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What were the states of the Near and Middle East (Ancient Egypt, the states of Mesopotamia, Assyria, Phenicia)? Detailed answer
Directory / Big encyclopedia. Questions for quiz and self-education Did you know? What were the states of the Near and Middle East (Ancient Egypt, the states of Mesopotamia, Assyria, Phenicia)? The Near East and the Middle East include several geographical areas: the "fertile crescent" - the cradle of civilization - begins in the west, in the rich countries of the Levant, and then arches over the plains of Assyria, Babylonia and Sumer. To the north of it is the Anatolian Plateau, which merges in the east with the Iranian Highlands and even goes to the Indus. In Babylon around 1900 B.C. e. a new great power emerged. This young Amorite dynasty gradually strengthened, watching as its neighbors exhausted their strength in civil strife. Thus, the first Babylonian dynasty established dominance over Mesopotamia, which henceforth began to be called Babylonia. Diplomatic and administrative documents were drawn up in the language of the new Semitic elite - Akkadian. The laws were stated in simple language; this way everyone could read and understand them. The construction activities of the first Babylonian dynasty are poorly understood due to the fact that their traces are buried under the ruins of later eras. From 1200 B.C. e. Aramaic nomads, looking for land to settle, conquer Mesopotamia. Little Assyria - a state on the banks of the Tigris - gathers a powerful army to stop the invasion, and then, in turn, begins to conquer other people's territories. Since 900, the Assyrians, hungry for victory, have launched a series of attacks on neighboring peoples - Babylonians, Phoenicians, Arameans - and conquered them. The Assyrian Empire extended throughout the Middle East. While the Assyrians fought to defend the borders of their power, one of the Aramaic dynasties quietly established itself on the Babylonian throne. By 612 B.C. e. she became so strong that she was able to challenge the Assyrian army and emerge as a worthy heir to the glorious king Hammurabi. Around 2000 B.C. e. in Babylonian texts, and in particular in predictions, the names of stars and constellations appear. In the same era, the tradition of healing was born. In ancient Mesopotamia there were two types of doctors: practitioners (asu) examined the sick and prescribed them medicines prepared from crushed and crushed plants, stones, animal or human entrails and mixed with vegetable oil, milk or beer; Priests-exorcists (ashita) cast spells and performed magical rituals, because it was believed that diseases were of supernatural origin and were the result of the witchcraft of demonic forces or God's punishment. In 539 B.C. e. The East was united under the rule of the Persian power. Trade routes and dynastic alliances connected regions that were remote from each other and completely different in their way of life. Cuneiform gives some cultural unity to the various civilizations of the East. The Phoenicians lived in port city-states and farmed the land in areas remote from the coast. Being excellent merchants, the Phoenicians already in the XNUMXth century. BC e. began to develop maritime trade, turning it into a source of prosperity and an instrument of expansion that continued throughout the Mediterranean until the XNUMXst century. BC e. They were famous for their fabrics dyed purple, which was obtained from the shells of needle mollusks. The Phoenicians also produced glass, which was made from sand from sea beaches, as well as products made from precious metals and ivory. The first attempts to create an alphabet were made back in the 1800s. BC e. In Phoenician Byblos (Lebanese coast) in the 1100s. BC e. scribes used an alphabet of 22 characters. The Phoenician language, like Arabic or Hebrew, belongs to the Semitic languages - when writing it, vowels were not taken into account. The Phoenician alphabet is the basis of most modern alphabets. Egyptian historian Manetho, who lived in the 3rd century. BC e., says that over the 30 thousand years of Egypt’s existence, 1250 ruling dynasties changed there. The history of Egypt demonstrates an amazing continuity of development and at the same time the steady evolution of society. The Egyptian of the era of Ramesses II (about 1300 BC) had different ideas and lifestyles from his ancestor at the time of King Cheops, who lived XNUMX. Clothing and jewelry most accurately reflect the changes that occurred. Pyramids were built with simple tools, but on a well-organized construction site. An endless stream of hundreds of porters pulling stones on draggers connected the port and the construction site for decades. The ancient Egyptians had a year of 360 days and was divided into 3 seasons: “akhet” (flood of the Nile), “peret” (winter) and “hemu” (summer). On the banks of the Nile, the peasants grew wheat and barley, which were used to make bread and beer, as well as flax, which was necessary for the production of fabrics. River navigation set the rhythm of all life: trade, transportation of troops, religious holidays, funeral pilgrimages. Sailors sailed on ships equipped with large sails and long oars. To protect themselves from their raids, the Egyptians who lived during the Middle Kingdom captured Nubia in the south and built a line of defensive structures there. By the end of the XNUMXnd millennium BC. e. Great powers emerged on the borders of Egypt. In the XNUMXth and XNUMXth centuries. BC e. Egypt was going through difficult times: its southern territories were divided between rival rulers; the northern ones were occupied by newcomers from the Middle East - the Hyksos. In the XNUMXst millennium BC. e. Egypt lost its independence. The scientific research of the Egyptians was to identify and write down reliable and tested "recipes" that could be used again, and not to discover general mathematical laws that explain the "tricks" found by empirical means. That is why the Egyptians were more inventors than scientists. Author: Irina Tkachenko
What is botany? Man has long studied the plant world mainly in order to find edible plants. Gradually, knowledge, accumulating, turned into the science of plants - botany, and the first people who devoted themselves to it were ancient healers and folk healers, who were considered sorcerers. First of all, they needed to know which of the plants contain poisonous substances, and which have a healing effect on humans and domestic animals. Therefore, for many years, botany remained just a part of medicine. In the XNUMXth century, the first scientists appeared who began to conduct purely scientific observations of the life of various plants, describing what they saw in thick books. The authors of these books became the "fathers" of botany. In the XNUMXth century, the revolutionary work of the English scientist Charles Darwin allowed botanists to better understand the history of the plant world. They were able to establish that, like animals, all plants descended from ancient, primitive ancestors. The research carried out by Darwin and his theory led to the creation of new sections and directions in the science of plants. One of these sections is plant anatomy, which deals not only with the structure of various plant species, but also with the search for a family relationship between them. Numerous experiments devoted to the study of heredity in plants make it possible to understand how this or that species is born and how it can be changed or improved from the point of view of human needs. The science that studies these problems is called genetics. Ecology is another branch of botany. Its task is to determine how plants are distributed on the globe. In other words, it tries to answer the question of why a certain plant species exists only under given conditions. Paleobotany tries to restore, of course, only in the sense of scientific knowledge, the path traversed by plants from lower, ancient forms to the present. The objects of its study are the fossilized remains of primitive species. Among other branches of botany, it is worth highlighting plant physiology, which studies the processes of life in them, including, for example, how they breathe and eat. There is also a special section dealing with plant diseases - plant pathology.
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