When was the Tower of London built? Detailed answer

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When was the Tower of London built? Detailed answer

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When was the Tower of London built?

There is one attraction in London that almost everyone who visits here wants to see: this is the Tower. It seems that every stone here is the embodiment of the history and greatness of England. On the site of the current Tower was, apparently, once a fortress of the Britons, then - the Romans, and possibly the Saxons.

Probably, the beginning of the construction of the White Tower, the oldest part of the modern Tower, was laid by William the Conqueror. Most of the rest of the buildings were erected under Henry III (1216-1272). William the Conqueror built the Tower to intimidate the people of London, but the fortress was used more as a prison than a defensive structure.

The Tower of London still serves as an arsenal. During the Second World War, there was again a prison. The Tower is located in the old part of London and occupies an area of 5 hectares. The wall is surrounded by a deep moat, which was drained in 1843.

Although there is a military garrison in the Tower, tourists are always much more interested in "beefeaters" ("meat-eaters"). This is a group of 40 men selected specifically to guard the Tower. They are dressed in a special uniform believed to date back to the time of Henry VIII or Edward VI. And they are called so, because in the old days they received a large amount of meat daily.

Author: Likum A.

Random interesting fact from the Great Encyclopedia:

What is the Industrial Revolution?

Man has been living on Earth for a very, very long time. But throughout its long history, the biggest changes in daily life have only occurred in the last 200 years! These changes in lifestyle and work are based on the improvement of machines. This significant period is called the "industrial revolution".

Since its inception, man has been constantly creating tools. Then came the machines. It wasn't until 1750 that a real machine was invented. A machine is also a tool of labor, but it does almost all the work, frees a person from energy costs. This transition from tools to mechanized machines was so important, so significant, that it affected every aspect of life. This example shows how one invention leads to another.

To get the most out of machines, new energy sources had to be found. Before the industrial revolution, only the power of human muscles, animals, the power of wind and water was used. To use the machines that man invented, a new source was discovered - steam. This allowed factories to be built. They were close to raw materials and the market. With the further development of machine tools and mechanisms, more and more iron and steel were required. And so there was a need for new methods of mining.

Machines could produce more goods that needed to be sold. So, it was necessary to improve their transportation to the market. This led to the need for better roads, the construction of canals, the development of rail transport, and the construction of large ships and steamships to transport the created goods to distant markets.

Man began to deal with markets around the world, the role of communications increased. The telephone and telegraph were invented. But more changes were needed. Factories grew, they used large and expensive machines, and a person could no longer work at home. He began to do this in factories and plants. This led to a division of labor, a man in a factory performing only one operation throughout the day, while at home he was forced to produce a product completely.

After all, the industrial revolution made it possible to produce simple and cheap products available to everyone.

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Characteristics of polarons determined 19.01.2021

Researchers at Stanford University's SLAC National Linear Accelerator Laboratory used one of their X-ray lasers to track the origin and formation of so-called polarons, and to measure the basic characteristics of these formations. Polarons are deformations of the crystal lattice of a material that arise around moving free electrons and disappear without a trace after trillionths of a second. Despite such a short "lifespan", these deformations, according to scientists, affect some properties of the material and change its behavior, in particular, the response to light photons, which is especially pronounced in materials belonging to the perovskite class.

Perovskites are transparent materials whose name is derived from perovskite, a naturally occurring transparent mineral. About ten years ago, it was noticed that the inclusion of materials of this class in the composition of solar cells can significantly increase the coefficient of conversion of light into electricity. However, working with these materials causes a lot of problems, these materials are unstable, they degrade and quickly break down when exposed to air, they also contain lead, a toxic metal that should not be allowed to come into contact with the environment once again.

But it was in crystals of perovskite, synthesized in one of the laboratories of Stanford University, that polarons were first noticed. For this, the scientists used the LCLS (Linac Coherent Light Source), the most powerful and fastest X-ray free electron laser, which is able to image inside materials with almost atomic resolution and capture the movements of atoms on a time scale of a millionth of a billionth of a second.

During the experiment, the perovskite crystal was illuminated by conventional laser light, the pulse of which was immediately followed by a synchronized X-ray laser pulse, which made it possible to see the reaction of the material sample to light. It was found that the material begins to react to light with a delay measured in tens of trillionths of a second. And the reaction of the material consists in the beginning of the formation of polaron deformations, which at first have a size comparable to the distance between two neighboring atoms in the crystal lattice, and then quickly expand to a diameter of about 5 billionths of a meter, which approximately corresponds to the width of 10 atomic layers. At the same time, the process of polaron formation is very fast, it occurs in just a few picoseconds.

The increased interest from scientists in this phenomenon explains why polarons may be precisely the reason why solar cells made from hybrid perovskites exhibit their inherent high efficiency. And knowing how these deformations of the crystal lattice are formed, developed, plus knowing their parameters, such as shape, size and lifetime, will allow scientists to find answers to many questions, which, in turn, will make the field of solar energy more efficient in the future. and economically viable.

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