What were the features of Byzantium during its heyday? Detailed answer

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What were the features of Byzantium during its heyday? Detailed answer

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What were the features of Byzantium during its heyday?

The Byzantine Empire, which was at its peak from approximately the XNUMXth to the XNUMXth centuries, had a number of characteristic features that made it a unique and important part of world history.

Cultural Heritage: Byzantium continued and preserved the Greco-Roman cultural heritage, being the heir of Rome.

Christianity: An important feature was the adoption of Christianity as a state religion under the influence of Emperor Constantine the Great in the XNUMXth century.

Constantinople: The capital of the empire, Constantinople, was a cultural and commercial center, connecting East and West.

Majestic Architecture: Byzantine architecture was evident in majestic temples, palaces and font structures such as the Hagia Sophia.

Legal System: The Empire inherited and developed the Roman legal system, creating its own body of laws.

Byzantine Art: Icon painting, mosaics, and temple paintings became important manifestations of Byzantine art.

Byzantine literature: The creative activity of philosophers and writers such as Theophylact Simocatta and John of Damascus was especially important.

Imperial power: Byzantine emperors had absolute power, but often combined it with the idea of being chosen by God.

Eastern Influence: The Empire interacted with Eastern cultures, which affected its arts, traditions, and trade.

Preservation of Science and Education: The Byzantines continued to preserve and develop the scientific and educational traditions inherited from the ancient Greeks and Romans.

These features made Byzantium a unique civilization that left its mark on the history of Eastern Europe and the East.

Author: Irina Tkachenko

Random interesting fact from the Great Encyclopedia:

Who made the first violin?

Did you know that out of more than a hundred musicians in a symphony orchestra, over thirty are violinists? The beauty of tone and the wide range of expression of sounds in the violin is considered better than any other instrument. The violin has survived many centuries in its development. Her story began in India. It was here that the bow was first used to play stringed instruments. And in the Middle Ages in Europe, a bow was played on various instruments.

One of them was the viola, which was probably brought to Europe in the XNUMXth century. Like the violin, the viola was placed on the performer's shoulder. Later, the viola changed under the influence of the old three-string violin (rebeca). It was an Arabic instrument that penetrated through Spain to the rest of Europe. A new group of instruments was born from the combination of a graceful viola body with a thin device of tuning pegs (a detail in musical instruments for tensioning and tuning strings) in a three-stringed violin (rebec).

The violin got its modern form between 1550 and 1600, and it is impossible to say who made the first instrument exactly as we know it today. The best violins were made in the XNUMXth and XNUMXth centuries. There were famous families of violin makers in Italy. Each had its own secrets, and fathers passed them on to their sons. The Amati family from the city of Cremona produced violins that had a rare melody and tenderness.

For a long time it was thought that no one could make a better violin. But Nicolo Amati had an outstanding student, whose name was Antonio Stradivari. He was called the master of masters, and he made a violin of high concert qualities, he managed to bring the sound of the instrument closer to the timbre of the human voice. Stradivari is said to have made 1116 instruments, and 540 of these continue to exist. Each is valued at a huge amount of money and is considered an outstanding work of art. The unsurpassed violinist of all time was Nicolò Paganini, who lived from 1784-1840.

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Super high pressure in a new way 09.11.2012

The science that studies the behavior of materials under extreme conditions has made a great leap forward. More recently, a method has been discovered to create ultra-high pressure without the use of shock waves that turn solids into liquids. This discovery will allow scientists for the first time to reach an unprecedented level of high static pressure of the environment - more than four million atmospheres. It can form new compounds with altered chemical and physical properties, such as metals that have become insulators.

An international team of scientists used an anvil combined with high-energy X-rays to generate high pressure. They managed to reach a pressure of 640 gigapascals. This is 50% more pressure than has ever been demonstrated before and 150% more than was available during typical high pressure experiments. Achieving such ultra-high pressure would have enormous implications for earth science, cosmology, chemistry, physics and materials science. A static pressure of 640 gigapascals is six million times the air pressure at the Earth's surface and more than one and a half times the pressure at the center of the Earth. The study of such quantities could lead to new discoveries about how the Earth was formed.

A new way to achieve ultra-high pressures was developed jointly by scientists from the University of Bayreuth in Germany, the American University of Chicago and the University of Antwerp in Belgium. Details appeared in the journal Nature.

“We are not stopping there because we expect to increase the available pressure range to terapascal values, or 10 megabars,” said Vitaly Prokopenko, author of the article and a scientist at the Center for Advanced Radiation Sources at the University of Chicago. “This is necessary to study materials in specific conditions. , such as on the surface of the gas giants, Uranus and Neptune, where the pressure corresponds to a value of about seven megabars.

Since the late 1950s, scientists have used diamond anvils to generate extreme pressures to test the strength of materials. This was necessary to form new properties of materials, such as superconductivity, and to try to reproduce the high pressure on various planets. Scientists have tried to reach the pressure of the Earth's inner core, which ranges from 320 to 360 GPa.

The pressure was set by adding a secondary microanvil (10-20 µm in diameter) between two anvils made from gem-quality single-crystal diamonds - about one quarter carat each. And the secondary anvil is made of superhard nanocrystalline diamond.

"Nanocrystalline diamond balls have a very high yield strength, are less compressible and less brittle than single-crystal diamonds. And it is they that give us the opportunity to dramatically expand the range of achievable pressure," explained Natalya Dubrovinskaya, co-author of the article.

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