin and the Abakan group of deposits. Then come the Far East (4,5 billion tons), the Northern region (2,8 billion tons), where the Eno-Kovdorskoye, Kostamukshskoye and other deposits are known, and Western Siberia (1,8 billion tons). The most significant resources of manganese ores are presented in Western Siberia (Usinsk deposit), and chromite ores - in the Urals (Sarana deposit). Ural produces almost 1/2 of iron, steel and rolled products in the country. Ferrous Ural metallurgy uses imported fuel, partly works on raw materials coming from Kazakhstan, as well as KMA. The strengthening of the raw material base here is associated with the development of titanomagnetites and siderites, which account for 3/4 of the iron ore reserves. The concentration of production reaches a high level here. The predominant part of ferrous metals is provided by giant enterprises (in Magnitogorsk, Nizhny Tagil, Chelyabinsk, Novotroitsk), which arose during the years of industrialization. At present, the Center is one of the main metallurgical bases of the country. It provides more than 2/5 of all iron ore in the country, and in terms of ferrous production it is on the same level with Siberia and the Far East. The level of combination in the ferrous metallurgy of the Center is still much lower than in the Urals. Full-cycle plants produce a little more than 1/2 of all pig iron and about 2/3 of steel and rolled products. Ferrous metallurgy of the Center is completely dependent on imported fuel (Donetsk coal or coke). The resources of raw materials, represented by the KMA deposits, practically do not limit production. Scrap metal is of great importance. Siberia (together with the Far East) as a metallurgical base is in the process of formation. It is somewhat inferior to the Center for iron and steel smelting, but surpasses it in terms of rolled products. Modern production is represented here by two powerful enterprises with a full cycle - the Kuznetsk Metallurgical Plant and the West Siberian Plant (Novokuznetsk) - and several conversion plants (Novosibirsk, Guryevsk, Krasnoyarsk, Petrovsk-Zabaikalsky, Komsomolsk-on-Amur), as well as a ferroalloy plant ( Novokuznetsk). The northern region as a metallurgical base began to take shape in connection with the creation of the Cherepovets metallurgical plant. The plant uses iron ore from the Kola Peninsula, Karelia and coking coal from the Pechora basin. 24. Non-ferrous metallurgy Non-ferrous metallurgy includes mining, enrichment, metallurgical processing of ores of non-ferrous, precious and rare metals, including the production of alloys, rolling of non-ferrous metals and processing of secondary raw materials, as well as diamond mining. The non-ferrous metallurgy of Russia includes copper, lead-zinc, nickel-cobalt, aluminum, titanium-magnesium, tungsten-molybdenum, hard alloys, rare metals and other industries that are isolated depending on the type of products produced, as well as gold processing. According to the stages of the technological process, it is divided into the extraction and enrichment of raw materials, metallurgical processing and processing of non-ferrous metals. Copper industry due to the relatively low content of concentrates, it is confined (excluding refining of ferrous metal) to areas with raw materials. The main type of ores currently used in Russia for the production of copper are copper pyrites, which are mainly found in the Urals. An important reserve is cupriferous sandstones concentrated in Eastern Siberia. There are also copper-molybdenum ores. Copper-nickel and polymetallic ores are used as additional raw materials. Lead-zinc industry characterized by more complex structural and territorial features compared to the copper industry. In general, it is confined to the areas of distribution of polymetallic ores - the North Caucasus, Kuzbass, Transbaikalia and Far Eastern Primorye. Nickel-cobalt industry is most closely related to the sources of raw materials, which is due to the low content of intermediate products obtained in the process of processing the original ores. In Russia, two types of ores are exploited: sulfide (copper-nickel), which are known on the Kola Peninsula and in the lower reaches of the Yenisei, and oxidized - in the Urals. The Norilsk region is especially rich in sulfide ores. Aluminum industry uses raw materials of higher quality than other branches of non-ferrous metallurgy. Raw materials are represented by bauxites, which are mined in the North-West and the Urals. The technological process in the aluminum industry consists of two main stages: the production of alumina and the production of metallic aluminum. Gold mining industry - one of the oldest in Russia. In 1993, 132,1 tons of gold were produced, which makes our country fifth in the world after South Africa, the USA, Canada and Australia. The bulk of domestic gold is mined in the Far East (2/3 of the total) and in Eastern Siberia (over 1/4). The rest of the amount of gold comes from the Urals (5%), where mines arose much earlier than in other regions of Russia. 25. Chemical and petrochemical complex of Russia Chemical Industry plays an important role in the economy of the country. This industry includes the mining and chemical industry, basic chemistry, chemistry of organic synthesis, and the production of polymeric materials. During the processing of polymeric materials, tires, rubber products, etc. are obtained. The chemical industry also includes the industry of chemical reagents and highly pure substances, varnishes and paints, and household chemicals. The placement of chemical industry enterprises depends on the influence of various factors, among which the most important role is played by raw materials, energy and consumer. Basic chemistry includes the production of acids, alkalis and mineral fertilizers. In terms of oil reserves, Russia ranks sixth in the world. In the 1980s, the USSR ranked first in the world in oil production. In recent years, oil production in Russia has fallen by 40% from 516 million tons (1990) to just over 300 million tons per year (1996) and still accounts for 9% of world production. Oil has long played a significant role in Russia's fuel balance and will continue to play a significant role in the future. Currently, the main oil production area in the Russian Federation is Western Siberia, where about 300 oil and gas fields have been discovered. Siberian oil is of high quality. The main deposits are Samotlor, Ust-Balyk, Megion, Fedorov, Surgut and others. In the past, in Russia, oil from production areas to consumption areas was transported by rail in tanks and tankers by waterways. Currently, most of the oil is pumped through oil and oil product pipelines, the length of which in Russia is about 62 thousand km. They connect the oil-producing regions with all parts of the country. Russian oil is exported to the CIS countries, Eastern and Western Europe. In recent years, as a result of a decrease in the volume of refining, the export of petroleum products has sharply decreased. And the supply of crude oil outside of Russia, on the contrary, increased. In general, the entire network of oil pipelines is represented by two groups of objects: intra-regional, inter-regional and a system of long-distance transit oil pipelines. The former provide individual links between oil fields and refineries, the latter integrate oil flows, depersonalizing its specific owner. Russia is taking steps to diversify its oil supply routes abroad. In the mid 1990s. oil exports from Russia to non-CIS countries increased despite the fall in its production in the country. Domestic consumption of oil and its supplies to the CIS countries have decreased. Oil exports to non-CIS countries now account for at least a third of the total production volume. The main markets for Russian oil are the UK and Ireland, Eastern Europe, and the Mediterranean countries. 26. Northern economic region. Composition, territory, population The northern economic region covers a vast expanse of the European part of the country with an area of 1500 thousand km2, facing the Barents and White Seas of the Arctic Ocean. It includes the Arkhangelsk, Murmansk, Vologda regions, the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, the Karelian Republic and the Komi Republic. About 6 million people live in it. (Economic and social geography of Russia / Under the editorship of Yu. N. Gladkiy) A favorable economic and geographical position is ensured by the proximity of the largest industrial bases, the Central European Economic Region, the Urals, and the northwest. The existing transport network and the presence of a large non-freezing port of Murmansk, the coast of the Barents Sea, and a shelf zone in the western part of the Kola Peninsula allow round-the-clock navigation, contribute to the formation in the area of the maritime economy - shipping, production and processing of marine resources, the development of large industrial centers, the expansion of foreign economic and scientific and technical relations with foreign countries. The nearest non-CIS countries are Norway and Finland. The development of the economic complex of the region is constrained by the position of the Kola Peninsula in the polar latitudes, the extreme natural and climatic conditions, poor transport development and population of the territory, the low level of development of industrial and social infrastructure, the predominance of extensive methods of development and use of minerals, a large share of the use of manual labor. This leads to an increase in the cost of economic activity, which, combined with insufficiently rational methods, forms and methods of management, determines the subsidized nature of the economy. The branches of market specialization of the Northern Economic Region are: timber, woodworking and pulp and paper, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, fuel industry, electric power industry, fishing industry and mechanical engineering. The structure of the Northern economic region includes: the Republic of Karelia and Komi, the Arkhangelsk, Vologda and Murmansk regions and the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. Among other northern territories of the country, the region is distinguished by a high number of urban settlements, of which there are over 200 (including urban-type settlements). The urban population is concentrated mainly in large cities and industrial centers (Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, Cherepovets, Petrozavodsk, Severodvinsk, Syktyvkar, Vorkuta, Vologda). Along with this, a characteristic feature of the settlement is the residence of almost half of the population of the region in medium and small urban-type settlements, the average population of which is 1,9 thousand people. 27. Mineral resources Fuel and energy and mineral resources of the Northern region. A variety of minerals have been discovered on the territory of the region, primarily on the Kola Peninsula, the Polar Urals and within the Timan-Pechora oil and gas province. Among the most important of them in industrial terms are: coal of the Pechora basin, natural gas and oil reserves of the Komi Republic, apatite-nepheline, iron, copper-nickel and rare earth ores of the Kola Peninsula, North Onega and Vezha-Vorykva bauxites, iron ores , marble, granite, ornamental stones and mica of Karelia, quartz sand, brick and refractory clay, peat, found in the southern part of the region. (Economic zoning / Under the editorship of T. M. Kalashnikova) Within the Timan-Pechora province, 70 oil, gas, gas condensate, oil and gas fields are known. Oil and gas resources are concentrated in the Komi Republic, the Arkhangelsk region and in the shelf zone of the Barents and Kara seas. The Pechora coal basin with an area of 100 thousand km2 is located in the north-east of the region. The bulk of the reserves and production come from the Intinskoye, Vorgashorskoye and Usinskoye fields. Oil shale reserves have been identified in the region, which are estimated at 56 billion tons. Their main reserves are located within the Komi Republic. Peat reserves are concentrated in the republics of Komi, Karelia, in the Murmansk and Arkhangelsk regions. The main part of peat is used as fuel and also in agriculture. Metal ore minerals are represented by black, non-ferrous, rare and noble metals. The balance reserves of iron ore in the region (3,4 billion tons) account for about 5% of the reserves of the Russian Federation. The most important iron ore deposits are Olenigorskoye and Kovdorskoye (the reserves of each are over 0,5 billion tons), located on the Kola Peninsula. There are deposits of copper-nickel ores in the Murmansk region. The aluminum-containing raw material of the region is represented by bauxites of the North Onega, Middle and South Timan, North Ural bauxite regions, nephelines of the Khibiny deposits and kyanites of the Murmansk region. One of the largest diamond deposits, Lomonosovskoye, is located in the Arkhangelsk region. The cost of industrial diamond reserves of this deposit is about 12 billion dollars. In general, the mineral resource base of the region is characterized by a high degree of geological and geographical exploration of the territory, compact distribution of the most important types of mineral raw materials, which makes it possible to diversify specialization, and long-term provision of existing and projected enterprises with explored reserves. 28. Forest and water resources of the Northern region The entire territory of the region is characterized by high air humidity and low evaporation of moisture. This determines the huge number of swamps, lakes, rivers. The reserves of water resources are 515 km2. The largest lakes are Ladoga, Onega, rivers - Pechora, Northern Dvina, Vychegda. The rivers of various sea basins are connected by systems of artificial canals: the North Dvina system connects the White Sea with the Caspian, the northernmost in the world, the White Sea-Baltic - the White with the Baltic. Rivers, lakes and artificial reservoirs are cheap and convenient transportation routes. On the seas of the Arctic Ocean basin, washing the territory of the region, there are sea transport routes of domestic and international importance. Within the Northern economic region, 40% of the forest and water resources of the European part of Russia are concentrated. From north to south, four soil-vegetation zones and subzones are replaced in the region: tundra, forest-tundra, coniferous taiga and mixed forests. Timber reserves amount to 6,9 billion m3. With a wide distribution of coniferous species (spruce and pine), large areas are occupied by small-leaved forests. The forests between the Pechora and the Ural Mountains are included in the UNESCO World Natural Heritage List - the primeval forests of the Komi Republic. The disadvantages of using forest resources include significant losses of wood raw materials during harvesting, transportation and processing, low recovery rates, poor use of hardwood, underdeveloped road network, low level of development and introduction of modern technologies for more rational use of wood. (Economic and social geography of Russia / Under the editorship of Yu. N. Gladkiy) In the future, rational use of natural resources and environmental protection will be of priority importance for the development of the region's economy. This is due to the fact that the extraction and processing of minerals had an adverse impact on the environment: mining and dumps disturbed and alienated land, polluted surface and ground water, atmosphere and soil. The main sources of environmental pollution are enterprises of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, as well as enterprises of the mining and timber industry. Of particular importance for the region is the problem of rational use and protection of forest and fish resources, on the basis of which industries of specialization develop, and their reserves are largely exhausted. A wide range of landscape and environmental problems is associated with the deployment of an atomic test site on the territory of Novaya Zemlya. In order to prevent the growth of negative processes in the environment, it is necessary to reconstruct obsolete and build new treatment facilities, accelerate the increase in recycling water supply and reuse of wastewater. 29. Economic and geographical characteristics of the Northern economic region Economic and geographical characteristics of the fuel and energy complex The fuel industry is concentrated mainly in the Komi Republic and is represented by the oil, gas and coal industries. The leading base of the coal industry is the Pechora basin. There are significant oil and gas reserves in the continental part of the region, more than 20 oil and 30 gas fields have been discovered here, which ensures the stable production of this valuable hydrocarbon raw material. More than 20 million tons of oil and about 20 billion m3 of gas are produced here annually. Searches for new deposits are underway, both on the mainland of the region and on the shelf. Economic and geographical characteristics of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy The ferrous metallurgy of the Northern region is represented by one of the four main metallurgical bases of the country, including the Cherepovets metallurgical plant of JSC "Severstal" and its raw material base - the Olenegorskoye and Kovdorskoye iron ore deposits. The fuel base is the coking coal of the Pechora basin. Non-ferrous metallurgy is developed, especially the copper-nickel industry, represented by the Nickel association in Monchegorsk in the Murmansk region, which uses the raw material base within the region and only partially processes Norilsk raw materials. Economic and geographical characteristics of the machine-building complex Mechanical engineering is represented by a number of large specialized enterprises that serve the needs of the national economy in machinery and equipment. These include a plant for the production of paper machines and equipment for the pulp and paper industry and a skidder plant in Petrozavodsk, shipbuilding and ship repair enterprises in Murmansk, Arkhangelsk, and Kotlas. Economic and geographical characteristics of the chemical and petrochemical complex The chemical industry includes the country's largest enterprise for the extraction of phosphate ores - JSC "Apatit" in the Murmansk region, which supplies about 70% of the total Russian production of phosphate raw materials, sent to many regions of the country, including Siberia and the Far East, as well as for export. Economic and geographical characteristics of the forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries Forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries are among the most important branches of the economy of the region. northern region - the main region of the pulp and paper industry of the country. The main timber processing enterprises are located in Arkhangelsk, Syktyvkar, and Kotlas. Plywood production is concentrated in Sortavala (Karelia). The main centers of the furniture industry are located in the largest cities of the region - Arkhangelsk, Petrozavodsk, Vologda, Cherepovets, Syktyvkar. 30. Intra-district differences In the Arkhangelsk region, the main branches of market specialization are the forestry, woodworking, pulp and paper, fishing industries and mechanical engineering, especially shipbuilding. In agriculture, the Arkhangelsk region specializes in dairy farming. The established industrial centers of the region are Arkhangelsk and Kotlas. The leading place in their industrial structure is occupied by sawmilling, wood chemistry, pulp and paper production, and standard housing construction. As part of the Arkhangelsk region, a subject of the Federation is distinguished - Nenets Autonomous Okrug , in which such branches of the economy as reindeer breeding, fishing, fur trade for arctic fox, fox, etc. are developed. Cattle are bred. The Nenets Okrug has great prospects for development, as a new oil and gas region has been discovered on its territory, on the mainland and on the sea shelf. The Murmansk region stands out for its developed fishing industry, nepheline and apatite mining, copper-nickel and iron ore industries, and shipbuilding. Large industrial centers were formed in the region - Murmansk, Pechenga, Apatity, Monchegorsk. Murmansk - an ice-free port, a support base of the Northern Sea Route, which occupies one of the leading places in Russia in terms of cargo turnover. The Vologda Oblast specializes in the production of ferrous metallurgy products, the timber and woodworking industries, the production of linen fabrics, and lace weaving. The largest Cherepovets metallurgical plant and the Cherepovets steel-rolling plant operate in the region. Agriculture specializes in flax growing, dairy farming, and potato growing. Machine-building, woodworking, production of linen fabrics and the food industry are developed in the largest center of the region, Vologda. The Republic of Karelia is the most important industrial region of the North. The republic has a developed pulp and paper industry, standard housing construction, various mechanical engineering, non-ferrous metallurgy, and the production of building materials. Agriculture specializes in dairy and meat cattle breeding, poultry farming, and sheep breeding. In the lakes and rivers of the republic, a significant amount of fish is caught, which is processed by enterprises. Fur farming has developed. The Republic of Komi stands out for such industries as coal, oil, gas, timber, woodworking, pulp and paper industries. The main branches of agriculture in the republic are reindeer breeding, dairy farming and the cultivation of rye, oats, barley, vegetables and potatoes. The capital of the republic and a major industrial center is Syktyvkar. A large timber industry complex has been created here, especially the pulp and paper industry. Other industries are also developed - leather and footwear, food industry. 31. Northwestern economic region. Composition, territory, population The North-Western region occupies an area of 1,15% of the territory of Russia. The region borders on Finland, Latvia, Estonia and Belarus and has access to the Baltic Sea. As of January 1, 2004, the population of the district was 8,9 million people. - 5,4% of the total population of the Russian Federation. The share of the urban population is almost 87%. The North-Western economic region includes the following entities: 1) St. Petersburg; 2) Leningrad region; 3) Novgorod region; 4) Pskov region. The area of the district is 1,1% of the area of Russia - 196,5 thousand km2. The North-Western region is located in the northern part of the Non-Chernozem zone of the Russian Federation, north of 57` with. sh., the southern border of the region runs almost 800 km north of the US border. The most striking feature of the North-Western region is the discrepancy between the historical role of the region and its very modest territory. This discrepancy is due to the following features: 1) the location of the area on the outskirts, remoteness from the center of Russia. This situation saved the region from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. As you know, Novgorod is the cradle of the Russian land, a reserve of ancient Russian history and culture; 2) the area is sharply pushed towards Europe. Here are Pskov and Novgorod the Great - the most noble cities, for a long time connected with European countries through trade as part of Banza (a medieval union of the Baltic states); 3) seaside and border position of the region. The North-Western region is inferior to most of the economic regions of the Russian Federation in terms of population and territory, therefore it is called the region of one city - St. Petersburg. It contains 59% of the region's population and 68% of its urban population. The region occupies one of the leading places in terms of the level of economic development, the scale and diversity of industrial production, research and development products, the training of highly qualified specialists in the national economy, the pace of the formation of market relations, the scale of participation in Russia's world economic relations. The North-Western region is located on the Russian Plain. The climate in the area is maritime, temperate continental. The air has high humidity, the soils are sod-podzolic. 32. Place of the North-Western region in the economic complex of the country The North-Western region specializes in the production of industrial products. The leading role in specialization belongs to the machine-building complex. Engineering in the Northwestern region has the following stages: 1) production of machine bodies; 2) production of components and parts, spare parts; 3) iron and steel casting; 4) assembly. Leading branches of engineering: 1) shipbuilding; 2) electrical engineering; 3) power engineering; 4) tractor engineering; 5) agricultural engineering; 6) instrumentation; 7) machine tool building; 8) electronic industry. The main part of machine-building enterprises is concentrated in St. Petersburg and the Leningrad region. A significant role in the area's specialization belongs to the chemical complex. The production of rubber products, tires, synthetic resins, fertilizers, plastics, paints and varnishes, acids, reagents has received great development in the region. The mining and chemical complex is located near the mining areas and also has separate workshops for , Volkhov and Kingisepp plants. The production of phosphate fertilizers is concentrated in Volkhov and St. Petersburg, the production of phosphate rock based on local phosphorites - in Kingisepp, the production of nitrogen fertilizers using natural gas - at the Novgorod Combine, the production of double superphosphate - at the Volkhov Combine, the production of tires, rubber shoes and other rubber products - at the association "Red Triangle", processing of slates - in the city of Slantsy. Synthetic chemistry is promising for development due to the fact that its products are highly transportable. On the whole, the chemical industry tends to reduce especially environmentally harmful production. Developed in the area forest complex . It is represented by all stages: harvesting, sawmilling, woodworking, wood processing. The production of the timber complex is concentrated in all regions of the region, but mostly in the Leningrad region and St. Petersburg. The largest pulp and paper mills are Svetlogorsk, Sovetsky, Priozersky, located on the Karelian Isthmus. The main direction of development of the forest complex is the deep processing of wood, improving the quality of its products, and restoring forests. 33. Development and placement of the main branches of market specialization of the North-Western region Textile industry of the North-Western region The development of the textile industry in the region was facilitated by the coastal position, which makes it possible to import, the region's great need for fabrics, and the concentration of highly qualified personnel in St. Petersburg. Weaving, finishing, clothing industry are developed in the region. The linen industry is developed in Pskov, the shoe industry in St. Petersburg, the porcelain and faience industry in the Novgorod region. The region also developed an industrial and construction complex, represented by the glass industry, the production of reinforced concrete products and structures, and other building materials. Enterprises of the industrial and construction complex are located in all major cities of the region. The main part of the fuel and energy complex is thermal power plants that operate on imported fuel - Pechora and Donetsk. Oil is supplied from the Timan-Pechora oil and gas province and processed at refineries. The role of HPPs in the region is small, the stations operate only in peak mode (Volkhovskaya HPP). To remove peak loads, pumped-storage stations and gas turbine cogeneration plants - GTUs - become important. Almost all the material for the production of metal, structural casting, rolled products, steel and cast iron pipes, fasteners, wire is brought from other regions. The development of non-ferrous metallurgy is constrained by the poverty of the raw material base and the tension in the fuel and energy balance. Mining and primary processing of non-ferrous metals is concentrated in the Murmansk region, and processing - in the Leningrad region. Alumina refineries are located in Tikhvin, Pikalevo, Volkhov. There is aluminum production in the Leningrad region, nickel and copper rolling. Agriculture occupies a central place in the agro-industrial complex of the district and plays a subordinate role of industry. The main role of agriculture is to meet the needs of its population and light industry for raw materials. The area owns all types of modern transport. The region accounts for a significant part of river and sea transportation. St. Petersburg is one of the largest ports in the country. The main mode of transport is rail. Transport plays an important role in providing the processing industry with raw materials and fuel. Products of mechanical engineering, chemical, woodworking and pulp and paper industries are exported, while fuel and energy resources, timber, metal, food and building materials are imported. Railways are of particular importance because they connect almost all of Russia with the Baltic. At present, the construction of a high-speed highway "Moscow - Scandinavia" through St. Petersburg and the modernization of the Oktyabrskaya highway are planned in the region. 34. Central economic region. Composition, territory, population In the central economic region, the population is 30,3 million people, or 20,4% of the population of Russia; by population density (62,6 people/km2). In the north of the region, the density is 15-20 people/km2, in the west and south 50-70 people/km2. The least densely populated is the Kostroma region, and the maximum density is in the Moscow region. A characteristic feature of the Center is the high proportion of the urban population. There are 248 cities and 400 urban-type settlements in the region, in which over 25 million people live. Thus, the share of the urban population in the district is 82,5%. At the same time, the Ivanovo, Tula and Yaroslavl regions reached the average district indicator, and the Moscow region exceeded it. There are more than 30 large cities in the region, the share of the population of which in the total number of residents of the CER is almost half, and in the urban population - more than 2/3. In the Center, both large clusters of urban settlements and single cities and towns are common. Among the clusters of cities, Moscow occupies an outstanding place, around which a whole galaxy of satellites has grown. 1/2 of the urban population of the district lives in the Moscow agglomeration. Other major urban agglomerations - "millionaires" - Tula and Yaroslavl. Large cities are characterized by high growth rates, which is due to the concentration of industry and social infrastructure. The network of urban settlements of the Center took shape over many centuries. Here, more than anywhere else, cities that are among the most ancient in our country have been preserved. It was they who became the reference points of modern urban settlement. Ancient cities (Smolensk, Ryazan, Vladimir, Vyazma, Kolomna) also predominate among the administrative and industrial centers. The CER is characterized by a relatively small proportion of rural residents in the total population - 17%. The main reason for the reduction in the number of rural residents of the region is the intensive outflow from the countryside. In the Moscow region, as well as in the Ivanovo, Vladimir, Tula regions, a significant part of the inhabitants of rural settlements is the population not associated with agriculture. Since ancient times, the population has primarily developed more fertile lands, therefore, in places where very favorable soils are distributed, massifs of continuous settlement were formed. Most of the Center is characterized by small and medium-sized settlements, which is explained by the predominance of the focal nature of the agricultural development of the territory. In the south-east of the district, more rarely located large villages prevail. This corresponds to a higher productivity of the land, continuous development of the territory, etc. Large rural settlements can also be found along large rivers, near cities. (Central district. Mints A. A.) 35. Moscow and Moscow region Moscow - the capital of Russia, the largest administrative, political, industrial, transport, scientific and cultural center. The city is located between the Oka and Volga rivers, on the Moskva River. This is a major transport hub, where 11 railway lines and 15 highways converge. Moscow has 3 large river ports (Western, Northern and Southern) and 4 airports, including an international one. Moscow region in terms of industrial potential, it is second only to Moscow and St. Petersburg (with the region). Mechanical engineering is represented by the production of various equipment (metal-cutting machine tools, textile machines), diesel locomotives, agricultural machines, buses, electrical products, instruments, cameras, sewing machines, etc. "Elektrostaltyazhmash", "Metrovagonmash", Podolsky battery plant, Lyubertsy agricultural machinery named after. Ukhtomsky, Likino-Dulevsky bus, as well as enterprises in Dmitrov, Zagorsk, Klimovsk, etc. The chemical complex produces mineral fertilizers, sulfuric acid, synthetic resins, chemical fibers and threads, paints. Leading enterprises: the Voskresensk production association "Minudobreniya", the Klin and Mytishchi production associations "Khimvolokno", the Zagorsk paint and varnish plant, as well as the enterprises of Shchelkov, Orekhov-Zuev, etc. The main centers of the textile industry - the oldest branch of specialization - Orekhovo-Zuevo, Noginsk, Pavlovsky Posad, Yegorievsk, Serpukhov, Naro-Fominsk. They produce cotton, woolen, silk fabrics and knitwear. The building materials industry produces cement, bricks, reinforced concrete structures, and asbestos-cement pipes. In the food industry of the city, meat and dairy, confectionery, baking, perfumery, cosmetics and other industries are especially developed. The capital has a powerful printing industry. Intensive rural agriculture specializes in the cultivation of potatoes and vegetables, and in animal husbandry - in the production of milk and eggs. For each employed in agricultural production in the region, there are 5 times more people than the average for the republic. The scientific and technological revolution made the centers of science typical for the Moscow region urban settlements: Dubna, Pushchino, Protvino, Chernogolovka, Mendeleevo, Troitsk, etc. Enterprises and organizations of the region supply products for export to almost all countries of Eastern Europe, as well as to Africa, Asia, and Western Europe. 36. Eastern subregion. Vladimir and Ivanovo regions The area of the subdistrict is 52,9 thousand km2, the population is 2962 thousand people, of which 80% are urban. The share of the subdistrict in the total volume of industrial production in Russia in 1992 was 2,3%. The industry of the subregion produces about 2/3 linen, more than 1/3 cotton, about 1/6 silk and 1/8 woolen fabrics; most of the tractors and about 1/3 of the excavators in the CER. Ivanovo region - the largest region of the textile industry in the country. The main centers of cotton production are Ivanovo, Kineshma, Shuya, Vichuga, Furmanov, Teikovo, Rodniki. The linen industry is concentrated in Privolzhsk, Kineshma, Vichuga and a number of other settlements. In the industry of the Vladimir region a special place is occupied by mechanical engineering, light and chemical industries; the share of mechanical engineering in the industrial structure exceeded 2/5. The region specializes in the production of transport, agricultural, hoisting and transport engineering, electrical and instrument-making industries. Mechanical engineering of the Ivanovo region is represented by such industries as textile, machine tool building and road construction. The largest enterprises are located in Ivanovo. The enterprises of the chemical industry of the Vladimir region produce synthetic resins and plastics, fiberglass and polymer films; in Ivanovskaya - dyes and acids for the needs of textile , industry. The Vladimir region is famous for its centers of folk crafts - miniature painting and embroidery; Gus-Khrustalny is a well-known center far beyond the borders of the country, where art products from crystal and colored glass have long been produced. Palekh and Kholuy are world famous - ancient centers of art crafts in the Ivanovo region (painting of lacquer products, miniature painting). Industrial production is concentrated in Vladimir. The industry is represented by a tractor plant, chemical enterprises, the Avtopribor plant, and others. Other industrial centers include Kovrov, where a large excavator plant operates, the production of hosiery machines, dial scales, and a cotton mill are located; Murom, where there are diesel locomotive and radio plants, textile and woodworking enterprises. The food industry is of great importance in the Ivanovo region. Meat and dairy products, canned food, etc. are produced here. The timber and woodworking industries produce timber, lumber, and furniture. Woodworking is concentrated mainly in the Trans-Volga and south-eastern parts of the region. The building materials industry produces building bricks, precast concrete structures and parts. 37. North-Eastern subregion. Yaroslavl and Kostroma regions The area of the subdistrict is 96,5 thousand km2, the population is 2279 thousand people, including 75,8% of the urban area. The share of the subdistrict in the total volume of industrial production in Russia in 1992 was 2%. Features of the economic and geographical position of the subregion are determined by its wide outlet to the upper Volga. The main economic area was formed along the Volga from Rybinsk through Yaroslavl to Kostroma. The main urban settlements with enterprises of machine-building, chemical and light industries are concentrated here - the main branches of specialization of the subdistrict. Mechanical engineering enterprises produce metal-cutting and woodworking machines, excavators, and spinning machines (Kostroma Region). Mechanical engineering of the Yaroslavl region specializes in shipbuilding, the production of engines, electric motors, equipment for the chemical, woodworking and other industries. Large machine-building enterprises and a number of chemical engineering plants are concentrated in Yaroslavl. Rybinsk is a center of printing engineering, motor and shipbuilding. In Uglich there is a well-known watch factory throughout the country, in Danilov - a plant for woodworking machines. The chemical industry closely cooperates with mechanical engineering. In Yaroslavl there are oil refineries, synthetic rubber plants, tire, paint and varnish plants, in Pereslavl-Zalessky - film and photo chemical production. An important place in the economy of the Kostroma region is occupied by the forest complex. It produces wood-fiber and chipboard, cardboard. A house-building plant operates in Sharya, sawmills - in Neya, Manturov, plywood factories - in Kostroma, Manturov, a paper mill - in Alexandrov. The building materials industry produces prefabricated reinforced concrete structures and parts, building bricks, glass, crushed stone, gravel. Пищевая промышленность It is represented by butter, cheese factories, cereal factories and meat processing plants. One of the largest in the Central District, Kostromskaya GRES79 operates in the region. Among the enterprises of the light industry of the Yaroslavl region are Krasny Perekop, which produces cotton yarn and technical fabrics, the Yaroslavl cord factory, and flax mills in the cities of Gavrilov-Yam and Tutaev. The light industry of the Kostroma region is represented by the clothing, knitwear, and footwear industries. Linen industry develops on its own raw material base (Kostroma, Nerekhta). 38. Northwestern subregion. Tver and Smolensk regions The area of the subdistrict is 133,9 thousand km2, the population is 2828 thousand people, of which 70,9% is urban. The share of the subdistrict in the total volume of industrial production in Russia in 1992 was 1,5%. The leading place in the Tver region is occupied by light industry. The cotton industry is of the greatest importance - in terms of production in the CER, the region is second only to the capital region, Vladimir and Ivanovo regions. Cotton enterprises are located in Tver and Vyshny Volochek. In terms of shoe production, the region is second only to Moscow. Leather and shoe production operates in Ostashkov, Torzhok, Tver, Kimry. In the production of knitwear, the Tver region is second only to the capital region and the Smolensk region. Enterprises of this industry are located in Tver, Kimry and Vyshny Volochek. Primary processing of flax is carried out in Bezhetsk, Kashin, Sonkovo, a large flax factory - in Rzhev. All these enterprises use their own raw material base. The light industry of the Smolensk region is represented by numerous flax processing enterprises, including the Smolensk and Vyazemsky flax mills, operating on their own resource base. A large cotton mill is located in Yartsevo, leather and footwear enterprises operate. (Central district. Mints A. A.) The leading branch of the industrial complex of the Smolensk region is engineering и metalworking - represented by the electrical industry, road construction and power engineering. The main center of mechanical engineering is Smolensk. Among other mechanical engineering centers, Yartsevo (production of weaving and spinning machines), Safonovo (instrument making) and Roslavl (power equipment) stand out. Mechanical engineering also occupies a significant place in the industry of the Tver region. Industry enterprises produce metal-cutting machines, forging and pressing, agricultural machines, excavators, tower cranes, flax harvesters. Large enterprises in Tver, Nelidovo, Kimry, etc. The industry of building materials is also developed on the local raw material base: brick factories - in Smolensk, Roslavl, Vyazma, Safonov, factories of reinforced concrete products - in Smolensk, Safonov, Gnezdovo. In the Tver region, enterprises for the production of glass and faience are widely known. Chemical Industry It is represented by the Dorogobuzh Production Association "Minudobreniya" operating on imported gas, as well as the Safonovsky Plastics Plant. The food industry operates on its own raw material base. Butter factories are located in Yelnya, Glinka, Monastyrshchina and other centers, dairy canning plants - in Gagarin, Rudnya, Kardymov, meat processing plants - in Smolensk, Vyazma, Roslavl. 39. Southern subregion. Oryol, Bryansk, Tula, Ryazan, Kaluga regions The area of the subdistrict is 154,8 thousand km2, the population is 6645 thousand people, including 71,8% of the urban area. The share of the subdistrict in the total volume of industrial production in Russia in 1992 was 3,7%. The industry of the subdistrict complements the industrial complex of the CER mainly with mechanical engineering, electric power industry based on the coal industry, ferrous metallurgy, and the chemical industry. Engineering represented throughout the subregion and concentrated in Kaluga (turbine plants, electrical engineering, etc.), Lyudinovo (locomotive construction), Kirov (casting and mechanical, iron foundries), Orel (textile machines, instruments, clocks, equipment for the food industry), Livny ( hydraulic machines, fire-fighting equipment), Mtsensk (a branch of ZIL), Tula (agricultural, transport vehicles, machine tools, precision engineering products), Ryazan, Skopin (precision engineering, machine tool building, road construction and power engineering), Bryansk region (diesel locomotives, railway cars , trucks, machine tools, excavators, devices, etc.). Light industry It is represented by clothing and footwear factories in Kaluga, Kondrov, Kirov, Sukhinichi, Orel, Livny, cloth factories in Borovsk, Klintsy, knitwear factories in Kaluga and Borovsk. Transport routes passing through the territory of the Ryazan region from Moscow to the southern and southeastern regions of the European part of the country contribute to the development of light industry here. In Ryazan, Kasimov, Murmin, Spassk-Ryazansky there are enterprises of the woolen, clothing and leather and footwear industries. Chemical industry enterprises in the Tula region produce nitrogen fertilizers, synthetic rubber, phenols, pesticides, synthetic resins, and plastics and are located in Novomoskovsk, Efremov, and Shchekino. The enterprises of the chemical and forestry complex of the Ryazan region specialize in the production of mineral fertilizers, sulfuric acid, chemical fibers and threads, commercial timber harvesting, and cardboard production. In the Bryansk region, mineral fertilizers, paper and cardboard are produced on the basis of their own resources; there are sawmills, plywood and furniture enterprises. The Tula region accounts for the bulk of the coal production of the Moscow region lignite basin. GRES - Shchekinskaya, Novomoskovsk, Cherepetskaya operate on this coal. The Ryazan region also produces brown coal and peat, which is used to generate electricity. The metallurgical industry of the Tula region is the oldest industry, it works on the ores of the Kursk magnetic anomaly and on local raw materials. Metallurgical plants: Novotulsky and Kosogorsky. Ferrous metallurgy in the Orel region is represented mainly by steel-rolling production in Orel. In all areas of the subdistrict, the building materials industry is represented, which produces glass, building faience, brick, reinforced concrete products, cement, and slate. 40. Sectoral structure of the economy of the Central District Machine-building complex CER in terms of the number of employees and marketable products, it has no equal in the country. Among the branches of mechanical engineering, the leading place belongs to those that are most dependent on the availability of qualified personnel and use the powerful scientific and technical potential of the region. machine tool и tool industry CER produces 1/5 of machine tools and about 1/3 of metalworking tools in the CIS. The enterprises are concentrated in Moscow and the Moscow region, as well as in the Ryazan, Ivanovo and Kaluga regions. Electrical industry enterprises are concentrated in the capital and in the region, as well as in Yaroslavl, Rybinsk, Vladimir, Kolchugin. Instrumentation. The leading production association in the automotive industry of the CER is the Moscow Automobile Plant. I. A. Likhacheva. The company specializes in the production of trucks of medium tonnage and small-scale passenger cars of the highest class. CER is the birthplace of domestic railway engineering. The production of diesel locomotives is concentrated in Kolomna, Bryansk, Kaluga, Lyudinovo, Murom; wagons - in Bryansk, Tver, Mytishchi. The region's aviation industry is distinguished by a high degree of concentration. Its enterprises are located in Moscow, Smolensk, Rybinsk (engine production). In the Volga-Oka interfluve - Yaroslavl, Rybinsk, Kostroma, Moscow, Gorokhovets - shipbuilding is localized. CER is a leader in the production of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers. The largest suppliers of complex fertilizers are Novomoskovsk and Shchekinskoe PO "Azot" (Tula region), Dorogobuzh plant (Smolensk region). Phosphate fertilizers are produced by Minudobreniya Production Association in Voskresensk. The production of synthetic resins and plastics is concentrated in the Moscow and Tula regions, plastic products - in Moscow, Moscow. In terms of the development of the chemical and petrochemical industry, Moscow, Moscow, Tula and Yaroslavl regions stand out in the CER. Light industry The area is distinguished by a high degree of concentration, primarily of the textile industry. The enterprises of the region produce almost 80% of cotton fabrics in Russia. The fuel and energy complex of the CER only partially satisfies the needs of the region. Coal mining in the Moscow Basin is declining. In terms of peat extraction, CER occupies a leading position in Russia. Currently, the CER is one of the country's leaders in the generation of electrical and thermal energy. 41. Volga-Vyatka economic region. Composition, territory, population Volga-Vyatka economic region is located in the central part of the European territory of Russia, in the basins of the Volga and Vyatka rivers. It includes the republics of Mari El, Mordovia, Chuvash and Nizhny Novgorod, Kirov regions. The area of the district is 263,3 thousand km2, or 1,5% of the territory of Russia. Population - 8,444 million people. Occupying a little more than 1% of the territory of the Russian Federation, the Volga-Vyatka economic region produces 5,1% of industrial and 6,4% of the country's commercial agricultural products. In the inter-district territorial division of labor, the region is distinguished by the products of market specialization industries: mechanical engineering, chemical and petrochemical industries, forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries. The share of the Volga-Vyatka Economic Region (VVER) in the output of industrial products, the value of fixed assets and the number of industrial and production personnel of the Russian Federation exceeds its share in the total population and area on the scale of Russia. In the all-Russian territorial division of labor, VVER is distinguished by the production of a variety of products from the engineering, chemical and petrochemical, oil refining, forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries. The region is characterized by developed agriculture: the share of agricultural land is about 5%, arable land - 5% of the total Russian; the share of agricultural production - 5,7% of the total Russian. The relief of the region is represented by a hilly-ridged plain with pronounced glacial forms, the territory is dissected by numerous rivers in the Trans-Volga part, and in the south by gullies and ravines. The difficult terrain hinders the development of agriculture and construction. The climate of the region is continental. Continentality increases from the southwest to the northeast. The average temperature in January ranges from -11°С to -16°С, and in July - from +17°С to +19,5°С. Annual rainfall decreases from west to east from 600 mm to 350 mm per year. The duration of the frost-free period is from 190 to 140 days. The southern part of the region is affected by drought, while the northern part is excessively humid and swampy. 42. Population and labor resources of the Volga-Vyatka region The population of the district is 8,4 million people, or 5,7% of the population of the Russian Federation. During the period of economic reforms, the population of the region decreased by 36 thousand people, which is explained by negative indicators of natural growth and migration flows to other regions of the country. The average population density is 31,7 people. per 1 km2, which is almost 4 times higher than the average population of Russia. However, the area is unevenly populated. Thus, the population density of the Chuvash Republic is 74,4 people. per 1 km2, and in the Kirov region - 13,5 people. per 1 km2. The industrialization of the region and the high outflow of the population from the countryside contributed to the urbanization of the population. 70,1% of the region's population lives in cities. The highest level of urban population is in the Nizhny Novgorod (77,9%) and Kirov (70,4%) regions. Less urbanized are the Republics of Mordovia, Mari El, Chuvash; in them, the urban population accounts for 58,3; 62,6 and 60,6% respectively. The main part of the urban population lives in 8 cities of the region. The largest urban agglomeration of the country is Nizhny Novgorod, which includes Nizhny Novgorod and satellite cities adjacent to it: Dzerzhinsk, Bor, Kstovo, etc., as well as urban-type settlements gravitating towards it. The provision of the region with labor resources is one of the most important prerequisites for the development and distribution of productive forces. For a long time, the region belonged to areas with an excess of labor resources, and served as a source for replenishment of labor resources in other regions of the country. However, the assignment of the Volga-Vyatka region to labor surplus should be reconsidered at present. The number of economically active population in the region for 1992-1996. decreased by 203,1 thousand people, or 4,6%, and amounted to 4063,6 thousand people, and those employed in the economy decreased by 8,6%, which is associated with a further reduction in workers in the sphere of material production. The unemployment rate increased over the same period from 5,3% to 9,3%. Working-age population is 4,0 million people, of which 90,7% are employed in social production, including 69,6% in material production, and 30,4% in the non-productive sphere. In connection with the development of market relations, the bankruptcy of unprofitable enterprises, and the reduction of jobs, the proportion of the unemployed is growing, especially in small and medium-sized cities with a single-industry structure of the economy. Therefore, in these cities, it is necessary to develop small business, non-production sphere, which would contribute to additional attraction of labor force and mitigation of unemployment and social tension in the region. A convenient geographical location, stable transport links, the availability of construction sites suitable for accommodating new industrial facilities, highly qualified personnel create favorable prerequisites for increasing the economic potential of the region. 43. Structure and location of the main branches of the economic complex of the Volga-Vyatka region The share of mechanical engineering and metalworking in the structure of industrial production is 38,2%. The region produces cars, ships, machine tools, engines, instruments, electrical and electronic equipment. Among the branches of mechanical engineering of market specialization, transport engineering stands out. Here arose the largest complex of automotive industry. Among the enterprises of the automotive industry, the joint-stock company AvtoGAZ stands out, the head enterprise of which in Nizhny Novgorod produces cars and trucks. Among the branches of market specialization of the region, a highly developed chemical и petrochemical industry . The development of the industry is based on the use of both local and imported raw materials. Chemical industry enterprises produce a wide range of products, including ammonia, caustic soda, synthetic resins, and plastics. Wood chemistry has received great development, the products of the industry have found wide application in the economy and everyday life. In Kirov, Saransk, Cheboksary, the tire and rubber industry has developed, which is closely connected with the automotive industry of the region. One of the most important branches of market specialization is forestry, which focuses on the local raw material base. However, excessive deforestation has led to a reduction in its reserves, and, consequently, to a decrease in the volume of harvesting. The main logging is carried out in the Kirov and Nizhny Novgorod regions. The pulp and paper industry has received a fairly high development in the region. In terms of paper production, the Volga-Vyatka region occupies the 3rd place in Russia. The largest enterprise in the industry is the Balakhna Pulp and Paper Mill. Pulp and paper mills are also located in Volzhsk and Pravdinsk. Hydropower is represented by two power plants: Cheboksarskaya (1430 thousand kW) and Nizhny Novgorod (520 thousand kW). The region has a developed base of the construction complex. Enterprises for the production of building materials are located mainly in the Nizhny Novgorod region and the Republic of Mordovia. Of the local raw materials, glass sands are the most widely used. The Bor glass factory specializes in the production of hard-to-find glass for cars and window glass. Agriculture of the Volga-Vyatka region has significant potential. Of great importance in the region is animal husbandry, which is widely represented in all administrative-territorial units of the region. The agro-industrial complex of the Volga-Vyatka region has a network of processing enterprises. 44. Territorial organization of the economy of the Volga-Vyatka region characteristic feature territorial organization economy of the Volga-Vyatka economic region is a significant uneven distribution of productive forces. The core of the economic development of the region is the Nizhny Novgorod region. Its production profile is determined by the automotive industry, shipbuilding, machine tool building, diesel engine building and related enterprises in other industries. However, there is a decrease in the share of the region in the economic complex of the Volga-Vyatka region. This is due to the fact that high rates of industrial development were noted in the republics of the region. Thus, in the Chuvash Republic, the sectors of qualified mechanical engineering developed at a decisive pace - electrical engineering and instrument making; in the Republic of Mordovia - lighting engineering, cement and rubber production; in the Republic of Mari El - instrumentation and radio electronics. The Kirov region ranks second in the region in terms of industrial production. It accounts for 18% of the volume of industrial production in the Volga-Vyatka region. The main branches of specialization in the region are mechanical engineering, including electronics, the production of household appliances, machine tools, forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper, chemical and food industries. The economy of the Republic of Mari El is dominated by industry. In the structure of industrial production, the share of mechanical engineering accounts for more than 1/4 of the volume of industrial production of the republic. The republic produces 61% of all domestic commercial and refrigeration equipment. The timber, woodworking and pulp and paper industries account for 13%. The Republic of Mordovia refers to the industrial and agricultural. In it, along with industry, the agro-industrial complex also has a high level of development. The leading industry in the country is engineering , which accounts for more than 50% of the volume of manufactured industrial products of the republic. Among the branches of mechanical engineering, instrument making, lighting engineering, and semiconductor production stand out. The share of the food industry is large - almost 1/5 of the total industrial output of the republic. В Chuvash Republic in the structure of industrial production, the share of mechanical engineering accounts for more than 1/3 of the volume of industrial production. It produces looms and electric forklifts, bulldozers. Among the machine-building enterprises of the republic, Promtractor JSC stands out - the only enterprise in Russia and Europe that manufactures powerful multi-purpose tractors used in the coal mining, gold mining and gas industries. 45. Central Black Earth economic region The composition Central Black Earth economic region includes: Belgorod, Voronezh, Kursk, Lipetsk and Tambov regions. Area: 167,7 thousand km2. Population: 7,9 million In the formation of the economic complex of the Central Black Earth economic region, an important role is played by the presence of the richest reserves of iron ore, fertile black earth massifs, combined with favorable agro-climatic conditions and a convenient economic and geographical position. The Central Black Earth economic region borders on the leading industrial region of the country - Central and is conveniently located in relation to the fuel and energy bases of the Volga region, the North Caucasus and Ukraine. The natural conditions of the region are characterized by moderate continentality. Despite the aridity, the conditions are favorable for agriculture. The relief of the Central Black Earth Region is expressed by the Central Russian Upland and the Oka-Don Lowland. The mineral resources of the Central Black Earth economic region are represented by the unique iron ore reserves of the Kursk magnetic anomaly, deposits of refractory clays, metallurgical dolomites, copper-nickel ores, bauxites and certain types of mineral construction raw materials. Copper-nickel deposits of the Voronezh region form the third largest copper-nickel province of the Russian Federation. There are bauxite deposits in the Belgorod region, but not yet exploited. The Central Black Earth economic region is acutely deficient in terms of fuel and energy resources and uses almost entirely imported fuel. Forest resources are mainly of soil protection and recreational importance. The area is poor in water resources, which is unfavorable for its economic development. The land resources of the region are distinguished by their quality: 80% are soils of the chernozem type. The population of the Central Black Earth economic region is 7,9 million people, or 5,3% of the population of the Russian Federation. 61,6% of the population lives in cities, 38,4% of the population lives in rural areas. In terms of population density (47,0 people per km2), the region occupies one of the leading places in Russia. The Central Black Earth economic region has developed economic ties with the Central, Ural, West Siberian and Volga regions of Russia and with Ukraine. Iron ore, mineral construction materials, ferrous metals, bread, and sugar are exported from the region. One of the main directions for the further development of the Central Black Earth economic region is the creation of highly commercial and diversified agriculture and related processing industries. 46. North Caucasian economic region The composition North Caucasian economic region includes the Rostov region, Krasnodar and Stavropol territories, the republics of Adygea, Dagestan, Ingush, Kabardino-Balkaria, Karachay-Cherkess, North Ossetia, Chechen. The area of the district is 335,1 thousand km2, or 2,1% of the territory of Russia. The North Caucasus has an advantageous economic and geographical position. Occupying the Caucasian Isthmus, it is located between the Black, Azov and Caspian Seas, as well as at the crossroads of important routes from the central eastern regions of the country to the states of the Transcaucasus, Turkey and Iran. The North Caucasus borders on the powerful Donetsk-Pridneprovsky region of Ukraine, the Volga and Central Black Earth regions. The economic and geographical position is favorable. There is access to three seas. The natural landscapes of the North Caucasus are diverse. There are mountain ranges and steppe plains, turbulent mountain rivers and drying lakes, oases of subtropical vegetation on the Black Sea coast and cold snowy peaks of the Caucasus Mountains. The highest point of the Russian Federation is Elbrus. The diversity of natural conditions is explained by the geographical location and features of the relief, which in turn affects the resettlement of people and their economic activities. The population of the North Caucasus is 17,7 million people. The region has a surplus of labor resources. The population is extremely unevenly distributed, although even the average population density is 47 people per 1 km2. The North Caucasus is distinguished by a highly developed and diversified agriculture, from industries - engineering, fuel and food industries. Among other industries, the role of non-ferrous metallurgy and the production of building materials is noticeable. The leading branch of specialization is mechanical engineering. An important place is occupied by the production of equipment for the oil and gas and food industries, as well as the production of electric locomotives. Power engineering is represented in Taganrog (steam boilers) and Volgodonsk (equipment for nuclear power plants). The largest industrial center of the North Caucasus region is the city of Rostov-on-Don. The oil and gas industry is represented in Krasnodar (refinery), Maykop, Grozny (refinery), Tuapse (refinery). Chemical Industry The district produces nitrogen fertilizers from natural gas (Nevinnomyssk, Belorechensk), pesticides, synthetic materials, and plastics (Budennovsk). Non-ferrous metallurgy is represented in North Ossetia (Sadon), Kabardino-Balkaria (Tyrnyauz). The food industry fully provides raw materials for the developed agriculture of the region. 47. Volga economic region Volga economic region includes: Astrakhan, Volgograd, Penza, Samara, Saratov, Ulyanovsk regions; Republics of Kalmykia and Tatarstan. General indicators of the district: territory - 0,54 million km2, population - 16,5 million people, density - 30,8 people. per km2. The area stretches from north to south along the Volga River for 1,5 thousand km and is characterized by a mid-continental climate type. Average temperatures: January -11,7 °С, July +22,3 °С; the annual amount of precipitation is 200-700 mm. The total land area of the district is 53,640 million hectares, of which only 9% is occupied by forests, and the timber reserves in the district are 572,9 million m3. Significant reserves of oil, natural gas, gas condensate, oil shale, native sulfur, and common salt are concentrated in the Volga economic region. The area stands out for its rich raw material base for the building materials industry. Natural resources The Volga region provides him with the role of one of the main raw material bases of Russia for the extraction of natural gas and in the building materials industry. The most important natural resource of the region are high-quality soils, most of which are represented by chernozems. chemical и petrochemical industry districts occupy a leading position in Russia. In addition, paper, pulp, televisions, refrigerators, etc. are produced in the region. The Volga economic region occupies one of the leading places in the Russian Federation in the development of the agro-industrial complex. Its share is 14% in the production of all marketable agricultural products of the Russian Federation. About 24% of the able-bodied population is employed in agricultural production. Over 63% of the gross agricultural output of the region is accounted for by animal husbandry. The region is the main supplier of durum wheat: about 50% in the Russian Federation. Of the branches of plant growing, it is necessary to note the production of sunflower - 7040 thousand tons, which is over 22% of its total production in the Russian Federation. All types of transport are developed in the Volga region. The operational length of the railways is about 10% of the length of the Russian railways, the largest part of it is located in the Saratov and Volgograd regions and the Republic of Tatarstan. There are 10 km of railways per 2 thousand km160 of the region, which is 3 times more than the average for the Russian Federation. Railroads and highways connect the centers of regions and republics of the region with the central, northeastern and southern regions of the European part of Russia. 48. Population of the Ural economic region The population in different regions of the country also changes due to the movement of people from one permanent place of residence to another (internal migration). The most numerous and constant migration of the population from rural areas to cities. There is also resettlement between rural settlements. Significant migration from small towns to large ones. In the pre-war years, the resettlement went to the Urals, Siberia and the Far East, where mineral deposits were developed and factories were built. Population is 20,5 million people. Currently, there are 140 cities in the Ural economic region, where 75% of the population lives, which is one of the highest rates in the country. Four cities have a population of over a million people: Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk, Ufa, Perm. The largest urban agglomerations have formed around these cities, concentrating 34% of the population of the Urals and occupying about 10% of its territory. The most urbanized are the Sverdlovsk and Chelyabinsk regions, where 87% and 83% of the population, respectively, live in cities and urban-type settlements. Population density high - 24,9 people per , square kilometer, while the most densely populated Chelyabinsk region (41,4 people/km2) and Udmurtia (38,7 people/km2), the least - Kurgan and Orenburg regions (15,6 and 17,7 people/km2 respectively ), but even in these areas the population density is higher than the national average. 49. Structure and location of the leading sectors of the economy of the Ural region В structure of the economic complex of the Ural economic Area industry plays a leading role. Fuel and energy complex ensures the functioning of all sectors of the economy. Its development is especially important in the Urals, where many heat- and energy-intensive industries are concentrated. The Urals is one of the areas with a low supply of fuel and energy resources. The traditional industry for the Urals is coal industry , but coal deposits are depleted, mines and quarries are closed. The extraction of oil and gas is of great importance at the present time. A powerful oil refining industry has been created, the largest oil refineries are located in Ufa, Salovat, and Perm. The United Ural Energy System is one of the largest in the country; its basis is thermal power engineering based on coal and natural and associated gas. Hydropower is also developed - the largest hydroelectric power plants were built on the Kama: Votkinskaya and Kama. In the Urals, there is the Beloyarskaya nuclear power plant with a powerful fast neutron reactor. Ferrous metallurgy The Ural economic region is represented by all stages of production, from the extraction and enrichment of iron ores to the smelting of iron, steel and rolled products. In the Urals, nickel ores are mined and enriched, metallic nickel is smelted, and metal products are smelted. Nickel production is concentrated in the areas of ore mining: in the South Trans-Urals (Orsk), Ufaleisk region. Aluminum industry Ural is provided with its own raw materials. Aluminum smelters: Bogoslovsky (Krasnoturinsk), Uralsky (Kamensk-Uralsky city), etc. Engineering The Urals is a large branch of its market specialization, it occupies a leading place in the structure of industrial production of the Ural economic region. Currently, almost 150 machine-building enterprises are operating in the region, representing all sub-sectors of machine-building. Here are developed: heavy engineering, energy, transport, agricultural engineering, tractor building. Forest industry - a branch of market specialization of the Ural economic region - operates on its own raw material base, is represented by all stages of production, from timber harvesting to the release of final products. Chemical processing of wood and its waste is developed. The most important centers of the timber and woodworking industries are located in the Perm and Sverdlovsk regions. Logging is carried out mainly in the southern and central parts of these regions, although the main forest areas are in the north. Of great importance is the pulp and paper industry of the Urals, whose enterprises are also located in the Perm and Sverdlovsk regions. 50. West Siberian economic region West Siberian region extends from the eastern slope of the Urals in the west to the Yenisei in the east, from the Kara Sea in the north to the Republic of Kazakhstan in the south. Its area is 2,427 million km2, or 17% of the territory of Russia, the population is 15,1 million people, and the density is 6,2 people. per 1 km2. The district includes 5 regions: Kemerovo, Novosibirsk, Omsk, Tomsk, Tyumen region and Altai Territory. The type of climate is mid-continental. The north of the region, located in the tundra and forest-tundra zone, has a harsh climate, the southern regions have more favorable natural and climatic conditions. The average temperature in January is up to -18 °С, in July +19,1 °С, the duration of the frost-free period is 60-120 days, the annual precipitation is 300-700 mm. Of the total land area of the district of 242,7 million hectares, 37% is covered with forests, mostly coniferous. Timber reserves amount to 10,8 billion m3. The region has significant developed deposits of oil, natural gas, gas condensate, coal, and iron ores. In the interdistrict division of labor, the West Siberian region stands out as a major center for machine building, ferrous metallurgy, chemical and timber industries. Western Siberia is a major agricultural base in the East of Russia. Agriculture has a livestock and grain direction. All types of transport function on the territory of the region. The transport network consists of 8,8 thousand km of public railways; 61,8 thousand km of paved roads; 32 thousand km of pipelines; 21,5 thousand km of inland waterways. The main rivers of Western Siberia - Ob, Irtysh, Ishim, Tobol, Konda, Ket, Chulym. Air communication is provided by the airports of Tomsk, Kemerovo, Novokuznetsk, Barnaul, Biysk, Strezhevoy, Gorno-Altaisk, Omsk, Tyumen, Tobolsk, Surgut, Novosibirsk. Customs are available at the airports of Tomsk, Kemerovo, Barnaul, Omsk, Tyumen. Oil pipelines are laid across the territory of Western Siberia: Nizhnevartovsk - Ust-Balyk - Omsk, Samotlor - Almetyevsk, Ust-Balyk - Omsk, Ust-Balyk - Almetyevsk, Shaim - Tyumen - Kurgan, etc. and gas pipelines: the northern regions of the Tyumen region - the Volga region - Center and etc. On the territory of the district there are hunting farms and reserves: Buturlinskoye, Tarskoye, Ust-Ishimskoye, Barabinskoye, etc. Sport fishing (sturgeon, nelma) is possible on the rivers. In the area there are ancient monuments, museums of the XVIII-XIX centuries. 51. Far Eastern economic region. Features of the geographical location Russian Far East covers an area of 6215,9 thousand km2 and stretches from north to south for more than 4,5 thousand km. The region includes the Khabarovsk Territory with the Jewish Autonomous Region, the Primorsky Territory, the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), the Amur Region, the Sakhalin Region, the Magadan Region with the Chukotka Autonomous Region, and the Kamchatka Region with the Koryak Autonomous Region. According to a number of basic characteristics (economic and geographical location, natural resources, conditions for their development, specialization of the economy), two sub-regions are distinguished: North (Yakutia-Sakha and Magadan Region) and South (Khabarovsk and Primorsky Territories, Amur, Sakhalin and Kamchatka Regions). The Far East South is much more favorable for economic development than the North. About 30% of the region's area is home to 80% of its inhabitants. The north, on the contrary, is characterized by harsh nature and sparsely populated areas. The development of valuable minerals is the main specialization of the region, which determines its place in the Russian economy. Industrial centers, mainly associated with the extraction of minerals, are significantly removed from each other. There are two most important factors that determine the position of the Far East in the system of Russian regions. First of all - the special economic and geographical position of the region. It is characterized by remoteness from the main, most populated and developed regions of the country, as well as marginality and limited contacts with the only neighbor - Eastern Siberia. The second factor is a powerful resource potential. The Far East is one of the richest regions of Russia. This gives him the opportunity to occupy an important place in the country's economy in a number of raw material positions. Thus, the region produces (%): diamonds - 98, tin - 80, raw boron - 90, gold - 50, tungsten - 14, fish and seafood - more than 40, soybeans - 80, wood - 13, cellulose - 7. 52. Natural resource potential of the Far East region Natural conditions of the Far East differ in sharp contrast, which is due to the huge extent of the territory from north to south. Most of the territory is occupied by mountains and highlands. The height of the mountains is on average 1000-1500 m. Lowlands are located only on relatively small areas along river valleys. Permafrost is widespread in a significant part of the region, which complicates the construction and development of agriculture. There are more than 20 active volcanoes and many geysers in Kamchatka. The largest of the volcanoes is Klyuchevskaya Sopka with a height of 4750 m. The Far East has a rich and diverse mineral resource base. Explored in the region are deposits of diamonds, gold, tin, mercury and tungsten. There are huge fuel resources, a variety of ore raw materials and building materials. The region occupies a leading position in the country in terms of tin reserves, the main deposits of which are located in the Republic of Sakha and in the Magadan region. The Far East also has raw materials for ferrous metallurgy. Iron ores are concentrated mainly in the south of the Khabarovsk Territory, in the Amur Region and the Republic of Sakha. The Garinskoye deposit stands out in particular. Not far from the South Aldan iron ore region there are large deposits of coking coal - the South Yakutsk coal-bearing area, which favors the creation of ferrous metallurgy in the Far East in the future. The Far East is well provided with fuel and energy resources. The main coal reserves are concentrated in the Kivda-Raichikhinsky brown coal region, Bureinsky, Svobodnensky, Suchansky, Suifunsky, Uglovsky regions, as well as the Lena and South Yakutsk basins. A number of deposits have been explored in Sakhalin, whose coal-bearing deposits are very diverse in their grade composition. The Far East has oil and gas resources. There are diamond reserves, especially in the Republic of Sakha. In the basins of the Vilyui and Aldan rivers, there are deposits of Icelandic spar and rock crystal. The Far East occupies an important place in the country in terms of mica reserves. Salt is mined in the Republic of Sakha, and sulfur is mined in Kamchatka. Primorye and the Amur region are rich in cement raw materials. Graphite deposits have been discovered in the Jewish Autonomous Region. The seas (the Bering Sea, the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sea of Japan) play an exceptionally large and diverse role in the economy of the Far East. There are routes along the Sea of Japan that connect Russia with Japan, the DPRK, the Republic of Korea, China, and the USA. The commercial resources of the Sea of Japan are significant and varied. Herring, flounder, cod, salmon, mackerel and a number of other valuable commercial species are caught here. In the Sea of Japan, crabs, trepangs, seaweed and seaweed are also harvested. 53. Population, labor resources of the Far East region Population Far East - 7,6 million people. The urban population is about 76%. The Far East is the most sparsely populated region of the country. The average density is 1,1 people per 1 km2. The population is distributed very unevenly across the region. Primorsky Krai stands out with the highest density - 12,1 people. The southern part of Sakhalin is quite densely populated. At the same time, in the Republic of Sakha, Magadan and Kamchatka regions, the population density is only 0,3-0,8 people per 1 km2. The development of the Far East during the period of industrialization and the ill-conceived national policy at the same time caused acute demographic problems. The destruction of the habitat of small peoples has put them on the brink of extinction. Therefore, at present, the task is to promote in every possible way the transformation of the habitat of these peoples, the creation of favorable social conditions for their normal life and the revival of traditions. As in other regions of Russia, in the Far East, in the initial period of the formation of the market, the problem of employment arose, the unemployed appeared, which was primarily due to the conversion of the defense complex. Social problems have escalated. In territorial terms, production and population gravitate towards the southern regions, which are more or less favorable in terms of climate and transport. Almost all enterprises of mechanical engineering, the defense complex, the black, oil refining, timber and woodworking industries, railways, large transit ports of all-Russian significance are located here. The main largest cities of the region are also concentrated here. Population in the southern territories and regions is 5 million people, or 2/3 of the total population of the Far East. The northern territories, which for the most part are absolutely uncomfortable and extremely uncomfortable, have a focal type of settlement. The population gravitates towards places of extraction of certain natural resources and transport hubs. The sectoral monospecialization of such centers and the small size of the settlement systems around them do not allow more or less complete human reproduction here. Many similar territories abroad are developed to a limited extent on the basis of specific approaches (temporary population, rotational organization of production). 54. Territorial organization and structure of production forces of the Far East region Leading Industries The market specialization of the Far East region is based on the wide use of its natural resources. The main industries are fish , forest и mining. Of the industries that strengthen the integrated development of the region, machine building and metalworking, fuel and energy, building materials, food and light industries have received significant development. The leading place among the branches of market specialization of the Far East region belongs to metallurgical complex , which includes the mining industry, as well as the conversion ferrous metallurgy. The mining industry of the region is the extraction of gold, diamonds, tin-bearing, tungsten, lead-zinc and other ores, the production of non-ferrous metals, as well as conversion ferrous metallurgy. The "Queen of the Far East" continues to be the gold mining industry, which is one of the oldest branches of the national economy of the region. Enterprises of this industry are located throughout the Far East. The centers of the mining industry have been created for the extraction of diamonds in the Verkhne-Vilyuisky region of Yakutia. A city of diamond miners has already grown here - Mirny, connected by a highway with Lensk, and the Vilyui hydroelectric power station has been built. Centers for the development of diamonds are being created at the Aikhal and Udachnoye deposits, where a motor road has been laid. The Far Eastern seas constitute the richest base of the fishing industry. They provide 60% of fish production in Russia. The presence of rich and diverse fish resources and the equipment of fishing with modern equipment ensure high efficiency of fish fishing: the cost of fish. The vast forest wealth of the Far East has led to the creation of one of the largest logging and wood processing complexes here, the effectiveness of which is determined by the concentration of large forest resources, including many valuable species of wood, with a high proportion of mature and overripe trees in the forests. In the northeast of Sakhalin - from Okha to Katangli - oil is being produced. From here, through two oil pipelines, it enters the oil refineries of Komsomolsk-on-Amur and Khabarovsk. But the size of oil production on the island is small and far from satisfying the needs of the region. Therefore, a lot of oil and oil products are imported to the Far East from Western Siberia. The problems of oil and gas production on the shelf of Sakhalin Island are being successfully solved. 55. Agro-industrial complex of the Far East region In a comprehensive Agriculture plays an important role in the development of the Far East . The main agricultural lands here are located in the Middle Amur region, the Ussuri region and the Khanka plain, they account for 95% of the sown area of the region. The entire sown area of the Far East is almost 3 million hectares, including about 40% under grain crops, 35% under soybeans, 6-7% under potatoes and vegetables, and 15-20% under fodder crops. The Far East is the main region of soybean production. It accounts for over 90% of all our crops of this valuable crop. In the southern part of the region, potatoes and vegetables are grown everywhere, the population of Primorsky Krai and the Amur Region is fully provided with these products through local production. The Far Eastern taiga, mainly mountainous areas, is rich in fur and other game animals. Hunting and fur farming are especially developed in the northern regions, throughout the Sikhote-Alin and on Sakhalin. Fur farms have been organized for breeding sables, arctic foxes, silver-black foxes, musk deer and deer. All existing modes of transport function in the Far East region, but the main role is played by the railway. In a significant amount, inter-district and intra-district transportation of goods in the Far East region is carried out by sea. Navigation in the harsh Arctic seas is provided with the help of icebreakers. The Lena River adjoins the Northern Sea Route, forming a transport bridge between the railway line and the sea route along the shores of the Arctic Ocean. A completely different mode of operation of maritime transport in the Pacific seas. Almost all year round, intra-regional and international transportation is carried out along the Sea of Japan and the Bering Sea. The main cargoes in transportation in the Far East region are timber, coal, building materials, oil, fish and food products. The district is poorly provided with motor roads. But in areas cut off from other transport routes, the importance of motor transport is great. For long-distance transportation, there are several major highways, for example, the Never-Aldan-Yakutsk road leads from the south to the Republic of Sakha. The northernmost road runs from Yakutsk to Magadan. The road Khabarovsk - Birobidzhan, the Kolyma tract is of great transport importance. Airplanes and helicopters provide communications with hard-to-reach areas. 56. East Siberian economic region Territory of Eastern Siberia stretches from the shores of the Arctic Ocean to the border with Mongolia, from the Yenisei to the upper reaches of the Amur. The area covers an area of 4,1 million km2, 24% of the area of the Russian Federation, the population is 9,2 million people, its density is 2,2 people/km2. It includes the republics of Buryatia, Tuva, Krasnoyarsk Territory, Irkutsk and Chita regions. The climate type is sharply continental, the average temperature in January is -26 °С, the average temperature in July is +16,7 °С, the duration of the frost-free period is 58-108 days, the annual precipitation is 300-700 mm. Permafrost is widespread, mainly in the north. Of the total land area of 412,3 million hectares, 57% is covered with forest, mostly coniferous. Timber reserves amount to 29 billion m3. Eastern Siberia produces about 12% of the entire mining industry, 7,7% of the fuel industry, 15,3% of the forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries, and 23% of the non-ferrous metallurgy of Russia. The main prerequisite for economic development is the exceptional wealth of natural resources - mineral, water, forest, land. The region's coal reserves are twice the size of those of the United States. Eastern Siberia accounts for about 40% of the total timber reserves. The East Siberian economic region specializes in the production of the country's cheapest electricity and fuel extraction. One of the branches of the mining industry in Eastern Siberia is gold mining. Tin, tungsten and molybdenum are mined in Transbaikalia. In the north, near Norilsk, large reserves of nickel, cobalt, and copper are being developed. Of particular importance are the reserves of mica and salt in the Irkutsk region and fluorspar in the Chita region, in the Krasnoyarsk Territory along the rivers Kureika and Nizhnyaya Tunguska, in the Eastern Sayan there are the largest reserves of graphite in the country, asbestos is mined in Tuva, its large reserves have been explored in the north of Buryatia. . Branches of specialization of agriculture are meat and dairy farming and grain production. The transport network of Eastern Siberia is underdeveloped. The share of road transport accounts for about 80% of the total volume of cargo transportation. The main rivers of the region of Eastern Siberia are the Yenisei, the Lower and Podkamennaya Tunguska, the Angara, the Biryusa, the Khatanga, the Olenyok, and the Selenga. External and internal communications are carried out by air transport and pipelines. Air communication is provided through the airports of Krasnoyarsk, Abakan, Irkutsk, Norilsk, Bratsk, Cheremkhovo, Taishet, Ust-Ilimsk, Ust-Kuba, Ulan-Ude, Chita, Kyzyl. Customs points are located in Krasnoyarsk, Irkutsk, Taishet, Ulan-Ude, Chita. Author: Sibikeev K.V.
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