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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Organizational behavior. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
1. SUBJECT AND METHODS OF INVESTIGATION OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR Organizational behavior (hereinafter - OP) is a scientific discipline that studies the behavior of working people and how they carry out activities within certain organizational structures. EP studies allow us to determine ways to improve the efficiency of human labor activity. EP is a scientific discipline in which the results of new research and conceptual developments are constantly added to the main body of knowledge. OP is an applied science, thanks to which the experience of successful and unsuccessful companies is disseminated in other organizations. The science of EP allows managers to analyze the behavior of an individual in an organization, contributes to understanding the problems of interpersonal relations in the interaction of two individuals (colleagues or a boss and a subordinate), when considering the dynamics of relations within small groups (both formal and informal), between groups when considering intra-organizational relations - when the organization is viewed and managed as a whole system (for example, strategic alliances and joint ventures). The objectives of the discipline: a systematic description of the behavior of people in various situations that arise in the organization; explanation of the reasons for the actions of individuals in certain conditions; prediction of employee behavior in the future. The ultimate goal of studying the EP is to master the skills of managing the behavior of people in the labor process and their improvement. EP is not only a theoretical discipline, but also a complex applied science of psychological, socio-psychological, social and organizational-economic aspects and factors that influence and largely determine the behavior and interaction of the subjects of the organization - people, groups, the team as a whole with each other. friend and with the external environment. OP research methods: - surveys (interviews, questioning, testing); - collection of fixed information (study of documents, etc.); - observations and experiments; - a method of structured observation (for example, when observing the organizational environment, the following elements are distinguished: premises, furnishings and equipment, design, lighting and color, appearance of members of the organization). The research is based on laboratory and natural experiments. 2. INFLUENCE OF THE PERSON ON THE EP The OP is based on a number of basic ideas about the nature of man and organizations. Basic concepts that characterize any individual. Individual characteristics. Each person is unique, and the concept of his individual characteristics has rigorous scientific evidence (differences in DNA parameters, fingerprints, etc.). The presence of individual characteristics suggests that the most effective motivation of employees is the manager's specific approach to each of them. The proposition that each person is unique is commonly referred to as the law of individuality. Perception. The attitude of a person to objective reality depends on its individual perception, which is a unique for each person, formed on the basis of accumulated experience, a way of seeing, systematizing and interpreting things and events. Managers should analyze the peculiarities of the perception of employees, take into account the degree of their emotionality and find an individual approach to each employee. Personal integrity. Companies have to deal with a whole personality, and not with its individual qualities - qualifications, ability to analyze, etc. A person's personal life cannot be completely separated from the labor process, moral conditions are inseparable from physical ones. The implementation of the EP suggests that the administration of the organization needs not just qualified employees, but developed personalities. Managers must take into account the impact of work on the personality as a whole. Behavior motivation. Normal human behavior is formed under the influence of certain factors that may be associated with the needs of the individual and (or) the consequences of his actions. Managers have the opportunity to use two main ways to motivate employees: 1) demonstrating that certain actions will increase the degree of satisfaction of the needs of a subordinate; 2) the threat of a decrease in the level of satisfaction of needs in cases where the individual performs incorrect, from the point of view of management, actions. The desire for complicity. Every worker would like to feel comfortable both in the material and in the spiritual sense; and this desire is reflected in the desire for self-efficacy, or confidence that he will cope with the assigned work, live up to role expectations, make a significant contribution to the achievement of overall success. Many employees actively strive to contribute to the success of the organization, to share their experience with colleagues. Organizations should provide the best possible opportunities for such workers. The value of the individual. Each employee of the organization would like an attentive and respectful attitude towards himself from the management. 3. THE NATURE OF ORGANIZATIONS The foundation of the organizational concept is formed by three main "stones": organizations are social systems (1), which are formed on the basis of common interests (2), and the relationship between management and employees is based on certain ethical principles (3). 1. social systems. Organizations are social systems whose activities are governed by both the laws of society and psychological laws. Social roles and status are the same attribute of the human personality as psychological needs. People's behavior is shaped by their individual desires, as well as by the groups of which they are members. In fact, there are two social systems in the organization: formal (official) and informal. The social system assumes that the environment of the organization is subject to dynamic changes, all its elements are interdependent and each of them is subject to the influence of any other element. 2. community of interests. Each organization has certain social goals, is formed and operates on the basis of a certain community of interests of its members. In its absence, there is also no common base on which something valuable for society is created. The community of interests determines the most important task of the organization, which is solved only by the combined efforts of employees and employers. 3. Ethical principles. In order to attract and retain valuable employees (for whom demand is constantly increasing), organizations strive to comply with ethical principles in the course of their activities. More and more firms are recognizing this need and are developing various programs to help ensure high moral standards for both managers and employees. Managers realize that since OP always affects people, ethical philosophy is inevitably the basis of everything they do. The ethics of the goals and actions of the organization is the main prerequisite for the emergence of the system triple reward, i.e. achieving the goals of individuals, organizations and society. Collaboration and teamwork increase the degree of satisfaction of individuals with the nature of work, as they get the opportunity to learn and personal growth, feel that they are making a valuable contribution to the achievement of common goals. In turn, the efficiency of the organization as a whole increases: product quality improves, service improves, costs are reduced. 4. MAIN APPROACHES OF THE OP The main theoretical approaches on which the EP is based are the focus on human resources, the situation, the results and the systematic approach. Human Resource Oriented the approach involves the analysis of personal growth and development of individuals, their achievement of ever higher levels of competence, creative activity and diligence. It is assumed that the task of management is to provide opportunities for improving the skills of employees, increasing their sense of responsibility, creating an atmosphere conducive to increasing their contribution to the achievement of the organization's goals. Thus, developing the abilities of workers and providing them with opportunities for self-realization directly leads to an increase in their productivity and degree of job satisfaction. Situational approach to EP - achieving efficiency in various situations - involves the use of specific patterns of behavior. A thorough analysis of the situation that has arisen allows us to identify its significant factors and determine the most effective methods of EP in the given circumstances. The advantage of the situational approach: it encourages the analysis of the prevailing conditions in the organization, the conclusions of which become the basis for decisions. This concept encourages management to abandon assumptions about the possibility of universal behavior of employees. The use of a situational approach implies an appeal to an extended range of scientific disciplines, a systematic approach and a focus on research. The dominant goal for many is to perform their function, i.e. the basis of organizational behavior is results orientation. Performance, at its simplest, is the ratio of what is output to what is put in (usually according to some predetermined standard). Systematic approach of the organization suggests that it is seen as a complex of interacting elements. An event that seems to affect one employee or department may have an important role for other subsystems or the organization as a whole. Therefore, when making decisions, managers are obliged to evaluate their long-term consequences for other elements of the organization, subsystems and the system as a whole. The system approach assumes that managers have a holistic view of the subject of management. Holistic (holistic) OP interprets the relationship "individuals - organization" at the level of the individual as a whole, the group as a whole, the organization as a whole and the social system as a whole. 5. OP SYSTEM Achieving the goals set for the organization involves the creation and implementation of the EP management system. Such systems exist in every organization, but in various forms. The most effective systems are consciously created and regularly monitored and improved. Summary a task EP systems - identification of the most important human and organizational factors that affect the achievement of the organization's goals, and the creation of conditions for their effective management. Foundation The organization's EP systems form the basic beliefs and intentions of the individuals who join forces to create it (for example, the owners of the company), as well as the managers who currently manage its activities. Philosophy (theoretical model) Organizational management EP includes a set of assumptions and beliefs of its leaders and managers regarding the real state of affairs of the company, the tasks of its production activities and a possible ideal system. Based on factual and value premises. Actual background - a descriptive view of being, based on research in the behavioral sciences, on our personal experience (essential points, in the validity of which we are sure). Value premises - the desirability of certain goals and activities. Value assumptions are variable beliefs, which means they are entirely under our control: we can choose them, change them, abandon them. Many organizations are looking for opportunities to identify and establish their own values. The EP system also includes visions, missions and goals. Vision is a vision of a possible (and desirable) future for the organization and its members. The organization should also formulate mission determining the direction of its activities, the market segments and niches that it seeks to occupy, the types of customers with whom it wants to maintain sustainable relationships. The mission statement includes a concise list of the organization's competitive advantages or strengths. Unlike a vision, a mission statement is more descriptive and forward-looking. Further concretization of the tasks of the organization involves setting its goals on the basis of the stated mission. Goals - these are specific indicators that the organization strives for in a certain period of time (for example, during the year, in the next five years). Goal setting is a complex process, and the goals of senior management must be linked to the goals of employees. Therefore, the creation of an effective social system involves the real integration of individual, group and organizational goals. 6. PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION OF THE OP SYSTEM 1. The principle of optimality of the ratio of intra- and infra-functions of the OP: determines the proportions between the functions aimed at organizing the EP system (intrafunctions) and the EP functions (infrafunctions), i.e. the orientation of the system to a task or people. 2. The principle of potential imitations: temporary departure of individual employees should not interrupt the process of exercising any management functions. To do this, each employee of the system must be able to imitate the functions of a superior, subordinate employee and one or two employees of his level. 3. Economy principle: the most efficient and economical organization of the EP system, reducing the share of costs for the management system in total costs per unit of output, increasing production efficiency. 4. Progressive principle: compliance of the EP system with advanced foreign and domestic analogues. 5. Perspective principle: when forming the EP system, the prospects for the development of the organization should be taken into account. 6. The principle of complexity: when forming the system, it is necessary to take into account all the factors affecting the management system of the organization. 7. Efficiency principle: timely decision-making on the analysis and improvement of the EP system, preventing or actively eliminating deviations. 8. The principle of simplicity: the simpler the system, the better it works. Of course, this excludes the simplification of the system to the detriment of production. 9. The principle of hierarchy: in any vertical sections of the EP system, hierarchical interaction between the control links should be ensured. 10. The principle of autonomy: in any horizontal and vertical sections of the system, rational autonomy of structural units or individual managers should be ensured. 11. The principle of consistency. 12. Sustainability principle: To ensure the sustainable functioning of the EP system, it is necessary to provide for special "local regulators" that, in case of deviation from the set goal of the organization, put one or another employee or department at a disadvantage and encourage them to regulate the system. 13. The principle of system. 14. The principle of transparency. 15. Comfort principle: the system should provide maximum convenience for the creative processes of substantiation, development, adoption and implementation of decisions by a person. 7. BEHAVIOR AS A CATEGORY Behavior - a set of actions performed over a relatively long period in constant or changing conditions. Behavior covers all actions as a whole and allows them to give a moral assessment, regardless of such local indicators as intentions, motivations, etc., i.e., behavior provides more grounds for a person’s moral assessment than an act, motive, means, goal, since is a system, it is a relatively stable phenomenon. Regulators of the behavior of individuals and groups are the legal norms and decrees of the state (political regulators), production and administrative regulations, organizational charters and instructions (organizational regulators), customs, traditions, public opinion (public regulators), morality (system of moral norms). Organization Behavior regulate macroeconomic, political, scientific and technical components (objective in relation to the organization), as well as the situation on the market in which the organization operates, the features of its current state, development prospects, its culture (traditions, customs, leadership style, relations vertical and horizontal, etc.) and the potential of its leadership (the result and experience of previous activities, the manifestation of the level of competence and morality). In organizations that understand the value of a person, the regulation of his behavior is carried out on the basis of stimulating directions that correspond to the motives of the employee's behavior and their underlying needs, interests, value orientations, which allows for adequate external influence, i.e. stimulation. Personality as an element of the system "organization" should be considered as an independent system with its own internal structure. Group can be considered as an independent system, the elements of which are the subjects of professional activity. The nature of the connections between them determines the internal structure of the group and the degree of lack of freedom of the individual. Each individual, entering voluntarily into a group engaged in professional activities, agrees to certain restrictions. In turn, the group guarantees the person a certain status. Social behavior can be understood as a process of purposeful activity in accordance with the significant interests and needs of a person. A variety of social behavior is labor activity and labor behavior. Work experience - this is a rational series of operations and functions, rigidly fixed in time and space, performed by people united in an organization. 8. SCHOOL OF SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT (1885-1920) The school of scientific management is most closely associated with the names of F. W. Taylor, F. Gilbreth, and G. Gantt. The first major step towards considering management as a science was made F. Taylor (1856-1915), who led the scientific management movement. Taylor's teaching is based on a mechanistic understanding of man, his place in the organization and the essence of his activity. He was interested in the effectiveness of the activities of not an individual, but an organization, which marked the beginning of the development of the school of scientific management. The main merit of F. Taylor is the development of a number of methods for the scientific organization of labor, based on the study of the movements of the worker with the help of timekeeping, the standardization of methods and tools of labor. Scientific management is closely connected with the work F. Gilbreth, who conducted research in the field of labor movements, improved timing techniques, developed scientific principles for organizing the workplace. Scientific management did not neglect the human factor. The merit of this school was the systematic use of incentives in order to create the interest of employees in increasing labor productivity and increasing production volume. Representatives of this direction recognized the importance of selecting people who must physically and intellectually correspond to the work they perform, and also emphasized the great importance of training. It was F. Taylor who introduced into practice scientific approaches to the selection, placement and stimulation of the work of workers. The concept of scientific management was a major turning point, thanks to which management became universally recognized as an independent field of scientific research. For the first time, practitioners and scientists saw that the methods and approaches applied in science and technology can be effectively used to achieve the goals of the organization. 9. ADMINISTRATIVE SCHOOL (1920-1950) With the advent of the administrative school, attention began to be paid to improving the management of the organization as a whole. The founders of the administrative school (better known as classical school of management), in particular, A. Fayol (1841-1925), had experience as top managers in big business. The subject A. Fayol's scientific studies were management issues at the level of higher administration. A. Fayol determined that any business organization is characterized by the presence of certain types of activities, or basic functions, which are still used in the management of the organization: planning, organization, selection and placement of personnel, leadership (motivation) and control. The purpose The administrative school was the creation of universal principles of management, which affected two main aspects: the development of a rational system for managing an organization and building the structure of an organization and managing employees. A. Fayol developed the following 14 management principles, which he followed in practice and on which, in his opinion, the success of management depended: 1) division of labor (improves qualifications and the level of work performance); 2) power (the right to give commands and be responsible for the results); 3) discipline; 4) unity of management (order from only one leader and accountability to only one leader); 5) unity of leadership; 6) subordination of individual interests to common interests; 7) staff remuneration (payment should reflect the state of the organization and encourage workers to work with full dedication); 8) centralization (the level of centralization and decentralization should depend on the situation and be chosen in such a way as to give the best results); 9) interaction chains (clear construction of chains of following commands from management to subordinates); 10) order (everyone should know their place in the organization); 11) equality (workers should be treated fairly and kindly); 12) staff stability; 13) initiative (managers should encourage subordinates to come up with ideas); 14) corporate spirit (it is necessary to create a spirit of unity and joint action, develop a team form of work). Outstanding representatives of the administrative school were also M. Bloomfield (the concept of "personnel management", or workforce management (1917)) and M. Weber, who proposed the concept of "rational bureaucracy" (1921), characterized the ideal types of domination and put forward the position according to which bureaucracy - the order established by the rules - is the most effective form of human organization. In the concept of organization put forward by M. Weber, there was no personality as such. Procedures and rules determined all the main activities, the careers of employees, specific decisions and activities of management. Having perfectly studied the technical side of the production process, the administrative school has largely exhausted its possibilities. 10. SCHOOL OF HUMAN RELATIONS (1930-1950) The founder of the school of human relations is considered to be a professor at the School of Business at Harvard University. E. Mayo (1880-1949). He found that a group of workers is social system, which has its own control systems, and by influencing such a system in a certain way, it is possible to improve the results of work. As a result of the research, it turned out that the human aspect has a greater impact on labor productivity than changes in technical and physical conditions. This study showed the importance of behavioral factors. As a result, the Human Relations School became a counterbalance to the entire scientific movement, as the emphasis shifted to people rather than concern for production, as in the School of Scientific Management. The idea was that simply paying attention to people has a very large impact on productivity, that is, it was about increasing the efficiency of the organization by increasing the efficiency of the use of its human resources. The transfer of the center of gravity in management to the person gave rise to the development of various behavioral theories of management. Behaviorism (from English behavior - behavior; behaviorism can be translated as behavioral psychology) - this is one of the directions in American psychology that arose at the beginning of the XNUMXth century. Its founder is J. Watson (1878-1958), who argued that the subject of psychology, unlike other theories, is behavior, and not consciousness or thinking. From the point of view of behaviorism, a person’s personality is a set of behavioral reactions inherent in a given person, i.e. skills, socially regulated instincts, socialized emotions, plus the ability to be plastic in order to form new skills, as well as the ability to retain and save skills. Thus, personality is an organized and relatively stable skill system. Skills form the basis of relatively stable behavior, adaptability to life situations. Changing the situation leads to the formation of new skills. By changing stimuli and reinforcements, a person can be programmed for the desired behavior. Besides D. Rotter и A. Maslow from other representatives of the school of human relations, one can note the well-known management theorist M. P. Follet (1868-1933), who analyzed leadership styles and developed leadership theory. She was the first to define management as "getting things done with the help of others". Her interpretation of management as "the art of achieving results through the actions of others" put flexibility and harmony in the relationship between managers and workers in the first place. 11. D. ROTTER'S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY In the 70s. XX century behaviorism presented its concepts in a new light - in the theory of social learning. According to social learning theory D. Rotter each person has a certain set of actions, behavioral reactions that have been formed during life - behavioral potential. Behavioral potential, according to D. Rotter, includes five main blocks of behavioral reactions, "existence technique": 1) behavioral reactions aimed at achieving success, results - serve as the basis for social recognition; 2) behavioral reactions of adaptation, adaptation - this is a technique for coordinating with the requirements of other people, social norms, etc.; 3) protective behavioral reactions - are used in situations whose requirements exceed the capabilities of a person at the moment (these are such reactions as denial, suppression of desires, depreciation, obscuration, etc.); 4) avoidance technique - behavioral reactions aimed at "getting out of the field of tension", leaving, running away, resting, etc.; 5) aggressive behavioral reactions - this can be real physical aggression, and symbolic forms of aggression: irony, criticism of another, ridicule, intrigue, etc. 12. THE THEORY OF NEEDS A. MASLOW The development of the school of human relations in the 40-60s. XNUMXth century contributed to the development of several theories of motivation by behavioral scientists. One of them is hierarchical A. Maslow's theory of needs (1908-1970) - "pyramid of needs". According to this theory, a person has a complex structure the following hierarchical needs, according to which management should take place: 1) physiological - lower needs - food, water, air, shelter and other needs that a person must satisfy in order to survive. People who work mainly due to the need to satisfy these needs have little interest in the content of the work, concentrating their attention on pay, working conditions, convenience of the workplace, etc. To manage such people, it is necessary that the minimum wage ensures their survival and working conditions did not burden their existence too much; 2) the security of one's existence - the desire and desire of people to be in a stable and safe state, protecting from fear, disease and other suffering. They evaluate their work primarily in terms of ensuring their stable existence in the future (job security, pensions, medical care). To manage such people, a clear and reliable system of social insurance should be created, simple and fair rules for regulating their activities should be applied, wages above the subsistence level, they should not be involved in risky decisions and actions associated with risk and change; 3) social (belonging to a team, communication, attention to oneself, caring for others, etc.). In relation to such workers, management should be in the form of a friendly partnership, for them it is necessary to create conditions conducive to communication at work; 4) need for recognition and respect. This group of needs reflects the desire of people to be competent, strong, capable, self-confident, to experience recognition and respect from others. When managing these people, it is necessary to use various forms of recognition of their merits; 5) self-expression, self-realization, full use of their capabilities. This is the highest group of human needs, which, to a much greater extent than the needs of other groups, are individual in nature. They realize a person's desire for creativity in the broadest sense of the word. When managing such people, it is necessary to give them original tasks, to provide greater freedom in choosing the means of solving problems, and to involve them in work that requires ingenuity and creativity. 13. PERSONALITY STRUCTURE The individuality of a person is determined by his life experience, refracted through personality traits and manifested through his attitude to surrounding phenomena and the uniqueness of his internal mental functions. Personality - a systemic quality acquired by an individual in specific activities and communication, characterizing him from the side of involvement in social relations. A person is not born as a person, but becomes one as he actively enters the life of society, mastering the accumulated social experience. The formation of personality occurs in the process of a person's entire life. The formation of personality in a team occurs both by involuntary imitation of generally accepted group norms, and by conscious assimilation of the requirements of the team. Each individual is the bearer of that which is common, which is characteristic of the whole society, and at the same time is special, typical of a particular group. But personality has individual characteristics, which are determined by hereditary characteristics, natural inclinations, etc. Conventionally, one can speak of the internal, socio-psychological structure of the personality and its external structure as belonging to social groups. The internal structure of personality includes a number of substructures: a) the psychological environment that has developed in the mind of the individual: a system of needs, interests, claims, value orientations, ideals, beliefs, worldview; b) mental properties: character, intellect, emotions, will, thinking, memory, imagination, etc. c) psychological properties, the possibility of realization (abilities) of the individual: experience, skills, abilities; d) physiological, hereditary qualities: temperament, etc. External social structure of personality characterized by belonging to different social groups. Such groups can be, for example, socio-demographic (men and women, young and elderly workers, family and non-family), professional and qualification (belonging to different professions, differences in qualifications, job status, etc.), etc.). People can also belong to other groups that differ in their psychology of behavior - party, national, territorial, religious, various formal and informal associations. A leader who takes into account the personal qualities of a subordinate can find an individual approach to each employee, which means that he can activate internal reserves for activating his activities. 14. NEEDS AND MOTIVES OF THE PERSON Need can be defined as a person's need for something, prompting him to take action to realize this need. The need is always associated with activity and determines the activity of the individual. From the objective side The need is characterized by the following factors: a) a specific item of need (need); b) objective environment - the situation of satisfaction of the need, conducive to the satisfaction of the need; c) objective means of satisfying a need; d) the objective value of satisfying a need and the effort required to satisfy it. From the subjective side The need is characterized by the following factors: a) the image of the object of need (need) in the mind of the individual; b) subjective environment: the internal system of human needs, the level of its development and the current state; c) subjective means: the ability (ability) of the individual to satisfy the need; d) the subjective value of satisfying a need. The needs determined by production, in turn, actively influence its development. The needs of people are realized through their abilities. To satisfy some need, it is necessary to apply the ability to create material and spiritual values. Needs develop along with the development of society, never reaching the limit. It is the constant reproduction of such an unsatisfied need, due to the constant increase in needs, that serves as an important incentive to human activity and the development of production. In the psychological mechanism of personality behavior, an important role is played by value orientations, i.e., relatively stable, socially conditioned relations of the individual to material and spiritual goods, which are for her the goal or means of satisfying her needs. Closely related to value orientations social attitudes people - their attitude to certain phenomena. Social attitudes affect the emotional reaction, the attitude of people, for example, to various changes in work, require psychological preparation for innovations. Knowing the expectations of the individual, the leader can find the most appropriate forms of regulation of her behavior. 15. MENTAL PROPERTIES OF THE PERSON Mental properties of personality - this is character, intellect, emotions, thinking, memory, imagination, etc. Character - an individual warehouse of a person's personality, manifested in the peculiarities of his behavior and attitude towards people and the surrounding activities, in particular towards work, his duties and duty. Character is not given to a person from birth, but is formed in the process of active socially useful activity. The ability to objectively evaluate oneself helps to develop such character traits as modesty and integrity. Increased conceit, arrogance are negative character traits that cause conflict situations. Attitude towards people is characterized by such positive character traits as politeness, sociability, goodwill, or, conversely, negative ones - isolation, rudeness, tactlessness, etc. The industriousness of a person, conscientiousness, accuracy, diligence characterize a person's attitude to public duty, work; they are opposed by passivity, laziness, negligence, etc. Among the many qualities of a personality that make up its individuality, the qualities intelligence: curiosity, depth of mind, flexibility and mobility of the mind, logic, etc. Will represents the regulating side of consciousness, expressed in the ability of a person to perform purposeful actions and deeds that require overcoming difficulties. The level of development of the will is manifested in the following basic volitional properties of the individual: purposefulness, determination, perseverance, endurance, independence. In psychology, moral, intellectual and aesthetic feelings of the individual are distinguished. moral sense called the emotional attitude of the individual to the behavior of people and his own; intellectual feelings - these are experiences that arise in the process of mental activity; aesthetic feelings arise and develop when a person perceives and creates beauty. The conditions for the implementation of a particular type of activity are human abilities, determined by natural data, as well as experience, skills, abilities. Abilities can be developed in the process of training and education, active social activities. The skillful use of human abilities largely depends on the leader. 16. PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF THE PERSON Human behavior depends not only on social conditions, but also on his natural features. Such features are determined by temperament, which determines the nature of the flow of emotions and thinking, the volitional action of the individual. Depending on the temperament which is given to man by nature, there are choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic and melancholic. Choleric They are distinguished by great working capacity, energetic, active. They can work with enthusiasm, they know how to overcome difficulties. But a wave of uplift can quickly give way to a period of downturn. Choleric is easily excited, quick-tempered, speaks quickly, intonation fluctuates. Choleric enthusiastically gives himself to his favorite work, charges other people with his energy, but in work he is characterized by cyclicity. It is difficult for him to restrain the manifestation of his emotions, he is often unnecessarily straightforward and harsh. Sanguine cheerful, easily converges with people, quickly switches from one type of work to another, does not like monotonous work. Emotions are subject to him, he controls himself well, quickly masters in a new environment, is optimistic. Speaks loudly, clearly, with expressive gestures. A sanguine person easily grasps new things, is flexible in communicating with people around him. Phlegmatic person characterized by a slow reaction: slowly switches from one job to another, is inactive, adapts to a new environment for a long time. To induce him to action, he needs a certain impulse, a push. He is restrained, reasonable, slow and stress-resistant. But he does not adapt well to the changed environment, he is characterized by the poverty of emotions, so he hardly converges with people. Melancholic impressionable, easily vulnerable, emotional, he often has a panic mood, despondency, melancholy, painfully endures failures, indecisive, cautious. This is usually a shy person who has difficulty finding contact with other people. To achieve effective work from a melancholic, constant energetic pressure and control from the leader is needed. People with a pronounced certain type of temperament are rare, however, each person gravitates towards one or another type of temperament. 17. BASIS OF BEHAVIOR OF THE PERSON. PERCEPTION The three fundamental principles of human behavior are perception, criteria basis and motivation. Perception, i.e., the process of obtaining information from the environment and processing it, is an important source of explanation of behavior. By changing the perception of the life situation in which a person is, you can change his behavior. By itself, this process of obtaining information is the same for everyone: at the input - obtaining information from the external environment, processing it and putting it in a certain order, and at the output - systematized information that contains a person's idea of the environment and forms the basis of his actions, i.e., information that is the source material for human behavior. However, people in the same situation may perceive it differently. Moreover, perception may be distorted. Perception factors include object и subject of observation in the context of the situation in which the perception takes place. The attempt of the individual (subject) to interpret what he sees is largely influenced by personal perception. To the most common personal characteristics (the so-called criteria basis) that affect perception include: - location. This is a different interpretation of the same situation - mainly due to different locations relative to any objects, phenomena, etc.; - motives. Unmet needs or motives stimulate individuals and can have a strong influence on their perception; - interests. Since the personal interests of people differ to a large extent, their perception of the same situations is not the same; - an experience, like personal interests, narrows the focus of perception. People perceive those things with which something connects them. However, in many cases experience can annul interest in an object; - expectations can distort the perception of a person, since he often sees what he expects to see. The perception is also influenced by the personal characteristics of a person. Movement, sounds, object size and other attributes also affect perception. 18. FEATURES OF HUMAN PERCEPTION Our perception of people differs from our perception of inanimate objects: observing people, we try to explain why they behave this way and not otherwise, that is, to evaluate their internal state. Explaining the behavior of people depending on from their characteristics - the essence of the theory of the same name. According to this theory, by observing the behavior of an individual, we are trying to determine whether it is caused by internal or external causes. This, in turn, largely depends on certain factors - specificity, consistency, consistency. Internal regulators of behavior are under the personal control of the individual. External regulators of behavior are carried out under the influence of external causes, in connection with a certain situation. So, if one of the employees was late for work, then the reason for this delay can be regarded as internal (overslept) and as external (got caught in a traffic jam). Character determines to what extent this or that behavior of an individual in various situations is characteristic, how unusual this behavior is. If this is an isolated case, then, most likely, this behavior is due to external causes; if this behavior is repeated, then it can be assessed as an internal manifestation. If everyone in a similar situation behaves in a similar way, we can talk about consistency behavior. Finally, we evaluate consistency person's actions. How will the person behave next? The person receives information selectively, that is, it passes through a kind of psychological filter. Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event stand out increases the likelihood that it will be perceived. Projection. This is a tendency for a person to attribute his own feelings, moods, experiences, fears and motives of activity to other people. Stereotypes. These are forms of existence that are stable and closed from the influence of new experience. In the structure of a stereotype, the main role is played by its emotional charge, which clearly indicates what is accepted and what is unacceptable, what is "good" or "bad" in relation to any object. Gallo effect. It occurs when an impression of an individual is made on the basis of single characteristics - intelligence, sociability or appearance. Opinion of others can form an attitude towards a partner, which will not allow a sufficiently critical assessment of the partner's behavior. Simplification close to the halo effect, but slightly different from it. The essence of simplification is the formation of a fairly "complete" idea of a partner based on very fragmentary information obtained on the basis of a first impression, to which some people attach too much importance. Communication incompetence: low level of culture, inability to listen and adequately understand your partner, inability to competently and, no less important, clearly express your thoughts. 19. PERSONALITY Settings - these are sensations, feelings and beliefs, which largely determine the perception of the external environment by employees, prompting them to plan certain actions and deeds. Employee attitudes are of great importance to the organization. Negative attitudes are a symptom of problems that have arisen and at the same time the cause of future difficulties. The consequences of such attitudes are sudden strikes, reduced work intensity, absenteeism and high staff turnover, etc. Favorable attitudes of employees, on the contrary, have a positive impact on the results of the organization. Concept "social setting" used to denote a one-way psychological connection of a person - with people, any animate and inanimate objects and phenomena. In social psychology, the definition given by G. Allport is more often used: "social attitude - this is the state of psychological readiness of a person to behave in a certain way in relation to an object, determined by her past experience. The attitude as a holistic phenomenon is formed on the basis of not only the individual's own experience, but also the experience received from other people, therefore the main form of transmission of attitudes is verbal (verbal). Installations of this kind, when in his personal experience a person deals with a separate, single object, are called private (partial). generalized settings, i.e., attitudes towards a set of homogeneous objects owe their origin to interpersonal and mass communication. They serve as a factor in strengthening the attitudes of the individual, since listening to opinions that are consistent with the views of the individual strengthens him in the correctness of his own attitudes and encourages him to turn to the same source for information. All installation properties - stability or volatility. If an individual in all situations implements a habitual and natural way of behavior in relation to an object that has become familiar to him, then this indicates the stability of his attitude. One factor in changing attitudes is the impact of mass media. The attitude manifests its influence on behavior and activity as a practical determinant of things and phenomena to which a person's vital interests are directed and which are undesirable, unpleasant for him. Distinguish types of installations according to their modality: 1) positive ("for" the object); 2) negative ("against" the object); 3) neutral. Main installation function - regulation of the social behavior of the individual. The system of individual attitudes provides the possibility of his orientation in social reality. "Paradox of La Pierre": systematic discrepancy between the declared attitudes towards the object and the behavior dictated by the situation. Protective function of social attitude is achieved by striving for uniformity of attitudes in the immediate social environment, for example, between members of the same family or work collective. Asocial the attitude protects the self-esteem of the subject in the group if he acts in a certain way and refrains from other, unauthorized behavior. 20. ROLE BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATION Each employee performs a certain role, and how successfully he performs it and how satisfied he is with the nature, content and results of his activities in the organization and his interaction with the organizational environment, will depend on the degree of likelihood of conflict contradictions that disrupt the interaction between a person and an organization. Necessary conditions successful role behavior are clarity and acceptability of the role. Under certain circumstances, the performance of a certain role can be hampered by contradictions generated by the role itself. At the same time, in some situations, the uncertainty of roles can be considered as a positive characteristic of relations in the organization, as it contributes to the development of independence, training of employees, expands the scope of decision-making and develops a sense of responsibility and commitment in relation to the organization among members of the organization. The main reasons leading to conflicts are: - performance by the employee of several roles, mutually exclusive at certain moments; - the presence of a conflicting order or a conflicting task; - contradictions between the values of the individual and the nature of the role performed by him; - change in the content of the role, accompanied by a discrepancy in remuneration; - role overload, when the employee's tasks go beyond the scope of the role. Contradictions and conflicts that arise in the performance of roles can be eliminated by: 1) changes in work (content and method of performing the role); 2) human development (training, etc.); 3) role shifts of employees. Distinguish between formal and informal role status. Formal status reflects the location of the role in the hierarchical structure of the organization, shows what power rights its performer has, what is his position in the formal hierarchy of distribution, influence on the activities of the organization. Informal the status of the role is determined by the surrounding people and is set either by the personal characteristics of its performer, or by the informally defined meanings and influence of the role in the organization. When studying role behavior, when building interaction between a person and an organization, it is possible to determine the entire set of actions that are carried out by the organization in the process of its functioning. 21. METHODS OF STUDYING THE PERSONALITY OF THE WORKER In order to successfully collaborate with an employee in achieving common goals, The manager must know: 1) vocational training the employee, his ability to perform a certain type of work, the "power" of incentives for this particular activity; 2) socio-psychological qualities, in particular, the ability of a person to interact with other people in the process of joint work; 3) business qualities, that is, the ability, without fussiness and extra effort, to achieve certain practical results in a short time; 4) intellectual and psychological capabilities: flexibility of intellect and willpower, creativity and ability to take risks, initiative and sober calculation; 5) the conditions under which personality traits are manifested, and the limits beyond which they begin to falter. It is necessary to be able to operate with this knowledge in order to obtain a reliable forecast of the business (and sometimes everyday) behavior of an employee. observation method. The object of observation and the purpose for which it is conducted must be determined, the mode (order, algorithm) of observation should be chosen. Observation is effective from the moment when the signs of the effectiveness of a person’s work and the signs of the features of the process of his activity are clearly defined, presented in the form of a single system and can be recorded in a standard way. Business game method. These games actually display all the main points of managerial activity, which is why many of them can be used as a means of testing managerial abilities. Trial move method: a person is checked in natural or specially organized conditions by appointing him to a position previously not occupied by him. A classic example is the replacement of the first head for the duration of the vacation by one of his deputies. The transfer method will be effective if the time to fill the position is long enough for the auditee to make independent decisions. Method for solving educational management problems. Instead of real tasks, it is possible to offer a system of training tasks that are adequate or similar to real ones in terms of solution structures and level of complexity. This method allows, by varying the content of tasks, to determine more accurately than other methods whether a person has the ability to solve not only today's real problems, but also problems of the future. 22. GROUP CONCEPT In the system of different scientific disciplines, the concept "Group" interpreted differently. So, G. M. Andreeva gives the definition conditional groups: these are associations of people according to some common feature that is necessary in a given system of analysis for the purposes of statistical accounting and scientific research. Real groups are associations of people in which there is a unity of activity, conditions, circumstances, signs. Groups are large and small (contact), in which there is the possibility of direct contact of each with each. Small groups - these are two or more persons interacting with each other in such a way that each person influences the others and at the same time is influenced by other persons. Groups are divided into formal and informal. Formal groups have a legal status and are created by management to consolidate the division of labor and improve its organization; the role and place of these groups in the overall labor process are defined in the regulatory document "Regulations on the subdivision". Among the formal groups, there are teams - subordinate groups of the head and his employees, Workers (target) groups created for the purpose and for the duration of a specific task, committees - special and permanent groups to which certain powers are delegated to manage, coordinate activities, etc. (bank board, board of directors). On the basis of the performance of socially significant work by a formal group, the concept is distinguished "labor collective" - a working group that has reached a high level of cohesion, acting as a new system, a single community that combines the advantages of formal and informal groups. informal groups are formed spontaneously to meet the individual needs of workers who, for one reason or another (incompetent leadership, authoritarian methods of leadership, etc.) are not satisfied within the framework of a formal group. The behavior of members of informal groups led by an informal leader can either help or hinder the achievement of the goals of the organization. 23. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GROUP The main characteristics of the group include: - composition of the group - depends on its type and can be designated by a set of certain characteristics, parameters; - group structure depending on the objectives of the study and the conditions defined as essential, it can be designated from the standpoint of the implementation of the relations "power - subordination", preferences, interpersonal relations, division of labor, communications, material and documentary flows in the group in the process of joint work, etc. .; - group processes - these are the processes of communication, interaction (status, role, position of group members and their changes), perceptions (perception by group members of other members and other groups), attraction (attractiveness, attraction), as well as organizational processes: group formation, formation, increase in cohesion , pressure in the group, leadership, organization of joint activities, decision-making; - group norms - these are elements of group culture, the rules of proper behavior from the point of view of the group for each status level, and often for each member of the group. The Group expects the proper implementation of the standards and rules of conduct established by it and, in appropriate behavior, applies sanctions, aimed at adjustment (encouragement and punishment). The composition of the group, the processes occurring in it and group norms determine group potential. Identifying the potential of the group and the degree of its use, as well as determining and creating conditions in which the positive orientation of the potential is used more efficiently, and the negative one ceases to manifest itself, is a serious problem for the head of the organization, the leader of the group and its members. 24. FACTORS OF GROUP BEHAVIOR Studies have shown that the group performance rate can increase several times if the performance of each influences the success of the others and depends on their overall success. There are the following main group behavior factors: 1) professional harmony of the group, which is formed as a result of joint work in a team and manifests itself in the norms of interchangeability, complementarity, mutual responsibility, etc.; 2) moral and psychological cohesion: the presence of norms of mutual assistance and mutual support based on the common ideas about themselves: 3) interpersonal compatibility: psychological readiness of workers to cooperate with each other; 4) purposefulness and democracy - Basically, these factors are set by the leader and depend on his position in relation to the group. For example, a goal setting can be imposed by management or developed jointly by all employees; 5) productivity and job satisfaction. This factor is an indicator of professional group efforts, which shows how much the human potential of the group has been embodied in concrete deeds, how much the labor efforts of the professional group are recognized, if the remuneration of its employees is accrued according to the final results. The successful work of a professional group also depends on other factors, which can be called variables: - group level of claims, i.e., the mood of employees to achieve results; - qualification potential; - requirements for the final result, which determines the quality of group work; - degree of interaction with other professional groups; - gender and age composition of the group; - intra-group interpersonal communications, the violation of which can bring down the working rhythm, the pace of work and reduce the quality; - positions that can be individual or variable, when one of the employees turns out to be the leader in certain situations; - the constancy of the professional group or the temporary nature of its work. The group performance rate is the most important variable factor in the work of the group, the axis of all intra-group relations. 25. DIFFERENTIAL FEATURES OF SMALL GROUPS In a small (primary) labor collective, the processes of achieving production and educational goals are concretized, the connection between personal, group (collective) and state interests is expressed directly, the most frequent and stable interpersonal contacts are made, collectivist relations are formed. The primary labor collective is characterized by appropriate structures and performs certain functions. Its development occurs in accordance with socio-psychological group dynamics processes, the main ones are: - communication of employees; - team cohesion; - labor conflicts; - management and leadership, etc. Members of the primary labor collective work in direct contact and interaction, direct contact with each of the subordinates and the head of this team. In the primary labor collective, the socio-psychological characteristics of this collective are formed: value orientations, norms, attitudes, moods, traditions, moral and psychological climate. Value Orientation groups - a socially conditioned orientation of the consciousness and behavior of a group, which has a social and group significance, expressed in the preference of relations to certain objects. social attitude - the readiness of the team for a certain assessment of the situation and the way of working in it, predisposition to certain events, people, objects. Tradition - a way to implement sustainable social relations, supported by the power of public opinion, collective habits and beliefs. Moral and psychological climate - a relatively stable emotional mood prevailing in the team, which includes people's moods, their emotional experiences and unrest, attitudes towards each other, surrounding events. 26. FORMING A CLOSED GROUP Cohesion - one of the most important qualities that determine the effectiveness of group activities. The determinants of cohesion are: 1) group time: too short a period does not allow achieving a high level of cohesion, and too long can lead to a decrease in the achieved level; 2) group size: an increase in the number of group members (more than nine people) may lead to a decrease in cohesion; 3) Age of group members: collectives are considered more cohesive, whose members are peers; 4) external threat: the leader often does not take into account that the disappearance of an external threat often leads to a violation of cohesion; 5) previous success: Pride in joint achievements increases cohesion, while failure, on the contrary, reduces it. Common attitudes and value orientations (for example, religion and ethics) also contribute to group cohesion. Efficiency joint activities are related to: - with the emotional closeness of the participants in joint activities; - with the participation of group members in setting the goals of joint activities; - with interdependence, which involves mutual assistance, mutual compensation for shortcomings; - with timely and skillful resolution of the conflict; - with the refusal to hide conflicts, the search for solutions of true consent; - with the characteristics of group leadership; - group cohesion. High requirements for joining the group, complex rituals and prestige of the group make it more cohesive. Isolation from other people increases the interaction and interdependence of group members. The growth of cohesion is facilitated by the democratic nature of procedures, the participation of group members in decision-making. Each team develops its own norms, attitudes, values, traditions, so managing a team is a special and more difficult task than managing each subordinate individually. One of the most important areas for improving the efficiency of an organization is the correct selection of its composition: the higher the qualifications, education, professional culture of the members of the team, the higher the social needs, activity, level of development of the team as a whole, the more developed the desire of each member of the organization to actively influence the affairs of his team. The cohesion and compatibility of people in a team, the moral and psychological climate are also determined by the correct approach to the formation of a team, taking into account socio-psychological factors: number, age, gender, level of education, type of temperament, etc. 27. STAGES OF TEAM DEVELOPMENT As teams develop, they usually go through certain stages: 1) "lapping". At first glance, the new team looks businesslike and organized, but in fact people look at each other and try to determine their degree of interest in creating it. Genuine feelings are often hidden, one person raises his authority, and the interaction takes place in familiar forms. There is almost no discussion of goals and methods of work. People are often not interested in colleagues and hardly listen to each other, in fact, without engaging in creative and inspired teamwork; 2) "close combat". Many collectives go through a period of upheaval, when the contribution of the leader is evaluated, clans are formed, factions are formed and differences are expressed more openly. Personal relationships are of great importance, the strengths and weaknesses of individual individuals are manifested. The team begins to discuss how to reach an agreement, tries to improve relationships. Sometimes there is a power struggle for leadership; 3) "experimentation". The potential of the collective increases, and it begins to decide how to use the abilities and resources now available. Often the team works in jerks, but it has the energy and desire to understand how to work better. Working methods are reviewed, there is a desire to experiment, measures are taken to increase productivity; 4) "efficiency". The team gains experience in successfully solving problems and using resources. Emphasis is placed on the proper use of resources, time and clarification of tasks. Employees begin to take pride in being part of a "winning team" and approach problems realistically and solve them creatively. Management functions are smoothly transferred from one employee to another depending on the specific task; 5) "maturity". In a developed team, there are strong ties between its members. People are judged by their merits, not by their claims. Relationships are informal but satisfying. Personal differences are quickly resolved. The team turns into a prosperous cell of society - a team and is admired by outsiders. He is capable of delivering superior results and sets high standards of achievement. The leader of the team must be able to anticipate the onset of the next stage in the development of the team and lead the group forward. With the improvement of the quality of the work of the team, the possibilities for introducing innovations in the management process are expanding. Delegation of authority is expanding, and more people are involved in planning and decision-making. The leader helps the team go through all stages of development and reach its full potential, using both personal example and authority for this. 28. ESSENCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL AND MANAGEMENT METHODS OF MANAGEMENT When it comes to the ways in which the control system influences the objects of control or the ways in which some links of the control system affect others, we are dealing with management methods. When it comes to the methods of influence of the leader himself, we mean leadership methods. Management methods and management methods are interconnected, they realize interrelated goals and objectives, but at the same time they have specific goals and features. Management methods are, on the one hand, more fundamental than management methods; on the other hand, the use of management methods is largely carried out through the specific activities of the leader, that is, through management methods. Leadership Methods are diverse, among them are: methods organizational impact - rely primarily on power, the right to dispose, the official authority of the leader, and economic и socio-psychological - on the use of the material and spiritual interests of workers, their psychological characteristics. organize It means bringing people together to work together. The word "organization" has a double meaning: firstly, as the function of a leader to organize people; secondly, as a system that unites people and resources. Organization as a function of leadership consists of components: a) have a clear plan; b) the ability of the organization to achieve and fulfill the requirements of the plan; c) the availability of people, money, materials, other resources to complete the task; d) the presence of competent leaders who would be able to make the organization achieve its goals and consolidate what has been achieved. Seven main elements of the organization (P. M. Kerzhentsev): 1) purpose (what is the purpose of the work?); 2) type of organization (what form of organization is most appropriate for the intended work?); 3) methods (what organizational methods will it be possible to achieve the intended goal?); 4) people (with the help of what people and how many of them will the work be done?); 5) material resources; 6) time; 7) control (how to keep records of work and organize real control over its implementation?). The work of the leader is closely related to the organizational function. Leadership is a chain of organizational actions. You can manage the entire course of the life of the team, and you can organize the performance of a specific task by specific people. The function of organization is one of the most important functions of a leader. 29. RULES FOR EFFECTIVE REQUESTS The main rules, following which the leader can hope for the effective execution of his orders: 1) any assignment must be objectively necessary; 2) do not give instructions if there is no certainty that it is real and can be carried out; 3) before giving an order, consult with a subordinate; 4) provide the subordinate with the conditions necessary to perform the work; 5) when giving instructions, take into account the individual characteristics of subordinates; 6) instructions should educate and develop independence and initiative among subordinates; 7) it is better to give instructions in the form of a request, not an order; 8) give orders in a calm, friendly, firm and confident tone; 9) under any circumstances, remember the need to be polite and to preserve the subordinate's self-esteem; 10) teach more than command; 11) interest the subordinate in the social significance of the task, its direct practical benefit for the team and for him personally; 12) organize an atmosphere of competition, arouse in the employee a desire to excel, to show his abilities, emphasize his special role, the importance of his efforts; 13) do not entrust the contractor with several tasks at the same time; 14) make sure that the subordinate clearly understands the essence of the assignment and his tasks; 15) indicate the exact date of completion of the work and the form of its submission; 16) require the subordinate to perform the work entrusted to him; 17) do not allow a subordinate to shift his task to you; 18) do not allow unauthorized assignments; 19) when giving a subordinate responsibility for the execution of the assignment, remember that your personal responsibility as a leader does not decrease. 30. ORGANIZATIONAL AND FUNCTIONAL STRUCTURE OF ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT The purpose of organizational activity is the creation of a good organizational and functional management structure and the correct selection of performers. For the effective operation of the organization, it is important to clearly and clearly define the functional responsibilities and powers of the staff, as well as their relationship in the process of work. Duties and powers of employees are established by: - Recommendations on the organizational structure of the enterprise (reference books or instructions; contain a list of positions with their detailed description); - job descriptions (set the scope of powers and measures of responsibility of a person holding a certain position); - organizational and functional organizational charts (displays the interactions (relationships) between the individual links in the control system). The content of the duties is determined by: 1) the principle of division into groups of equal size; 2) a functional feature - the creation of departments for production, marketing, personnel, financial issues, etc.; 3) territorial sign - if the enterprise operates in territories remote from each other; 4) type of manufactured products; 5) the interests of consumers - this is especially true for the service department. In addition to creating an organizational structure and selecting performers, the organizational function includes the provision of materials, tools, and workspaces. The head, starting to develop and implement the organizational structure scheme, must provide for the following necessary conditions and principles: 1. Proper selection of performers, their training. 2. The employee undertakes to comply with all reasonable instructions of his superiors, and the enterprise undertakes to pay for his services; Anyone dissatisfied with their job has the right to quit. 3. Work should be divided into parts so that each worker can quickly and easily master his area of work. 4. Clear job descriptions should be created. 5. Each employee should have only one direct supervisor. 6. Creation of conditions for the performance of departments and employees of their tasks and duties. There are no standard constructions of the organizational structure, since each company has its own characteristics. The scheme should reflect the real structure of the company and not be a theoretical model. If there are difficulties in drawing up the organizational and functional diagram of the enterprise, this may mean that the organization itself is defective. 31. CONTENT OF THE ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE Organizational management structures can be different in complexity and detail, but any of them contains three blocks: - linear; - functional; - providing. Line block provides the main production functions of the enterprise (at the factory these are workshops, in the army - combat units, at the construction site - sections, brigades, etc.). As the volume and complexity of production grows, departments need more and more to provide conditions for the performance of their functions. Function block organizational structure provides assistance with its recommendations to line and support services. Functional services can also make decisions on functional issues - on labor and wages, production, technological development, etc. providing block, i.e., the support service, is designed to free the linear links from non-production functions. The accounting department, the personnel department, the planning department and other departments, in addition to the support functions, also perform advisory functions under the head. The problems of ensuring a clear interaction of line, functional and supporting services can be minimized with a clear interaction of these services. 32. DIVISIONAL MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE OF THE ORGANIZATION One of the varieties of organizational management structures is divisional structure. The first developments of its concept date back to the 20s, and the peak of its industrial use - to the 60s-70s. XNUMXth century The key figures in the management of organizations with a divisional structure are not the heads of functional units, but managers (managers) heading production departments. Structuring organizations by departments are usually made according to one of three criteria: by products or services provided (product specialization); by consumer orientation (consumer specialization); serviced territories (regional specialization). Some businesses produce a wide range of products or services that meet the needs of several large consumer groups or markets. Each group or market has well-defined needs. If two or more of these needs become particularly important to an enterprise, it may use a customer-facing organizational structure. An example of the active use of a consumer-oriented organizational structure is commercial banks; the main groups of consumers using their services are individual clients (individuals), pension funds, trust companies, international financial organizations. Flaw. Divisional management structures led to an increase in hierarchy, i.e., the vertical of management, required the formation of intermediate levels of management to coordinate the work of departments, groups, etc. The duplication of management functions at different levels ultimately contributed to an increase in the cost of maintaining the administrative apparatus. Positive aspects - concentration of management functions in only one production manager; clearer consolidation of authority and responsibility for key results; more efficient control system; freedom of behavior of the individual. Different types of divisional structure have the same goal - to ensure a more effective response of the enterprise to a particular environmental factor. The heads of production departments, within the framework of the product or territory assigned to them, coordinate activities not only “along the line”, but also “by functions”, thereby developing the required qualities of general leadership in themselves. This creates a good talent pool for the strategic level of the organization. The division of decisions into levels speeds up their adoption and improves their quality. 33. CLASSIFICATION OF MANAGEMENT STYLES Leadership style is a set of techniques and methods of management inherent in a certain type of leader. Comparative characteristics of traditional and "modern" leadership styles traditional head: Applies criticism Modern leader: Applies praise traditional head: Gives orders and instructions Modern leader: Defines goals oriented to the consciousness of subordinates traditional head: Takes the efforts of subordinates for granted Modern leader: Praises for effort and results traditional head: Emphasizes a job order Modern leader: Emphasizes reward traditional head: The main thing for him is that the subordinate must be at his workplace all the time Modern leader: Stimulates an increase in the efficiency and quality of work of subordinates, focuses on trust and final results traditional head: Behavior - purely official Modern leader: Behavior - friendly, democratic, relaxed Even the most progressive leader must master both the latest methods of influencing subordinates and traditional ones in order to be able to act depending on the nature of the subordinate and the current situation. Depending on the degree of manifestation of collegiality and unity of command, three main leadership styles can be distinguished: authoritarian (autocratic), democratic and liberal, which are rarely found in their "pure form". Authoritarian style - this is the use of orders, instructions, instructions that do not involve objections from subordinates. The leader himself determines who, what, when, how to do it, gives commands and requires reports on their execution. It is used in emergency situations - in a military situation, in the event of various kinds of natural or man-made disasters. Отрицательные The qualities of an autocrat are especially evident when the leader lacks organizational skills, general culture, and professional training. In these circumstances, such a leader can turn into a petty tyrant. Advantages: lightning-fast reaction, vigor, decisiveness, speed of decision-making, perseverance. Democratic style management implies benevolent advice, instructions in the form of requests, active participation of subordinates in the development of managerial decisions. This is the most effective leadership style, because it instills initiative in subordinates, a creative attitude to work, a sense of responsibility, and ownership. liberal style leadership is the non-interference of the leader in the work of subordinates, at least until the subordinates themselves ask the leader for advice. This style is acceptable only in those limited cases when the subordinates are higher or equal to the leader in terms of their qualifications and at the same time they know the main production tasks of the team no worse than him. 34. FORMATION OF INDIVIDUAL STYLE OF LEADERSHIP individual leadership style, based on a democratic style, which turns into an authoritarian one in acute situations, and into a liberal one in relation to creative individuals of high qualification, can be considered the optimal leadership style. When evaluating the individual leadership style, special importance is attached to the ability of the leader to achieve mutual understanding with employees of different ages, gender, different professions, different education, marital status, temperament, qualifications. The ability of a leader to convince people, to inspire them to carry out assignments that are even unpleasant for them, to help them replace their usual way of acting with a new, more rational, more efficient one is also valued. Effective leadership is not to limit yourself to the rigid framework of any one style: all styles fit into the framework of the general theory of management, all of them can be useful and even necessary in one situation or another. Formation of the right individual style will promote adherence to the following principles. Feedback. Subordinates, as a rule, seek to know the assessment of their work directly from their supervisor. The leader must be able to timely and accurately evaluate the work of subordinates. Determining the freedom of action of a subordinate. Knowing the nature of his subordinates, the manager must decide in each individual case how to make the work of the employee more efficient. Consider the attitude of the subordinate to work. The leader helps his subordinates develop the correct psychological orientation, establish a scale of life values, and clearly define the place of work in their lives. Orientation to the final results of the work. Promotion. The leader must inspire subordinates that the best way to make a career is to do their daily duties well, supplementing this with hints of the desirability of a promotion. leader's personal behavior. The leader cannot afford to express personal likes and dislikes. Repeat and repeat. A leader should not expect people to understand his orders the first time. Don't be overly gloomy and serious. The manager must understand that humor helps to soften the most stressful situations. 35. AUTHORITY OF THE LEADER True leader's authority represents a well-deserved respect for him and is based on such components as knowledge, experience, the mind of the leader, his trust in subordinates and his exactingness towards them, caring for them, high personal qualities. The subordinates fulfill the instructions and instructions of the authoritative leader more willingly, faster and more carefully. An ineptly formed individual leadership style contributes to the emergence of a manager's false authority, which reduces the effectiveness of leadership; subordinates often flatter the leader, in fact, without respecting him. The high authority of a manager in a subordinate group or organization is the basis of his high reputation, which is a broader concept than the authority of the leader. The positive reputation of the manager inspires trust and respect of the staff, increases his own self-esteem. If the authority of a manager is determined by his assessment by members of a group or organization, then reputation is formed from communication and interaction in all areas of his interaction with society - in the organization, family, politics, region, everyday life. In general constituents formation positive reputation manager can be his professional competence, leadership qualities and personal authority in the organization, leadership style, image, performance and healthy lifestyle, his assessment by society in different areas and situations. The psychological preparedness of a leader is, first of all, a management culture, good manners, the ability to manage one's feelings and emotions, a sense of responsibility, and collectivism. Of great importance for a leader is his ability to speak simply, clearly, expressively, emotionally, clearly and concisely. The quiet and calm tone of the leader gives weight and business character to his words. The leader should not show familiarity. The leader must be able not only to speak, but, no less important, to listen, and also to call the subordinate to a conversation in order to understand him. Both the appearance of the leader and his ability to behave in society have a psychological impact on the subordinate. 36. TYPES AND CULTURE OF COMMUNICATION Communication is a form of human activity that ensures the emergence of psychological contact, manifested in the exchange of information, mutual influence, mutual experience and mutual understanding. Communication can be written, oral, telephone, e-mail, etc. Each type of communication has its own techniques and methods. Types of communication: - "contact of masks" - formal communication, in which there is no desire to understand and take into account the personality of the interlocutor, the usual masks are used (politeness, severity, indifference, etc.), i.e. a set of gestures, standard phrases that allow you to hide true emotions , attitude towards the interlocutor. In some situations "mask contact" is necessary; - primitive communication, when a person is assessed as a necessary or interfering object: in the first case, they actively make contact, in the second, they use aggressive, rude remarks. Having received what they want from the interlocutor, they lose interest in him, without hiding it; - formal-role communication, in which both the content and means of communication are regulated, and instead of knowing the personality of the interlocutor, knowledge of his social role is dispensed with; - business communication, when the characteristics of the personality, character, age, mood of the interlocutor are taken into account, but the interests of the case are more significant than possible personal differences; spiritual fellowship of friends, when you can touch on any topic without necessarily resorting to words, a friend will understand you by facial expressions, gestures, and intonation. Such communication is possible when each participant can anticipate the interlocutor's reactions, knows his interests, beliefs, etc.; - manipulative communication, aimed at extracting benefits from the interlocutor using various techniques (flattery, intimidation, deceit, demonstration of kindness, etc.), depending on the characteristics of the interlocutor; - secular communication, in which people say not what they think, but what is supposed to be said in such cases; this communication is closed, because the points of view of people on a particular issue do not matter and do not determine the nature of this kind of communication. Basis communication culture constitute its moral norms: contracts must be fulfilled, a person is the highest value, the need to imagine oneself in the place of another. The quality of his work, the emotional mood of employees, the stability of the staff, the socio-psychological climate in the organization, the presence or absence of conflict situations, the development of business contacts that affect the economic situation in the organization depend on the art of business communication of the manager. 37. MECHANISM OF STAFF PARTICIPATION IN MANAGEMENT Empowering Employees is any process that provides workers with greater autonomy by increasing their access to information and providing control over the factors that determine the performance of work tasks. Giving power helps to eliminate the feeling of powerlessness among employees, strengthening the sense of self-worth. Main ways to give employees power: 1) help employees achieve a high level of working knowledge and skills: 2) expanding the functions of employee control (providing greater freedom of action in the labor process, accompanied by increased responsibility for results); 3) familiarizing employees with examples of successful role models (observing the actions of highly effective employees); 4) the practice of social encouragement and persuasion; 5) emotional support. Various methods are used to empower employees. behavioral tools (joint goal setting, performance feedback, modeling, various reward systems), but the main ones are various participation programs in management. The implementation of such programs contributes to the formation of a sense of ownership among employees, their participation in decision-making processes and a sense of the possibility of choosing a working environment. Participation in management implies that in order to achieve the goals of the organization, employees get the opportunity to realize their abilities, show initiative and creative activity. In accordance with the "path - goal" management method, participation in the decision-making process is associated with a high sense of responsibility of employees, an increase in the degree of their motivation to achieve goals. Participation in management causes a change in the motivation of employees who get the opportunity to influence the situation, an increase in self-esteem, the degree of job satisfaction, and an improvement in interactions with managers. In addition, the likelihood of conflict and stress is reduced, the susceptibility of workers to change is increased, employee turnover and absenteeism are reduced, and communication is improved. A critical element of the effectiveness of any participatory management program is the degree to which employees involved in it take responsibility for the opportunities provided to them. 38. THE ESSENCE OF CONFLICTS Conflict - this is a contradiction that arises between people in the process of solving certain issues. One of the parties to the conflict requires a change in the behavior of the other side. However, not every contradiction can be called a conflict: the fact that people have different views, judgments about any problem does not interfere with their well-coordinated work. The emergence of a conflict is facilitated by contradictions affecting the interests, status, moral dignity of an individual or group. Conflicts create tense relations in the team, switch the attention of employees from direct work to "clarifying the relationship", and have a severe effect on their neuro-psychological state. The conflict is a multidimensional, dynamic, developing process, which has not only forms of manifestation, but also the following development stages: 1) conflict situation; 2) the actual conflict (incident); 3) conflict resolution. A large role in creating conflicts is played by deliberate, deliberate intrigue, the purpose of which is to force people to act according to the planned scenario. You can reduce the possibility of intrigue development by: - formation of stable personal ideas about phenomena and processes; - creation of admissible information transparency at all levels of activity; - formation of the organizational culture of the team and the company; - Creation of cohesive purposeful teams. 39. TYPES OF CONFLICTS Conflicts are divided into natural and artificial. Natural - arise spontaneously when there is a large discrepancy between someone's idea of a person, organization or activity and the person's own idea of himself, organization or activity. Artificial conflicts are created by people to achieve certain goals, including to relieve accumulated stress. Depending on the on the degree of involvement of employees in them conflicts are: - on horizontal (employees who are not subordinate to each other are involved); - vertical (they involve subordinate employees); - mixed (employees are involved, both those who are not subordinate to each other, and those who are subordinate). Emotional conflicts: their source is distrust, suspiciousness, based not on objective, but on subjective reasons. The socio-psychological typology of conflicts is based on the relationship of people within their relationships in a team. Motivational conflicts. The most pronounced motives are security, belonging to a particular community, prestige, self-esteem, self-realization. Communication conflicts. There is a communication conflict when no one dares to establish feedback with the leader, that is, no one pays the attention of the boss to his mistakes. A similar situation is when an employee does not hear words of recognition, as a result of which he loses self-confidence. Conflicts of power and anarchy: when the leader is opposed by the opposition, which is joined by the majority of workers. intrapersonal conflict. One of its most common forms is role-playing conflict, when a person is presented with conflicting demands as to what should be the result of his work. Interpersonal conflict The most common. Most often, this is the struggle of managers for limited resources, capital, labor, equipment use time, or project approval. Such conflict also manifests itself as a clash of personalities: people with different character traits, attitudes and values are sometimes unable to get along with each other. Conflict between the individual and the group. If the expectations of the group conflict with the expectations of the individual, conflict may arise. Intergroup conflict. Intergroup conflicts can arise between the trade union and the administration, between formal and informal groups. 40. A CONFLICT SITUATION AND ITS GROWTH INTO A CONFLICT The basic concept of conflict is conflict situation, which implies the presence of two main components - the participants in the conflict (opponents) and the subject of the conflict. Participants in the conflict due to the complexity of their structures, they are not identical among themselves "in strength", i.e., in rank. If a participant in the conflict acts in it only on his own behalf and pursues only his personal interests and goals, then he is referred to as an opponent of the first rank. If a group of individuals pursuing a common group goal enters into a conflict, then we are talking about an opponent of the second rank. An opponent of the third rank is a structure consisting of simple groups of the second rank directly interacting with each other. An opponent of zero rank is a person who, in contradiction with himself, develops his own position. The root cause, which is the basis of the conflict situation - the subject of the conflict. Its definition is the most difficult, but the main task, which is solved simultaneously with the identification of the causes of the conflict. For a conflict to arise, in addition to the participants (opponents) and the subject of the conflict, certain actions are required on the part of opponents, called incident. In this way, конфликт - this is a conflict situation plus an incident (actions of the participants in the conflict). Conflict situation can exist long before a direct collision of opponents, it can pass to new opponents even when the causes of the conflict have already disappeared. Incident can arise both at the initiative of opponents (or one of them), and for objective reasons (for example, the failure of an important task or a manager’s mistake). The conflict situation and the incident are relatively independent of each other. Thus, a conflict situation may be based on objective circumstances, and an incident may arise unexpectedly. On the other hand, a conflict situation (like an incident) can be deliberately created by the opponent in order to achieve certain goals. The situation can also be generated by him without a purpose or even to his own detriment for reasons of a psychological nature. 41. CAUSES OF CONFLICTS In socio-psychological terms, a conflict situation is a sharp discrepancy between the expected and specific actions of employees that has arisen in the field of communication. The occurrence of conflict is result of interaction the following three components: - situation (a set of objective prerequisites that provoke the emergence of a conflict); - the identity of the participant in the conflict (its awareness of the situation of entry into the conflict); - the attitude of the individual to the situation (the presence of her motives for entering into a conflict). In a conflict situation, it is very important for a leader to determine the true cause of the conflict in time, since the main thing for eliminating conflicts is to eliminate their prerequisites. Causes conflicts occur: 1. Inability to correctly formulate the goal and setting the wrong goal by the leader. 2. Inability to take into account the individual characteristics of people. 3. Innovative changes in the structure of the organization - a change of leaders, the emergence of new professional groups, promotions, pay cuts, etc. 4. Improper stimulation of subordinates with rewards and punishments. 5. Wrong attitude towards criticism. 6. Tactlessness, and sometimes rudeness on the part of the leader. A special place is occupied by the so-called response aggression, when people begin to look for the culprit of all troubles and misfortunes in their close circle, in their environment. The main condition for the conflict to develop into a quarrel and squabble is the dissatisfaction of the team members with each other, the subjective emotional attitude of one conflicting party to another. Negative emotions are the main cause of the conflict, while business disagreements in this case are just an excuse to express hostility towards a person. The cause of the conflict can also be a coincidence of circumstances - a kind of "force majeure". Such a conflict is difficult to foresee, and in this case, the leader has to act quickly on the results, and not to prevent the conflict. 42. WAYS TO RESOLVE CONFLICTS The leader is obliged to intervene in the conflict, while clearly delimiting his legal and moral rights. To resolve the conflict the leader must: 1) objectively assess the situation and recognize the existence of a conflict, which will remove many negative points (omissions, "behind-the-scenes" actions, etc.) and bring its resolution closer; 2) distinguish the cause of the conflict from its subject - the immediate cause, which is often masked; 3) determine the type of conflict, its stage, the subject of the conflict, the goals of the main participants (opponents) of the conflict; 4) find out the motives for entering into a conflict of each opponent, which can be both positive and negative; 5) before starting actions, present and analyze possible solutions. Ways to get out of conflict based on the direct actions of the leader: 1) negotiations with opponents - when a compromise is reached, the basis of the conflict may disappear; 2) change the subject of the conflict, and therefore, change the attitude towards the conflict; 3) separate the disputes between the conflicting parties from the problem to be solved, analyze a number of possible ways to solve the problem and choose the best one, mutually acceptable to all parties to the conflict; 4) strive to create ideal jobs; 5) use an integrated approach to minimizing conflict situations, which includes: - prevention of conflict situations by increasing the reliability of the personnel management system; - development of algorithms for resolving conflicts on a scientific basis and a clear scheme of actions of the administration in specific situations; - creation of an adequate system of mental self-regulation and high emotional stability of the staff; the use of psychotechnologies for a positive impact on staff; - conflict-free procedures for the movement (redistribution), part-time employment and dismissal (reduction) of personnel. If the conflict is based on objective conditions, then its simple interruption without taking effective measures to overcome the causes can create an even more acute situation, since after the conflict is interrupted, the conflict situation persists. 43. CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP Every group has a leader. He may be appointed officially, or may not occupy any official position, but actually lead the team by virtue of his organizational abilities. The head is appointed officially, from the outside, and the leader is put forward "from below". The process of influencing people from the position of a leadership position in an organization is called formal leadership. However, a person in a high position cannot automatically become a leader in an organization, since leadership is largely informal. informal leader - is a member of the collective, collecting a relatively large number of votes in any situation of choice. Functions informal leader are reduced to two main ones: - establishes goodwill, responsibility, mutual understanding, or, conversely, contributes to the emergence of aggressiveness and isolation of the group, acquisitiveness, etc. - having established the norms, goals, customs and traditions of the group, the informal leader motivates the behavior of each of its members, forcing him to follow the standards of group behavior. The leader carries out motivation by evaluating the actions of a member of the group with a look, gesture or word; the majority of group members voluntarily and not always consciously join this assessment. Social psychology distinguishes, but does not oppose, the concepts of management and leadership. Мanagement - this is the process of managing the labor activity of the team, carried out by the leader - an intermediary of social control and power on the basis of administrative and legal powers and social norms. Leadership - the process of internal socio-psychological self-organization and self-management of the relationships and activities of the members of the team due to the individual initiative of the participants. The phenomenon of leadership arises in problem situations. However, in terms of group goals, leadership can be both positive and negative. Psychological qualities of a leader: - self confidence; - sharp and flexible mind; - competence as a thorough knowledge of one's business; - strong will; - the ability to understand the peculiarities of human psychology; - organizational skills. Sometimes a leader becomes a person who does not have the listed qualities; on the other hand, a person may have these qualities, but not be a leader. According to situational leadership theory the leader becomes the person who, when a situation arises in a group, has the qualities, properties, abilities, experience necessary for the optimal solution of this situation for this group. 44. TYPES OF LEADERSHIP There are two polar types of leadership - instrumental and emotional. Instrumental (business) leader is a member of a group who takes the initiative in solving a problem situation in accordance with group goals and has the appropriate knowledge, information, skills and methods. Emotional leader - this is a member of the group who takes on the function of regulating group mood (expressive functions) in problem situations. Sometimes the position of an emotional leader is called the epicenter of emotional contacts. Main functions, carried out by the leader: - distribution of roles, duties, tasks; - control of the behavior of each member of the group; - planning actions and means by which the group achieves its goals; - representation of collective interests, will, desires; - function of the arbiter; - standard function; - group symbol function; - function of the bearer of responsibility; - the function of the "father" (a true leader is the focus of all the positive emotions of the members of the group, the ideal object of identification and feelings of devotion); - the function of the carrier of group guilt. Strength and coercion in leadership are often replaced by motivation and inspiration. The impact is based on people's acceptance of the requirements of the leader, who does not use an explicit or direct manifestation of power. Studies show that the knowledge and abilities of a leader are valued higher than the corresponding qualities of the rest of the group members. 45. LEADERSHIP AND POWER IN ORGANIZATION From the point of view of the efficiency of the team, it is most expedient if the leader is at the same time its leader. However, no matter how much a person strives to become a leader, he will never become one if others do not perceive him as a leader. The leader is often appointed to his post, regardless of whether his subordinates believe that he fits this role. In other words, leadership is a social phenomenon in its essence, and leadership is a psychological one. Leadership is not management. Management focuses on getting people to do the right thing, while leadership focuses on getting people to do the right thing. An effective manager is not necessarily an effective leader, and vice versa. Manager - a person who directs the work of others and is personally responsible for its results. A good manager establishes the order and sequence of the work to be done. He builds his interaction with subordinates more on facts and within the framework of established goals. Leader inspires people and inspires enthusiasm in employees, conveying to them its vision of the future and helping them adapt to the new, go through the stage of change. Managers most often, out of necessity, they are guided by someone set goals. Leaders they themselves set their own goals and use them to change people's attitudes to business. Managers tend to develop their actions in detail and in time. Leaders achieve the effectiveness of the organization by developing a vision for the future and ways to achieve it, without delving into the operational details and routine. Using his professionalism, various abilities and skills, managers concentrate their efforts in decision-making. They try to narrow down the set of ways to solve a problem. Decisions are often made on the basis of past experience. leaders, on the contrary, they are constantly trying to develop new and ambiguous solutions to the problem. Most importantly, once they solve a problem, leaders take on the risk and burden of identifying new problems, especially when there are significant opportunities to receive appropriate rewards. It is obvious that in practice there is no perfect observance of these two types of relations in management. 46. EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP In modern conditions, effective leadership is not an "iron" or "firm hand", but a high sensitivity to the needs of its followers, which is manifested in the development of employees, in including them in group work, in helping them achieve personal goals. An effective leader who meets the new management philosophy is a person who realizes that his authority directly depends on the respect of his subordinates, and not on his formal status. Effective leader: - available to any employee, and when discussing any problems, he is invariably friendly; - is deeply involved in the process of personnel management, constantly pays attention to incentive systems, personally knows many employees; - does not tolerate office style, prefers to appear more often among ordinary workers and discuss problems on the ground, knows how to listen and hear, is resolute and persistent, is not reputed to be cunning; - tolerant of expressing open disagreement, delegates authority to performers, builds relationships on trust; - in difficult moments does not seek to find someone to blame, prefers verbal rather than written information; - when promoted to responsible positions, as a rule, he recommends employees of his organization - people who have managerial values close to him, and only in special cases invites specialists from outside. Features of the leader's behavior: 1) instructions and orders give way to persuasion, strict control - to trust; transition to cooperation relations; 2) leaders-leaders strive to develop collective forms of work as a single team, which dramatically increases the mutual exchange of information between members of working groups; 3) leaders-leaders are always open to new ideas coming from colleagues, subordinates, clients. For such leaders, the free expression of ideas and the exchange of opinions become a natural form of relationship; 4) the leader strives to create and maintain a good psychological climate in the team, not to infringe on the interests of some employees at the expense of others, and readily and publicly recognizes the merits of employees. Today we need leaders who can bring the organization out of crisis situations. Characteristic features of activity "crisis leader": - the desire to become a leader in difficult situations and find pleasure in the performance of this role; - the desire for competition in everything and always; - high adaptive ability; - propensity to innovate; - lack of fear of failures, using them as new starting points for development. 47. FORMING A MANAGER TEAM In its general sense team is a single whole, a team of like-minded people united by a common goal. It is the commonality of goals that is the main condition for the formation of a team. A team has the potential to achieve much more than the sum of the accomplishments of individual workers. A team can achieve its goals more or less effectively depending on the size and composition of the team, group norms, cohesion, conflict, status, functional role of its members and the work of the manager in managing his team. Number. The ideal group should consist of 3-9 people. As the size of the group increases, communication between its members becomes more difficult and it becomes more difficult to reach agreement. Composition (the degree of similarity of personalities, their points of view and approaches in solving problems). It is recommended that the group be made up of people with different points of view. Group norms (the norms adopted in groups) have a strong influence on the behavior of each individual and on the direction in which the group will work, whether to achieve the goals of the organization or to resist them. Cohesion - a measure of attraction of members of the group to each other and to the group. In highly cohesive groups, there are usually fewer communication problems. A potential negative consequence of a high degree of cohesion is group like-mindedness. Group consensus. This is the tendency of an individual to suppress his views on some phenomenon in order not to disturb the cohesion of the group. As a result, the decisions made by such a team are not always effective: the team tries to make an average decision that will not hurt anyone. Conflict. Differences in opinion increase the likelihood of conflict. While an active exchange of opinions is beneficial, it can lead to intra-group disputes and other manifestations of open conflict, which are always harmful. It is the personal responsibility of all members of a good team to create an environment in which the potential of the team can flourish. Team formation stages (B. Bass) 1) acceptance by group members of each other; 2) development of communications and development of a mechanism for making group decisions; 3) formation of group solidarity; 4) the desire to maximize group success through the rational use of individual abilities, opportunities and mutual assistance. 48. DISTRIBUTION OF THE ROLES OF THE MANAGER TEAM A critical factor in determining the effectiveness of the manager's team is the distribution of functions among its members, i.e., the distribution of roles in the team. Targeted roles - study and fulfillment of the main team tasks. The activities of people playing target roles are aimed directly at achieving the goals of the group. Supportive roles contribute to the maintenance and revitalization of the life and activities of the team. Target Roles Chairman is the main role. This person performs a very specific role functional task. Coordinator realizes and controls the process of activity and the goals of the team, pays attention to everyone, takes into account the feelings, interests and motives of the people in the team, summarizes the incoming proposals. The main task is to create conditions conducive to ensuring that each member of the team makes his or her assigned role contribution. Idea's generator develops new ideas, solutions, approaches. Informant. His task is to find and provide the group with all the necessary information. Expert expresses opinions or beliefs regarding a proposal. Developer explains, gives examples, develops the idea, predicts the future fate of the proposal, if it is accepted. Finisher generalizes, summarizes all proposals, sums up, formulates the final decision. Each target role carries a huge functional load, so it is undesirable for one person to perform several roles at the same time. Given the specifics of production, the target roles may change, their list may be supplemented with new ones or, conversely, reduced. The presence of players playing supportive roles is not necessary - the performance of these roles can be combined with the performance of other functions. Key supporting roles Promoter. His task is to be friendly, praise others for their ideas, agree with them and positively evaluate their contribution to solving the problem; resolve conflicts between team members. Shaping. This person does not control or coordinate the process, but monitors its dynamics and supports it. It creates an environment in which each member of the team tries to work most effectively. Executor should follow the decisions of the team, thinking thoughtfully about the ideas of other people. setting criteria is obliged to establish the criteria by which the group should be guided when choosing substantive (or procedural) points (or evaluating the decision of the team). Responsible for external contacts. His task is to connect the team with the outside world. Many people combine different roles. In a combination of roles, the functions and abilities of the people included in the manager's team are balanced. 49. SELF-GOVERNED TEAMS Self-managed teams These are working groups that have been given substantial autonomy. Such teams are fully responsible for the behavior of their members and the results of production activities. Members of a self-managed team may have several professions, i.e. they are multiprofessionals. This allows them to move from one task to another depending on the needs of the group. Team meetings take up a significant amount of time as team members gradually take on more and more managerial responsibilities. As more experience emerges, self-managed teams are able to propose changes to pay or production organization. There are no problems with the adaptation of a newcomer to the team, as the "veterans" are always ready to provide him with all possible assistance and pass on to him knowledge about organizational behavior and culture. К the benefits self-managed commands include: - increasing flexibility and developing the potential of human capital within the boundaries of human capabilities; - increasing productivity and reducing the need for narrow specialists; - the emergence of a powerful synergistic effect; - reduction of absenteeism and tardiness rates; - high team loyalty, increasing the level of job satisfaction. Self-managing teams are a brilliant example of the application of organizational behavior and participatory management practices. Their growing popularity is largely due to the fact that, as formal groups, they enjoy the support of the organization, allow them to cover a significant proportion of the company's employees, and are developing models of organizational behavior. 50. LIFE CYCLE OF ORGANIZATION The concept is widespread life cycle organization - its changes with a certain sequence of states when interacting with the environment. There are certain stages that organizations go through, and transitions from one stage to another are predictable, not random. There are four main stage organization life cycle: 1) the firm expands its operations and accumulates resources; the organization is built on a functional principle, leadership is autocratic; 2) resources are rationalized, further growth becomes selective as efficiency gains become necessary; 3) expansion into new markets begins in order to optimize the use of resources; 4) new structures are being created to optimize work and rational planning; at this stage of evolution, decentralization of the company takes place. The division of the life cycle of an organization into appropriate time periods provides for the following stages. 1. Entrepreneurial stage. The organization is in its infancy, the life cycle of products is being formed. The goals of the organization are still unclear, moving to the next stage requires a stable supply of resources. 2. Collective stage. Innovative processes of the previous stage are developing, the mission of the organization is being formed. Communication and structure within the organization remain informal. Members of the organization spend a lot of time developing contacts and demonstrate high commitment. 3. The stage of formalization and management. The structure of the organization is stabilized, rules are introduced, procedures are defined. The emphasis is on innovation efficiency and stability. The role of the top management of the organization is growing, the decision-making process is becoming more balanced and conservative. 4. Structure development stage. The organization increases output and expands the market for the provision of services. Leaders identify new development opportunities. The organizational structure is becoming more complex and mature. The decision-making mechanism is decentralized. 5. Decline stage. As a result of competition, a shrinking market, the demand for an organization's products or services decreases. Leaders are looking for ways to hold markets and seize new opportunities. The need for workers, especially the most valuable specialties, is increasing. The number of conflicts is often on the rise. New people are coming to leadership in an attempt to curb the downward trend. The mechanism for developing and making decisions is centralized. 51. TYPES OF ORGANIZATION MANAGEMENT Turning to the creation of conditions for economic growth, high quality goods and services, the organization must choose the type of management that corresponds to the characteristics and objectives of this stage, guided by its goals. Choice of organizational behavior Organization characteristics: Main purpose Management type - operational: Profit maximization Management type - strategic: Profit maximization taking into account the interests of society Organization characteristics: The main way to achieve goals Management type - operational: Optimizing the use of internal resources Management type - strategic: Establishing a dynamic balance with an uncertain and unstable environment Organization characteristics: Importance of the time factor Management type - operational: Not the most important factor in competition Management type - strategic: The most important competitive factor Organization characteristics: Short term evaluation of effectiveness Management type - operational: Profitability Management type - strategic: Accuracy of predicting changes in the internal environment and adaptation time to changes in the external environment, the quality of goods and services Organization characteristics: Attitude towards staff Management type - operational: Employees are one of the resources of an organization Management type - strategic: Employees are the most important resource of an organization The main criterion in choosing the type of management of the organization should be the implementation of effective activities while planning for the future. Organization Maturity It is manifested in the fact that the main attention is paid to the effectiveness of innovation and stability, the output of products is increasing and the market for the provision of services is expanding, managers are identifying new opportunities for organizational development. All this is aimed at ensuring the strategic viability of the organization, maintaining and strengthening its sustainable position in the market. At the stage of maturity, it is especially important to periodically and timely adjust the management structure of the organization, abolish bodies that have completed their task, introduce new divisions into the structure in a timely manner, create temporary target structural units to solve certain problems, allocate specialists to analyze the state of affairs and develop development prospects, etc. . P. 52. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND ITS TYPES The concept of "organizational culture" includes ideas, beliefs, traditions and values that are expressed in the dominant management style, in the methods of motivating employees, the image of the organization, etc. Properties of organizational culture: - forms ideas of employees about organizational values and ways to follow these values; - commonality: knowledge, values, attitudes, customs are used by the group to meet the needs of its members; - the main elements of the culture of the organization do not require proof - they go without saying; - hierarchy and priority: any culture involves the ranking of values; often absolute values are put at the forefront, the priority of which is unconditional; - consistency: organizational culture is a complex system that combines individual elements into a single whole. Among the functions of organizational culture are: 1. General functions are divided into regulatory and reproduction functions. Regulation functions provide adaptive (external) and integrative (internal) tasks of the organization's activities. 2. K specific include the following functions: - security: culture serves as a kind of barrier to the emergence of undesirable tendencies and negative values characteristic of the external environment; - integrating: by instilling a certain system of values that synthesizes the interests of all levels of the organization, organizational culture creates a sense of the identity of the interests of individuals and individual groups; - regulatory: organizational culture includes informal, unwritten rules that indicate how people should behave in the process of work; - replacing, or the function of a substitute for formal relations; - educational and developing; - quality management function; - the function of adapting an economic organization to the needs of society; - the function of legitimation of organizational activity. Organizations with strong culture have an agreed set of values and norms that bind their members closely to each other and promote their involvement in the process of achieving organizational goals. Weak Culture gives vague advice on how employees should behave. In organizations with a weak culture, values and norms are not primarily applied to coordinate organizational behavior, but a formal organizational structure is used. 53. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGES Organizational changes - this is the development of new ideas or behaviors by the company. The activity of the organization is a constant response to the need for changes coming from both the internal and external environment. Managing change requires directed and long-term development of both leaders and the organization. Change is not an end in itself, it is ongoing process. The drivers of organizational change exist both within and outside the organization. External forces are formed in all sectors of the external environment (consumers, competitors, technologies, national economy, international sphere). internal drivers of change arise from the activities of the organization itself and the management decisions made in it (growth strategy, demands from workers, unions, low performance). When making decisions about the reorientation of the internal activities of the organization, management must be proactive and reactive, that is, either be active itself or respond to the requirements of the situation. To be proactive - means to anticipate events, to initiate changes, to strive to control the very fate of the organization. Behavior jet character is a response to current events, adaptation to changes, mitigation of their consequences. Changes may relate to any aspect or activity factor companies that include: - basic structure. The nature and level of business activity, the legal structure, ownership, sources of financing, the nature of international operations are changing, mergers, divisions, joint ventures or projects are being created; - goals and objectives of the activity. Goal modification is necessary even for the most successful organizations, if only because the current goals have already been achieved; - applied technology. Equipment, materials and energy, technological and information processes are changing; - managerial processes and structures. The internal structure of the organization, the content of labor processes, decision-making processes, and information systems are changing. Structural change is one of the most common and visible forms of change in an organization. This is a real need when there are significant changes in goals or strategy; - organizational culture. Values, traditions, informal relationships, motives and processes, leadership style are changing. The most common and effective tool for changing the culture of an organization is training; - human factor. Management and subordinates are changing, their level of competence, motivation, behavior and labor efficiency; - The effectiveness of the organization. The financial, economic and social aspects of its activities are changing, its business prestige is changing in the eyes of the public and business circles. 54. RESISTANCE TO ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND ITS TYPES Resistance to change are any actions of employees aimed at discrediting, delaying or opposing the implementation of changes in the labor process. Often employees resist change for no apparent reason. Effective change management requires management to identify resistance factors and the ability to apply methods to involve employees in the change process. The reaction of employees to changes in the work process is complex and prevents them from directly adapting to changes. First of all, changes affect the attitudes of each worker and cause certain attitude-based reactions to change. One of the types of psychological protective mechanisms are stereotypes, hindering the correct perception of innovations. Often, in an effort to maintain balance, the group makes attempts, regardless of the ongoing changes, by any means to keep the attitudes and assessments intact. Therefore, every external influence causes a reaction within the group. Thus, each group is a self-correcting mechanism whose task is to restore balance at the slightest threat of change. This characteristic of organizations is called homeostasis. There are three main type of resistance to change influencing the formation of a negative attitude of employees to change. Logic resistance - means disagreement of employees with facts, rational arguments, logic. Arises on the basis of real time and efforts required to adapt to changes, including the development of new job responsibilities. These are the real costs that employees incur, even though in the long run we are talking about changes that are favorable for them, which means that management needs to compensate them in one way or another. Psychological resistance - based on emotions, feelings and attitudes; internally "logical" in terms of the employee's attitudes and feelings about change. Employees may be afraid of the unknown, distrust managers, feel threatened by their safety. Even if the manager considers such feelings unjustified, he must take them into account. Sociological resistance - the result of the challenge that changes throw to group interests, norms, values. Since public interests (political coalitions, the values of trade unions and various communities) are a very significant factor in the external environment, management must carefully consider the attitude of various coalitions and groups to change. At the small group level, change jeopardizes the value of friendships and the status of team members. 55. REASONS FOR RESISTANCE TO CHANGE ON THE PART OF STAFF OF THE ORGANIZATION Reasons for resistance to change: - employees' feeling of discomfort caused by the very nature of the change, when employees show uncertainty about the correctness of the technical decisions made, negatively perceive the uncertainty that has come; - fear of the unknown, a threat to the safety of their work; - methods of carrying out changes, when employees are dissatisfied with the limitation of information, do not accept an authoritarian approach that does not involve their participation in the implementation of changes; - the feeling by employees of injustice caused by the fact that someone else is benefiting from the changes they make; - feeling that change will lead to personal losses; The belief that change is neither necessary nor desirable for the organization. Experience shows that most often the resistance of employees to innovation occurs in cases where: - people are not explained the purpose of change; - employees themselves did not take part in the planning of these changes; - the traditions of the team and the style familiar to it, the mode of operation are ignored. Formal and informal groups will stubbornly resist innovations that threaten their familiar relationships; - it seems to subordinates that a mistake was made in the preparation of reforms; especially if people suspect that there is a threat of a pay cut, demotion, or loss of the leader's favor; - restructuring threatens subordinates with a sharp increase in the amount of work. A similar threat arises if the leader has not bothered to plan the change far enough in advance; - people think that everything is fine anyway; - the initiator of reforms is not respected, has no authority; - when planning reforms, the team does not see the final result; - the employee does not know what his personal benefit will be; - the subordinate does not feel confidence, conviction of the leader; - reforms are proposed and implemented in a categorical manner, using administrative methods; - innovation may lead to staff reductions; - the team does not know what it will cost (costs, efforts); - the reform does not bring quick results; - reforms will bring benefits to a narrow circle of people; - the progress of the reform is rarely discussed in the team; - there is no trusting atmosphere in the team, etc. 56. METHODS OF OVERCOMING RESISTANCE Methods by which you can reduce or completely eliminate resistance: - transmission of information - open discussion of ideas and activities will help employees to be convinced in advance of the need for change; - involvement of subordinates in decision making. This allows employees who may be resistant to freely express their attitude to these innovations, potential problems and changes; - relief and support - the means by which employees more easily fit into the new environment. For example, a manager can provide emotional support, that is, listen carefully to employees or give them some time to relax after a stressful period. There may be a need for additional training to improve the skills of staff; - negotiations to secure approval of innovations. It is understood that the consent of those who resist is obtained with the help of material incentives. For example, management may offer the union higher pay or a commitment not to lay off workers; or the manager is offered a more interesting job if he recognizes the need for change; - co-optation - giving a person who can or is resisting change a leading role in making decisions about the introduction of innovations and in their implementation. For example, a worker or a group of employees who are skeptical about future innovations may be included in the composition of the commission, which analyzes the technology used and determines which machines should be purchased; - maneuvering in order to reduce resistance to change - selective use of information or drawing up a clear schedule of activities and activities in order to have the desired impact on subordinates; - compulsion - the use of formal power by management aimed at accepting changes by personnel, when opponents of change are confronted with a choice between transformations and deprivation of part of the remuneration or work. Coercion should be resorted to in critical situations, when the very fate of the organization depends on the achievement of the result; - top management support - indicates that the transformations are of great importance for the organization. Such support is especially needed in cases where changes affect several departments or when their implementation involves the reallocation of resource flows. 57. THE ROLE OF THE MANAGER IN IMPLEMENTING CHANGE IN THE ORGANIZATION Leaders play a critical role in initiating and implementing change, as they are responsible for developing a strategy for change and planning activities to implement it. A huge role in the process of implementing changes belongs to the leaders-transformers, that is, managers who initiate strategic changes aimed at strengthening and developing the position of the organization. It is they who formulate the vision and "show the product face", help employees see the big picture, strive to create a continuously learning organization and employees, preparing them to solve complex problems. Qualities of a leader-transformer 1. Creative vision. Transformative leaders create and promote their vision of the organization, that is, a long-term image of the company expressed in some form, or an idea of what the company can and should become. The vision makes employees distract from momentary problems, take a more active part in the activities of the organization, form common beliefs and values, which are the basis for changing the organizational culture. 2. The presence of communicative charisma. The transformational leader needs to convince employees that the proposed vision for the future of the company is realistically achievable, and motivate them to turn the future into the present. Charisma - one of the characteristics of leadership, the ability of a leader to influence employees, to induce them to take constant actions desired by the leader. Charismatic leaders take the risk of change by demonstrating a high degree of competence and reasonable self-confidence. Employees treat such leaders with great respect and trust, and tend to express emotional commitment to their vision. But charismatic leaders (like all managers) need to be aware of employees' emotional vulnerability during change and take action to reduce employees' fears while encouraging them to change. 3. Ability to provide stimulating training. The most important task of transformation (and leaders) is to develop the potential abilities of employees for creative perception, learning from the experience of change. Double Loop Learning: the information obtained during the implementation of the change (the first cycle) allows you to more effectively manage future transformations (the second cycle). Such training develops employees' skills of forecasting, overcoming their own paradigms. This is the difference from single learning loop, when workers solve current problems, adapting to changes imposed on them from above. 58. ESSENCE OF THE STRATEGY OF CHANGE Consider a model of the process of successful organizational change management, consisting of several stages and developed by L. Greiner. 1. pressure and urge. Management must recognize the need for change. 2. Mediation and redirection of attention. Although management may feel the need for change, it may not be able to make an accurate analysis of the problems. You may need the services of an external consultant who can objectively assess the situation. You can also involve your employees as intermediaries, but on the condition that they can be considered impartial and express an opinion that is unlikely to please top management. For mediation to be effective, it must result in a change of orientation, and this implies the acceptance of new points of view. 3. Diagnosis and awareness. Management collects relevant information, determines the true causes of problems that require a change in the existing situation. 4. Finding a new solution and obligations to fulfill it. After recognizing the existence of a problem, management looks for a way to correct the situation. 5. Experiment and discovery. An organization rarely takes the risk of making major changes in one fell swoop. It is more likely to start testing planned changes, identifying hidden difficulties, before innovating on a large scale. 6. Reinforcement and consent. The last step is to motivate people to accept the change by convincing them that the change is beneficial both to the organization and to them personally. Possible ways to reinforce agreement to innovate are praise, promotion, higher pay for higher performance, permission to participate in discussions about the innovation process, problems, corrections that need to be made, etc. Participation in organizational development, that is, the participation of an organization, division or production group in various planned activities during the implementation of an organizational development program, involves improving the functioning of the organization, enabling its members to more effectively manage the culture of the group and organization.
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