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How did capitalist relations arise in Western Europe? Detailed answer
Directory / Big encyclopedia. Questions for quiz and self-education Did you know? How did capitalist relations arise in Western Europe? The prerequisites for the transition from the feudal mode of production to the capitalist one were created in the era of the Late Middle Ages, during the period of the initial accumulation of capital. The term "capitalism" comes from the late Latin word for "head". The word itself appeared quite a long time ago, back in the XNUMXth-XNUMXth centuries. to denote "values": stocks of goods, masses of money bearing interest. The word "capitalist" is later, appears by the middle of the XNUMXth century. to mean "owner of funds". Still later, the term "capitalism" appears. This concept has its own clear content. In relation to property, it signifies the dominance of private ownership of the instruments and means of production, of land, of labour. In relation to the freedom of the individual, capitalism knows no non-economic forms of dependence. In cultural and ideological terms, capitalism is based on liberal secular values. It was the presence of these features that made capitalism different from traditional feudalism. The late Middle Ages are characterized by two stages in the development of capitalism: commercial capitalism and manufacturing capitalism. The main forms of organization of production were simple capitalist cooperation and complex capitalist cooperation (manufactory). Simple capitalist cooperation was a form of cooperation of homogeneous (identical) concrete labor. This form of cooperation appeared a long time ago, but only capitalist freedom - personal and material freedom - made this cooperation a ubiquitous phenomenon. From the middle of the sixteenth century manufacturing is gaining ground. Manufactory is a relatively large capitalist enterprise based on the division of wage labor and handicraft technology. Manufactories could not arise within the framework of the guild organization of production with their prohibitive statutes regulating the production process. Therefore, the first manufactories appeared in the countryside on the basis of crafts. Manufactory emerged from simple cooperation. Later, the forms of organization of production became more complicated. In the XVI-XVII centuries. there were not many manufactories. Existing in a feudal environment, manufactories were persecuted both by the workshops and by the state. In parallel with the emergence of manufactory production, the process of capitalization of agricultural relations was going on. Large owners began to lease land to peasants or wealthy townspeople. The initial form of such a lease was sharecropping (renting land for temporary use). The sharecropper paid rent in the form of a certain share of the harvest. The sharecropping rent was of a semi-feudal nature. In England, sharecropping gave way to the capitalist form of enterprise - farming. The farmer also rented land, but gave a fixed amount of money as payment for this. In the future, he could buy the land and become its owner. Such an organization of labor was not typical in medieval Europe. In France, not to mention Germany, Italy, Spain, the development of capitalism in agriculture proceeded much more slowly. In the countries of the irreversible development of capitalism, technical and economic progress changed the social and political image of states. Here the traditional stratification of society was actively changing. The third estate, the bourgeoisie, strengthened its capabilities. The term "bourgeoisie" comes from the French word "burg" - "city". Linguistically, the bourgeoisie are the inhabitants of cities. However, it would be wrong to associate the emergence of the bourgeoisie only with the evolution of medieval townspeople. The bourgeoisie consisted of various strata: nobles, merchants, usurers, urban intelligentsia, wealthy peasants. With the development of the bourgeoisie, a class of hired workers took shape. Changes in the economy, social and political spheres led to the strengthening of the dictate of the state, to the strengthening of absolutism. Absolutist regimes were of various types (conservative, enlightened, etc.) According to F. Braudel, the violence of the state was a guarantee of inner peace, the safety of roads, the reliability of markets and cities. Author: Irina Tkachenko
What is memory? Can you remember the alphabet quickly and easily? Is it easy for you to write your name? Can you play the scale on a musical instrument? You may say that you remember all this. But in fact, you have memorized it all. And you learned all this by forming a habit! In other words, things that were once difficult for you, like naming the letters of the alphabet or playing the scale, become easy and almost automatic when you get into the habit of doing it. Therefore, memory can be described as learning by habit formation. A person has an unimaginable number of such habits, with the help of which he does almost all the daily activities in his life - for example, fastening a button or washing his hands. But imagine that you are reading a book and someone asks you what it is about, or asks you to tell the plot. Of course, this cannot be called a habit. But if you carefully study the situation, you will see that there is something like a habit. For example, in the usual case, you learn how to arrange certain elements in the appropriate order. And when you retell the plot of a book or its contents, you are doing the same. Some psychologists believe that all learning (and that also means memory) consists of vast combinations of simple habits. But this does not mean that in the process of learning and remembering, you simply form habits through mechanical repetition or study of some elements. There are some other factors that influence the situation and allow you to learn and remember better. One of them is the desire to learn, that is, motivation or motivation. Another important factor is the understanding of what the person is learning. For example, you will quickly learn (or recall) a poem if you understand it. And you will remember it for a long time. In addition, linking new ideas with what is already deposited in your memory can be an important aid in learning.
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