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HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY, TECHNOLOGY, OBJECTS AROUND US
Ballistic missile. History of invention and production
Directory / The history of technology, technology, objects around us A ballistic missile is a type of missile weapon. It performs most of the flight along a ballistic trajectory, that is, it is in uncontrolled motion. The desired speed and direction of flight are communicated to the ballistic missile in the active phase of the flight by the missile's flight control system. After turning off the engine, the rest of the way, the warhead, which is the payload of the rocket, moves along a ballistic trajectory. Ballistic missiles can be multi-stage, in which case, after reaching a given speed, the spent stages are discarded. This scheme allows you to reduce the current weight of the rocket, thereby allowing you to increase its speed.
During its almost thousand-year history of development, rocket technology has come a long way from primitive "fiery arrows" to the most powerful modern launch vehicles capable of launching multi-ton spacecraft into orbit. The rocket was invented in China. The first documented information about its combat use is associated with the siege by the Mongols of the Chinese city of Pien-King in 1232. Chinese rockets, which were then launched from the fortress and instilled fear in the Mongol cavalry, were small bags filled with gunpowder and tied to an ordinary bow arrow. Following the Chinese, Indians and Arabs began to use incendiary rockets, but with the spread of firearms, rockets lost their significance and were forced out of wide military use for many centuries.
Again, interest in the rocket as a military weapon was awakened in the 1804th century. In 20, significant improvements in the design of the rocket were made by the English officer William Congreve, who for the first time in Europe managed to establish mass production of combat rockets. The mass of its rockets reached 3 kg, and the flight range - 1000 km. With proper skill, they could hit targets at a distance of up to 1807 m. In 25, the British widely used these weapons during the bombardment of Copenhagen. In a short time, more than XNUMX thousand rockets were fired at the city, as a result of which the city was almost completely burned. But soon the development of rifled firearms made the use of missiles ineffective. In the second half of the XNUMXth century, they were withdrawn from service in most states. Again, for almost a hundred years, the rocket was retired. However, various projects for the use of jet propulsion already at that time appeared from one or another inventor. In 1903 the Russian scientist Konstantin Tsiolkovsky published his work "Investigation of Space with Reactive Instruments". In it, Tsiolkovsky not only predicted that the rocket would someday become the vehicle that would take a person into space, but also for the first time developed a schematic diagram of a new liquid-propellant jet engine. Following that, in 1909, the American scientist Robert Goddard first expressed the idea of creating and using a multi-stage rocket. In 1914 he took out a patent for this design. The advantage of using multiple stages is that after the stage has run out of fuel from the tanks, it is discarded. This reduces the mass that must be accelerated to even higher speeds. In 1921, Goddard conducted the first tests of his liquid-propellant jet engine, which ran on liquid oxygen and ether. In 1926, he made the first public launch of a rocket with a liquid engine, which, however, rose only 12 m. In the future, Goddard paid much attention to the stability and controllability of rockets. In 5, he first launched a rocket with gyroscopic rudders. Ultimately, his rockets, having a starting weight of up to 1932 kg, rose to a height of up to 350 km. In the 3s, intensive work to improve rockets was already underway in several countries. The principle of operation of a liquid-propellant jet engine is, in general terms, very simple. Fuel and oxidizer are in separate tanks. Under high pressure, they are fed into the combustion chamber, where they are intensively mixed, evaporate, react and ignite. The resulting hot gases are thrown back through the nozzle with great force, which leads to the appearance of jet thrust.
However, the actual implementation of these simple principles ran into great technical difficulties, which the first designers faced. The most acute of them were the problems of ensuring stable combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber and cooling the engine itself. Questions about high-energy fuel for a rocket engine and how to supply fuel components to the combustion chamber were also very difficult, since for complete combustion with the release of the maximum amount of heat, they had to be well dispersed and evenly mixed with each other throughout the entire volume of the chamber. In addition, it was necessary to develop reliable systems that regulate the operation of the engine and control of the rocket. It took a lot of experiments, mistakes and failures before all these difficulties were successfully overcome. Generally speaking, liquid-propellant engines can also operate on a single-component, so-called unitary, fuel. As such, for example, concentrated hydrogen peroxide or hydrazine can act. When combined with a catalyst, hydrogen peroxide H2O2 with a large release of heat decomposes into oxygen and water. Hydrazine N2H4 under these conditions, it decomposes into hydrogen, nitrogen and ammonia. But numerous tests have shown that engines running on two separate components, one of which is a fuel and the other an oxidizer, are more efficient. Good oxidizing agents were liquid oxygen O2, nitric acid HNO3, various oxides of nitrogen, as well as liquid fluorine F2. Kerosene, liquid hydrogen H2, (in combination with liquid oxygen it is an extremely efficient fuel), hydrazine and its derivatives. At the initial stages of the development of rocket technology, ethyl or methyl alcohol was often used as a fuel. For better atomization and mixing of fuel (oxidizer and fuel), special nozzles were used located in front of the combustion chamber (this part of the chamber is called the nozzle head). It, as a rule, had a flat shape, formed from many nozzles. All these nozzles were made in the form of double tubes for the simultaneous supply of oxidizer and fuel. Fuel injection took place under high pressure. Small droplets of oxidizing agent and fuel at high temperature evaporated intensively and entered into a chemical reaction with each other. The main combustion of fuel occurs near the injector head. At the same time, the temperature and pressure of the resulting gases greatly increased, which then rushed into the nozzle and burst out at high speed. The pressure in the combustion chamber can reach hundreds of atmospheres, so the fuel and oxidizer must be supplied at an even higher pressure. To do this, the first rockets used pressurization of fuel tanks with compressed gas or vapors of the propellant components themselves (for example, vapors of liquid oxygen). Later, special high-performance high-power pumps driven by gas turbines began to be used. To spin up the gas turbine at the initial stage of engine operation, hot gas was supplied from the gas generator. Later they began to use hot gas formed from the components of the fuel itself. After the turbine accelerated, this gas entered the combustion chamber and was used to accelerate the rocket. Initially, they tried to solve the problem of engine cooling by using special heat-resistant materials or a special coolant (for example, water). However, a more profitable and efficient method of cooling was gradually found by using one of the components of the fuel itself. Before entering the chamber, one of the fuel components (for example, liquid oxygen) passed between its inner and outer walls and carried away with it a significant part of the heat from the most heat-stressed inner wall. This system was not worked out immediately, and therefore, at the first stages of the creation of rockets, their launches were often accompanied by accidents and explosions. Air and gas rudders were used to control the first rockets. The gas rudders were located at the nozzle exit and created control forces and moments by deflecting the gas jet flowing from the engine. In shape, they resembled the blades of an oar. During the flight, these rudders quickly burned and collapsed. Therefore, in the future, their use was abandoned and special control rocket engines began to be used, which were able to rotate relative to the mounting axes. In the USSR, experiments on the creation of liquid-propellant rockets began in the 30s. In 1933, the Moscow Group for the Study of Jet Propulsion (GIRD) developed and launched the first Soviet rocket GIRD-09 (designers Sergei Korolev and Mikhail Tikhonravov). This rocket, with a length of 2 m and a diameter of 4 cm, had a launch weight of 18 kg. The mass of fuel, consisting of liquid oxygen and condensed gasoline, was approximately 19 kg. The engine developed thrust up to 5 kg and could work 32-15 s. At the first launch, due to the burnout of the combustion chamber, gas jets began to escape from the side, which led to the blockage of the rocket and its gentle flight. The maximum flight altitude was 18 m. In subsequent years, Soviet rocket scientists carried out several more launches. Unfortunately, in 1939 the Reactive Research Institute (into which the GIRD was transformed in 1933) was defeated by the NKVD. Many designers were sent to prisons and camps. Korolev was arrested in July 1938. Together with Valentin Glushko, the future chief designer of rocket engines, he spent several years in a special design bureau in Kazan, where Glushko was listed as the chief designer of aircraft propulsion systems, and Korolev as his deputy. For some time, the development of rocket science in the USSR ceased. Much more tangible results have been achieved by German researchers. In 1927, the Interplanetary Travel Society was formed here, led by Wernher von Braun and Klaus Riedel. With the coming to power of the Nazis, these scientists began to work on the creation of combat missiles. In 1937, a rocket center was founded in Peenemünde. 550 million marks were invested in its construction in four years. In 1943, the number of core personnel in Peenemünde was already 15. Here were the largest wind tunnel in Europe and a plant for the production of liquid oxygen. The center developed the V-1 projectile, as well as the first serial V-2 ballistic missile in history with a launch weight of 12700 kg like a loosely thrown stone). Work on the rocket began as early as 1936, when Brown and Riedel were assigned 120 employees and several hundred workers to help. The first experimental launch of the V-2 took place in 1942 and was unsuccessful. Due to the failure of the control system, the rocket crashed into the ground 1,5 minutes after launch. A new start in October 1942 was successful. The rocket rose to a height of 96 km, reached a range of 190 km and exploded four km from the target. When creating this rocket, many discoveries were made, which were then widely used in rocket science, but there were also many flaws. The Fau was the first to use a turbopump to supply fuel to the combustion chamber (before that, its displacement with compressed nitrogen was usually used). Hydrogen peroxide was used to spin up the gas turbine. At first, they tried to solve the problem of engine cooling by using thick steel sheets with poor thermal conductivity for the walls of the combustion chamber. But the very first starts showed that because of this, the engine quickly overheats. To reduce the combustion temperature, ethyl alcohol had to be diluted with 25% water, which in turn greatly reduced the efficiency of the engine.
In January 1944, the serial production of "V" began. This missile with a range of up to 300 km carried a warhead weighing up to 1 ton. From September 1944, the Germans began to bombard British territory with them. In total, 6100 missiles were manufactured and 4300 combat launches were carried out. 1050 rockets flew to England and half of them exploded directly in London. As a result, about 3 thousand people died and twice as many were injured.
The maximum flight speed of the V-2 reached 1,5 km / s, and the flight altitude was about 90 km. The British had no way to intercept or shoot down this missile. But due to the imperfect guidance system, they turned out to be a rather ineffective weapon as a whole. However, from the point of view of the development of rocket technology, the Vs represented a giant step forward. The main thing was that the world believed in the future of missiles. After the war, rocket science received powerful state support in all states. At first, the United States found itself in more favorable conditions; many German rocket men, led by Brown himself, were delivered to America after the defeat of Germany, just like several ready-made Vs. This potential served as a starting point for the development of the American missile industry. In 1949, having installed a V-2 on a small Vak-Corporal research rocket, the Americans launched it to an altitude of 400 km. On the basis of the same "V", under the leadership of Brown, the American ballistic missile "Viking" was created in 1951, developing a speed of about 6400 km / h. In 1952, the same Brown developed for the United States the Redstone ballistic missile with a range of up to 900 km (it was this missile that was used in 1958 as the first stage in launching the first American satellite, Explorer 1, into orbit). The USSR had to catch up with the Americans. The creation of their own heavy ballistic missiles here also began with the study of the German V-2. For this, immediately after the victory, a group of designers was sent to Germany (including Korolev and Glushko). True, they did not manage to get a single complete "Fau" ready, but according to indirect signs and numerous testimonies, the idea of \uXNUMXb\uXNUMXbit was quite complete. In 1946, the USSR began its own intensive work on the creation of long-range automatically guided ballistic missiles. Organized by Korolev, NII-88 (later TsNIIMash in Podlipki near Moscow, now the city of Korolev) immediately received significant funds and comprehensive state support. In 1947, the first Soviet ballistic missile R-2 was created on the basis of the V-1. This first success came with great difficulty. During the development of the rocket, Soviet engineers faced many problems.
The Soviet industry did not then produce the steel grades necessary for rocket science, there was no necessary rubber and the necessary plastics. Huge difficulties arose when working with liquid oxygen, since all the lubricating oils then available instantly thickened at low temperatures, and the rudders stopped working. I had to develop new types of oils. The general culture of production in no way corresponded to the level of rocket technology. The accuracy of manufacturing parts, the quality of welding left much to be desired for a long time. Tests conducted in 1948 at the Kapustin Yar test site showed that the R-1 not only did not surpass the V-2, but was also inferior to them in many respects. Almost none of the starts went smoothly. Launches of some missiles were delayed many times due to malfunctions. Of the 12 missiles intended for testing, only 9 were launched with great difficulty. Tests carried out in 1949 already gave much better results: out of 20 missiles, 16 hit a given rectangle 16 by 8 km. There was not a single failure to start the engine. But even after that, a lot of time passed before they learned how to design reliable missiles that started, flew and hit the target. In 1949, on the basis of the R-1, the V-1A high-altitude geophysical rocket was developed with a launch weight of about 14 tons (with a diameter of about 1,5 m, it had a height of 15 m). In 1949, this rocket delivered a container with scientific instruments to an altitude of 102 km, which then returned safely to earth. In 1950, the R-1 was put into service. From that moment on, Soviet rocket scientists already relied on their own experience and soon surpassed not only their German teachers, but also American designers. In 1950, a fundamentally new R-2 ballistic missile with a single carrier tank and a detachable warhead was created. (Fuel tanks in the V were suspended, that is, they did not carry any power load. Soviet designers initially adopted this scheme. But later they switched to using carrier tanks, when the outer shell, that is, the rocket body, served as walls fuel tanks, or, equivalently, the fuel tanks made up the body of the rocket.) The R-2 was twice the size of the R-1, but thanks to the use of specially designed aluminum alloys, it exceeded its weight by only 350 kg. Ethyl alcohol and liquid oxygen were still used as fuel. In 1953, the R-5 rocket with a range of 1200 km was put into service. The V-5A geophysical rocket created on its basis (length - 29 m, launch weight about 29 tons) could lift loads to a height of up to 500 km. In 1956, the R-5M rocket was tested, which for the first time in the world carried a warhead with a nuclear charge through space. Her flight ended with a genuine nuclear explosion in a given area of the Aral Karakum, 1200 km from the launch site. Korolev and Glushko then received the stars of the Heroes of Socialist Labor. Until the mid-50s, all Soviet missiles were single-stage. In 1957, a combat intercontinental multi-stage ballistic missile R-7 was successfully launched from the new cosmodrome in Baikonur. This rocket, about 30 m long and weighing about 270 tons, consisted of four side blocks of the first stage and a central block with its own engine, which served as the second stage. In the first stage, the RD-107 engine was used, in the second stage - RD-108 on oxygen-kerosene fuel. At the start, all engines were switched on simultaneously and developed a thrust of about 400 tons.
The advantages of multi-stage rockets over single-stage ones have already been discussed above. There are two possible arrangement of steps. In the first case, the most massive rocket, located at the bottom and fired at the very beginning of the flight, is called the first stage. Usually, a second rocket of smaller size and mass is installed on it, which serves as the second stage. On it, in turn, a third rocket can be placed, and so on, depending on how many stages are required. This is a type of rocket with a sequential arrangement of stages. R-7 belonged to a different type - with a longitudinal separation of steps. Separate blocks (engines and fuel tanks) of the first stage were located in it around the body of the second stage, and at the start, the engines of both stages began to work simultaneously. After running out of fuel, the blocks of the first stage were discarded, and the engines of the second stage continued to work further. A few months later, in the same 1957, it was this rocket that launched the first artificial Earth satellite in history into orbit. Author: Ryzhov K.V.
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