Pricing. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

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Pricing. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important

Lecture notes, cheat sheets

Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets

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Table of contents

The essence of prices and pricing
Price functions
Classification of prices by sphere of commodity circulation
Classification of prices according to the territory of action and according to the procedure for reimbursement of transportation costs. Foreign trade turnover prices
Classification of prices according to the degree of freedom from the influence of the state in their determination
Types of prices for new products
Types of prices for goods sold on the market for a relatively long time
Classification of prices according to the method of obtaining information
Classification of prices depending on the type of market
Price system and price composition
Price discount
Cost as part of the price
Profit as part of the price
Direct and indirect taxes as part of the price
Factors affecting prices
Features of pricing in different types of market
Stages of pricing
Pricing information and its role in pricing policy
Pricing Goals
Product Life Cycle Pricing Policy
Basic Pricing Strategies
Costly pricing methods
Setting prices for a new product
Proactive price changes
The reaction of consumers, firms and competitors to price changes
Econometric Methods for Determining Prices
Price discrimination
Pricing in a monopolized market
Average prices and general price level
The role of prices in inflationary processes
Stages of inflation development and price dynamics
The Consequences of Inflationary Price Growth and Their Impact on Economic Development
Pricing and pricing policy in the fuel and energy complex
Pricing for transport services
Pricing in the market of scientific and technical products
Features of pricing in the service sector
Health care pricing
Labor market price
Land price. Features of pricing in the land market
Types of value and prices of land
Methods for assessing the market value of land
Price of capital assets
The essence of the loan price
Contract price in foreign trade and the method of fixing it
Calculation of prices for exported products
Adjustments to prices for exported and imported products
Exchange rate and prices
State regulation of prices
The main directions of the state pricing policy in Russia
Prices and pricing issues in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation
Principles for determining prices for tax purposes
Forms and methods of state influence on prices
Forms of direct state intervention in the pricing process
Monitoring compliance with the procedure for applying regulated prices
Price regulation in foreign countries

1. The essence of prices and pricing

Price is one of the most important economic categories. Goods are the object of purchase and sale operations, i.e. goods have a social value. The social value, presented in monetary terms, is the price of the goods.

The essence of price is determined by two main theories.

The foundations of the first theory - the cost theory of price - were laid by V. Petty, A. Smith and D. Riccardo. The value theory of price was consistently developed by K. Marx within the framework of his doctrine of abstract labor as an objective substance of value. According to this theory, a commodity has a value and a price.

Price represents socially useful labor realized in a commodity, and labor must correspond to average conditions for the period under consideration, productivity and intensity. Each individual commodity is the result of labor and accordingly has a certain value, which makes all commodities qualitatively homogeneous, that is, comparable and commensurate.

Moreover, within the framework of the value theory of price, labor embodied in commodities also becomes qualitatively homogeneous, abstract labor.

The quantities of abstract labor reflected in the value of a commodity can be compared. By comparing the values of commodities, and consequently the magnitudes of abstract labor, the objective proportions of the exchange and purchase and sale of commodities are established.

The price, according to the theory of K. Marx, is a monetary expression of the value of the goods. Price may not be the same as value.

In the cost theory of price, the concepts of price and value are clearly distinguished. Cost is the objective basis of price.

The second theory states that the price is determined by the amount of financial costs in the most optimal way of using production resources. Moreover, the market price of the goods is determined not so much depending on the financial costs of the manufacturer, but depending on the direct assessment of these costs in terms of utility by the buyer himself. The price is an independent, independent extra-cost value, in determining which the buyer's assessment plays the main role, and not the financial costs of the manufacturer. The price does not depend on the cost.

So, the first theory states that the price is determined by supply (cost), and the second - that the price is determined by demand (utility).

The price is a certain amount of money for which the seller is willing to sell the product, and the buyer is willing to buy it.

Pricing - is the process by which the price of a product or service is formed. There are two pricing methods:

1) centralized pricing means the formation of prices by the state, based on production costs and distribution costs;

2) market pricing means pricing based on the interaction of supply and demand.

One of the main problems of both commercial and non-profit organizations is the approval of the optimal price for their goods and services.

2. Price functions

The price functions are only those external manifestations of properties that are characteristic of any price, regardless of its type.

Prices perform the following functions:

1) accounting function;

2) stimulating function;

3) distribution function;

4) the function of establishing a balance between supply and demand;

5) the function of rational distribution of production.

accounting function also called the function of accounting and measuring the costs of social labor. The price performs an accounting function, since by definition it is a monetary expression of value. The price shows how much it costs to satisfy a specific need for a particular product.

Incentive price function is that the price encourages the producer through the profit it contains. The price has a stimulating and restraining effect on the production of various types of goods. Prices can encourage an increase or, conversely, prevent a decrease in the production and consumption of certain types of goods.

Price can be used to:

1) influence the development of science and technology;

2) promote a more rational use of resources;

3) influence the level of product quality;

4) influence the structure of output and consumption.

It is possible to stimulate the activity of economic agents by increasing profits in price, as well as by using discounts and surcharges.

Distributive function of price is that through prices there is a distribution and redistribution of net national income. With the help of this function, to one degree or another, many social problems of society are solved.

Distribution and redistribution of national income occurs between:

1) various sectors of the economy;

2) forms of ownership;

3) different regions of the country;

4) accumulation fund and consumption fund;

5) segments of the population.

The function of establishing a balance between supply and demand It consists in the fact that demand and supply (production and consumption) are interconnected through prices. Price is a tool to achieve a balance between supply and demand.

If there is a disproportion between supply and demand, then the price is the first to signal this.

The price in the event of a shortage of goods encourages an increase in supply, since a high price is set for scarce goods, stimulating the influx of producers into this industry.

In the case of an excess of goods, demand falls, the price falls, and after it, supply also decreases.

Function of rational location of production is that, through the price mechanism, the producer receives information about in which industry or sector of the economy he can get a higher profit, and accordingly, there is a movement of capital between sectors of the economy and within one sector to where there is a higher rate of return. This movement of capital is initiated directly by producers, who in their activities are subject to the laws of competition and demand.

3. Classification of prices according to the sphere of commodity circulation

In accordance with this criterion, the following types of prices are distinguished:

1) wholesale prices for industrial products;

2) prices for products in the construction industry;

3) purchase prices for agricultural products;

4) freight transport tariffs and passenger transport tariffs;

5) retail prices;

6) tariffs for housing and communal services (housing and communal services) and tariffs for household services;

7) prices in the sphere of foreign trade turnover: export and import prices;

Wholesale prices for industrial products - these are the purchase prices for the products of enterprises, firms and organizations in the industrial sector and the prices at which these products are sold in the process of wholesale turnover, regardless of the form of ownership.

Wholesale prices for industrial products are divided into the following subspecies:

1) wholesale prices of enterprises (or selling price);

2) wholesale industry prices.

Wholesale prices of enterprises (or selling price) - These are prices that are set directly by the manufacturer of the product. At selling prices, the enterprise sells its products to wholesalers or other firms, enterprises or organizations.

Wholesale industry prices - these are the prices at which payment is made for products supplied by wholesale organizations to enterprises, firms and consumer organizations.

Prices for products in the construction industry have three varieties:

1) the estimated cost is the maximum possible amount of costs required for the construction of the facility;

2) the list price is the average estimated cost of a unit of output of a building object;

3) the contract price is the price that is determined in the contract with the contractor.

Purchase prices for agricultural products - these are the wholesale prices at which agricultural enterprises, as well as individuals (farmers) and the population, sell agricultural products.

Freight transport tariffs and passenger transport tariffs - this is the price at which the senders of goods and passengers pay transport organizations for the services of transporting goods and passengers.

The tariff consists of the following parts:

1) costs and profits of transport organizations;

2) VAT (value added tax).

Retail prices - these are the final prices at which goods in retail trade are sold to the population, enterprises, firms and consumer organizations. At retail prices, goods from the sphere of circulation fall directly into the sphere of consumption of a household or enterprise.

The auction price is also the retail price.

Auction price - this is the price of the goods sold at the auction, determined in the bidding process. A feature of the auction price is that it can differ significantly from the market price (be higher than the market price).

Tariffs for housing and communal services (housing and communal services) and tariffs for household services - these are the prices at which the population pays for the services of household services and housing and communal services. The services of household services and housing and communal services include: laundry, dry cleaning, telephone and heating.

4. Classification of prices according to the territory of action and according to the procedure for reimbursement of transportation costs. Foreign trade turnover prices

Price classification can be carried out according to different criteria.

1. By area of operation prices are divided into:

1) prices are uniform or zone;

2) regional prices (local, etc.).

Uniform (zone) prices determined and regulated by the relevant government authorities. Uniform (zone) prices are set for gas, electricity, utilities, transport, etc.

Regional (local) prices established and regulated by local authorities. This type of prices depends on the costs of production and sales, characteristic of the region. Regional prices are set for most housing and communal services and agricultural products (purchase prices).

2. According to the procedure for reimbursement by the consumer of transportation costs for the delivery of goods prices are divided into:

1) prices in the place where the products are produced;

2) uniform prices, including shipping costs;

3) zone prices;

4) prices determined on the basis of a basis point. By price, installed at the place of production, the buyer purchases the goods directly at the place of manufacture and independently covers all costs for the transportation of products to the destination.

Single price including shipping costs, valid for all buyers, regardless of their distance from the immediate place of production. It includes the amount of transportation costs, calculated as the average cost of all transportation. Uniform prices have great advantages for buyers located at a great distance from the place of production, when the cost of transportation is significantly higher than average.

Zone prices established within certain geographic areas. The further the area from the place of production, the greater the cost of transportation and, accordingly, the higher the price.

Prices based on a basis point are calculated as follows: an enterprise establishes basic prices for its products in several geographical areas, on the basis of which the sales prices in other geographical areas are calculated by adding transportation costs to the price of the basis point closest to the buyer.

Prices serving foreign trade turnover, are indicators of foreign economic relations of the state and depend on the prices operating in the world markets. Foreign trade prices apply when exporting and importing goods. As a rule, all foreign trade transactions are concluded on the basis of world commodity market prices.

world price is an expression of the international value of goods in monetary terms. The level of world prices is influenced by supply and demand in the world market, changes in exchange rates, inflation, etc.

There are two main types of prices for exported goods:

1) free price - departure station;

2) price free - station of destination.

The difference between these types of prices lies in the methods of covering transportation costs. Each of these prices has several varieties.

5. Classification of prices according to the degree of freedom from the influence of the state in their determination

This sign of classification appears during the transition to a market economy. In accordance with this feature, the following types of prices are distinguished:

1) free prices;

2) regulated prices;

3) fixed prices.

Free prices - these are prices that are formed in the market by the interaction of supply and demand, without direct intervention of government agencies. The state can use in this case only indirect methods of influence - influence on market conditions, for example, the state can limit unfair competition and prevent market monopolization. The state may establish prohibitions on:

1) horizontal price fixing;

2) vertical price fixing;

3) price discrimination;

4) unfair price advertising.

In the process of determining free prices, the stage of the product's life cycle, its quality, usefulness for the consumer and market conditions are taken into account. Firms' profits depend on the price level.

Free prices are fixed in the documentation for the supply of goods and in the price negotiation protocols.

Regulated prices are also established through the interaction of supply and demand, but in the process of formation they are influenced to a certain extent by state bodies. State influence can be manifested in: 1) direct restriction of the increase or decrease in the price level;

2) regulation of profitability;

3) establishing marginal allowances;

4) setting coefficients for fixed price list prices;

5) setting limit values for price components, etc.

Fixed prices - these are prices that are set directly by the state (authorities and administrations, such as, for example, the Ministry of Economy of the Russian Federation). There are the following forms of price fixing:

1) list prices;

2) "freezing" of market prices;

3) fixing monopoly prices. Fixed prices for goods operate in extreme conditions, such as during war, natural disasters, economic crisis, etc.

For the effective functioning of a market economy, free market prices are most preferable. But it is impossible to completely switch to free pricing. There is no completely free pricing anywhere in the world. It is possible only in those commodity markets where economic processes fully meet the interests of society. But even in this case, the state should have the right to regulate prices and switch to fixed prices if necessary.

The state should regulate prices for the most important types of goods, such as electricity, oil, oil products, bread, etc. If necessary, prices for these types of products can be fixed.

Direct state regulation of prices for products included in the subsistence minimum is necessary for the implementation of social policy. The living wage of the population is determined by bread, milk, sugar and some other goods.

6. Types of prices for new products

When setting prices for new products, firms typically use a "skimming" or "market penetration" strategy. There are the following types of prices:

1) "skim cream" prices;

2) "market penetration" prices;

3) "psychological" prices;

4) prices of "following the leader in the industry (on the market)";

5) prices with reimbursement of production costs;

6) prestigious prices.

Cream skim price is set for goods that have just entered the market, and is the highest possible. This type of price is designed for a consumer who is ready to purchase a product even at such a high price.

Prices of this type decrease when demand at the highest possible price is satisfied. Lowering the price of a product allows the company to attract new customers, i.e., to increase the sales area of the product.

The disadvantage of this pricing strategy is that the high price level attracts many competitors to the industry. In this regard, such prices can be set subject to limited competition, as well as high demand for goods.

The price of "market penetration" - It is the price of a product that is significantly lower than the price of the same product by competing firms, set at this level in order to occupy a larger market share and attract more buyers. It is advisable to set prices of this type if the enterprise has large volumes of production and the total amount of profit from their sale covers losses on a separate product. Large volumes of production involve significant financial costs, and therefore, such a pricing strategy is not suitable for small and medium-sized firms that do not have such financial opportunities. The condition for the success of using this type of price is price-elastic demand and a decrease in production costs as its volumes increase.

"Psychological" price - this is a price that is slightly less than a round sum (for example, not 500 rubles, but 499). In this case, the psychology of the buyer is taken into account. Proponents of such a pricing strategy believe that the price must necessarily be an odd number (not 100, but 99 rubles), then the buyer will think that the costs of producing this product were determined very carefully and accurately and will not be deceived. The buyer will also get the impression that the price has been reduced and will benefit from the purchase. Another psychological aspect plays a role here: when buying, many people like to get change.

The price of "following the leader in the industry (in the market)" is the price that is set at a level close to the price level of the industry-leading firm. The price should not be higher than the leader's price.

Cost recovery price established on the basis of actual production costs and the rate of return in the industry or market:

C=I+R+N(I+R), where I - the actual production costs, R - the cost of selling the goods and administrative costs; H is the rate of return.

prestigious price- this is the price that is set for unique products of well-known, prestigious companies.

7. Types of prices for goods sold on the market for a relatively long time

For those goods that are sold on the market for a sufficiently long period, the prices of the following types are set:

1) moving (falling price);

2) long-term price;

3) prices of the consumer segment of the market;

4) flexible price;

5) preferential price;

6) prices for products whose production has been discontinued;

7) prices set lower than most firms;

8) contractual price.

Moving (falling) price is the price that is set as a result of the interaction of supply and demand. As a rule, with the saturation of the market, it decreases, this applies to a greater extent to wholesale prices, since retail prices can remain relatively stable. Prices of this type are set in most cases for essential goods, then the prices of goods and output volumes are closely interconnected. With large volumes of production, the firm has ample opportunity to reduce production costs, and hence prices.

Long term price - this is the price that is set for goods that are in mass demand. It does not change over a long period of time. But some properties of the product, depending on market conditions, may change, for example, their size may decrease or quality may decrease.

Prices of the consumer segment of the market - these are prices for approximately the same types of goods and services, but sold to population groups with different income levels and, therefore, are not the same.

These are prices, for example, for air tickets of different classes, for tickets to the theater (they can be in the stalls or in the box). In this case, the problem is to determine the ratio of prices for goods and services that differ in quality.

Flexible price is the price that changes under the influence of supply and demand. This type of price is used in case of sharp fluctuations in supply and demand in short periods of time, for example, flexible prices are set when selling perishable products (fresh fish, flowers, etc.) during the day.

This price is effective if the right to make price decisions belongs directly to the seller.

preferential price - these are reduced prices for goods of firms that occupy a leading position in the market (the market share should be 70-80%).

Prices for discontinued products.

This type of price should not be confused with reduced sale prices, these prices are set for discontinued products when they are sold to a limited circle of buyers who have a need for these products. An example of such goods are spare parts for cars that have been discontinued. The prices of discontinued goods are higher than the prices of ordinary goods.

Price set lower than most businesses, - this is the price that is set for goods that are additional to other goods sold at the normal price. This type of price is used as an advertisement for their products.

Negotiated price - this is the price, which takes into account various benefits and discounts from the regular price.

8. Classification of prices according to the method of obtaining information

In accordance with the method of obtaining information, there are:

1) published prices;

2) settlement prices.

To determine the price of goods when concluding an agreement or contract, sellers and buyers are guided by these types of prices.

Published prices - these are prices that are fixed in specialized and branded sources of information about prices. The published prices include:

1) reference prices;

2) list prices;

3) stock quotes;

4) auction prices;

5) auction prices.

Reference prices - these are the prices that are reported in any printed publications. Reference prices may be published in economic journals, company catalogs and price lists.

Reference prices may be nominal or reflect past transactions.

Rated prices are prices that are not used in actual commercial transactions. They are used as a basis for concluding contracts and transactions. Discounts and surcharges are made from the nominal price. Nominal prices are also called basic (basic) prices, since they are used as the initial base when calculating prices for similar goods. The base price is the price of a product of established quality and specification in a certain geographical region (basis point). Base prices are usually higher than actual transaction prices. In this regard, discounts from reference prices can range from 15 to 50%.

nominal price is called the exchange quotation price of goods, for the purchase of which there were no transactions on the day of the quotation.

Base prices are often used in lending. When calculating the interest rate of a loan for the purchase of working capital, base prices are taken. The base prices are those that were valid on the 1st day of the month in which the loan was taken, this should be indicated in the contract.

The prices at which the actual transactions were concluded are also reference prices. But such prices are not reported regularly, but occasionally.

Offer prices of goods and services of large firms are also reference prices, since the initial prices in the bidding process, as a rule, are reduced.

List prices - this is a kind of reference price, which is reported in the price lists (directories of sellers).

Reference prices - this is a kind of starting point for bidding when concluding contracts and transactions.

Estimated price - this is the price that is set at the conclusion of transactions and contracts for non-standard goods and equipment, manufactured, as a rule, by individual orders. Prices for such goods are calculated for each individual order depending on its technical requirements, and sometimes the price is determined only after the order has been completed.

Estimated prices are rarely published and should not be used as a basis for comparison when choosing a price level.

Prices of previous transactions apply if equipment prices are sufficiently stable. They are used under the condition of stable and stable relations between counterparties.

9. Classification of prices depending on the type of market

In accordance with the type of market in which the price is formed, the following types of prices are distinguished:

1) commodity auction prices;

2) stock quotes;

3) auction prices.

Auction - these are auctions intended for the sale of certain goods, held, as a rule, once or several times a year in the prescribed form.

Commodity auction prices - these are prices for the public sale of goods (lots) previously presented to buyers, set at the maximum of the levels offered by buyers. This type of prices is determined by changes in the supply and demand ratios. Auctions are characterized by the presence of a large number of buyers and one (several) sellers. Unlike exchanges, auctions sell real goods that have a strictly individual set of properties and characteristics. As a rule, there are significant differences between the auction price and the market price (the auction price is usually many times higher than the market price), since the auction price reflects the rare and unique properties of the goods. It also depends on the qualifications and skill of the seller who conducts the auction.

Prices of commodity auctions apply to agricultural products, forestry products, fur products, precious stones, antiques, art objects.

stock quotes - these are the prices for mass, homogeneous and interchangeable goods operating on specially organized permanent (unlike commodity auctions) markets.

Non-ferrous metals, agricultural non-food raw materials (plywood, cotton, wool), oil products, etc. act as goods on commodity exchanges.

Exchange quotations are the prices of real contracts, they are benchmarks for determining the prices of goods sold under regular contracts.

Exchange prices are strongly influenced by changes in market conditions, speculation and other random factors. The price of an exchange commodity is a kind of wholesale (selling) price of the industry.

The price of an exchange commodity (exchange transactions) is based on exchange quotations and is set taking into account allowances and discounts from them, which depend on the quality of the goods and the distance from the destination.

Auction prices and stock quotes are published in special publications issued by stock exchange and auction committees.

Bid prices - these are prices that are used in a special form of specialized trade based on orders for the supply of goods or the receipt of contracts for certain types of work in accordance with the conditions established in advance in a special document (tender). The tender is based on the principles of competition, that is, it is supposed to attract proposals from a certain number of manufacturers within the established time frame and then choose the most profitable ones for the organizers.

A characteristic feature of this form of trade is the presence of several sellers (offers) and a single buyer (customer) who chooses the most advantageous (including price) offer.

10. Price system and price composition

A single price system is formed by all existing prices interconnected. The price system is in constant motion, due to the influence of many factors of the market economy. The price system includes separate blocks of prices, interconnected and interacting.

The main components of the price system blocks:

1) wholesale prices;

2) purchase prices;

3) retail prices;

4) transport tariffs.

The main components of the price system blocks include sub-blocks. The block of wholesale prices includes wholesale (selling) prices of the enterprise and industrial wholesale prices.

The block of transport tariffs includes the tariffs of railway transport, motor transport, maritime transport.

Since all prices of a single system are interconnected, a change in the prices of one of the blocks entails a corresponding change in prices in all other blocks.

The main role in the system is played by the prices established in the basic industries. These include the fuel and energy and metallurgical industries. In particular, changes in energy prices in the shortest possible time are reflected in the prices of absolutely all sectors of the economy.

Reasons for the relationship and interaction of prices:

1) all prices have a single basis: the law of demand, the law of supply and the law of value;

2) all enterprises, industries and industries whose activities are tied to prices are interconnected and represent a single economic complex.

Price in a market economy is one of the main criteria for assessing the competitiveness of products. However, for a correct assessment, it is necessary to have an idea about the components of the price and the validity of each of its elements.

Wholesale price It comprises:

1) cost;

2) profit.

Selling priceIt comprises:

1) cost;

2) profit;

3) excise tax (for excisable goods);

4) VAT.

Prices for products supplied by intermediaries, include, in addition to the components of the selling price:

1) supply and marketing allowances;

2) trade allowances.

Purchase price includes:

1) cost;

2) profit.

Excises and VAT are not included in purchase prices.

The composition of the price is directly dependent on the distribution channels. In the event that a wholesale intermediary supplies goods from the manufacturer to the distribution network, retail price will include the following elements:

1) cost;

2) profit;

3) excise tax (for excisable goods);

4) manufacturer's VAT;

5) supply and marketing allowance;

6) VAT of a supply and marketing organization;

7) trade allowance.

If the goods from the manufacturer directly enter the distribution network, the retail price will include:

1) cost;

2) profit;

3) excise tax (for excisable goods);

4) manufacturer's VAT;

5) trade allowance.

If the goods enter the distribution network through several wholesale intermediaries, then the supply and marketing markup as part of the price will increase.

Based on what share of the price is profit, costs and indirect taxes, reserves for reducing the cost, the pricing strategy of the enterprise and the pricing method that meets the objectives of the enterprise are determined.

11. Price discount

The amount of the discount is determined by the following factors:

1) the nature of the transaction;

2) terms of delivery;

3) terms of payment;

4) relationship between the seller and the buyer;

5) market conditions at the time of the transaction. In practice, especially in the field of international trade, about 20 types of discounts are applied.

The most commonly used types of discounts are:

1) General (simple) discount. This is a discount that is provided from the list (reference) price of products. It is 20-30%, sometimes 40%. This type of discount is usually applied when concluding transactions, the objects of which are machines and standard equipment. Simple discounts also include a cash discount. It is done if the list price provides for a credit, and the buyer buys the goods for cash. This discount is either 23% of the list price, or is determined by the loan interest established in the financial market.

2) Discount for turnover, or bonus discount. This discount is provided to regular customers on the basis of a special agreement. The agreement should determine the scale of discounts, which establishes the relationship between the turnover achieved within a certain period of time and the size of the discount. The arrangement must also specify how payments are to be made based on these discounts. Bonus discounts can reach 15-20% of turnover for some types of equipment.

3) discount for quantity or series (progressive discount). This discount is given to the buyer on the basis of an agreement to purchase a predetermined increasing number of products. This discount is due to the fact that manufacturers are strongly interested in serial orders, since the production of machines of the same type reduces production costs.

4) dealer discount. This discount is provided by manufacturers to their regular customers or intermediaries. This type of discount is widely practiced, for example, when concluding deals on cars and tractors. The size of the dealer discount is determined by the brand of the car and is 15-20% of the retail price.

5) Special discounts. These are discounts that are provided to buyers in whose orders sellers are strongly interested. Special discounts include trial and order discounts and long-term relationship discounts.

6) Export discounts. These are discounts that are provided to foreign buyers in order to increase the competitiveness of goods in the foreign market.

7) Hidden discounts. These are discounts that are given to customers in the form of freight discounts, soft or interest-free credits, free services, or free samples.

8) Return discounts. These discounts are provided to the buyer subject to the return of an obsolete model or an obsolete product previously purchased from this company. Discounts for returns are 25-30% of the list price.

Discounts play an important role in fulfilling the incentive function of the price.

12. Cost price as part of the price

For enterprises, the cost is the most significant component of the price of goods.

Cost price- these are the costs of manufacturing and selling products, presented in cash.

The Russian Federation has established a unified procedure for including costs in the cost of goods and services. This procedure is approved by the Government of the Russian Federation "Regulations on the composition of costs for the production and sale of products (works, services) included in the cost of products (works, services), and on the procedure for the formation of financial results taken into account when taxing profits."

The approved composition of costs included in the cost is determined for the most part by the tax policy of the state. Certain types of costs, such as entertainment expenses, are included in the cost price within the established norms. Therefore, enterprises calculate the cost of production at full cost.

The cost of production is the minimum value of the offer price.

In the process of substantiating a certain price, the enterprise regulates the articles for calculating the cost of one unit of production. Costing items include:

1) used raw materials and materials;

2) returnable waste (they are deducted from the cost);

3) used purchased products, semi-finished products and production services of other firms and organizations;

4) fuel and energy costs;

5) wages of production workers;

6) deductions for public needs;

7) general production expenses;

8) business expenses;

9) losses associated with marriage;

10) other production costs;

11) business expenses.

If the production is multi-product, the first six articles are attributed to direct technological costs, and the remaining five - to indirect overhead costs.

If the production is simple, all costing items are attributed to direct technological costs.

Production cost determined by the first ten articles. If we add the eleventh to them - commercial expenses, which contain the costs of selling products, then we get the full commercial cost.

In practice, as a rule, commercial organizations themselves establish the composition of costing items. And most often allocate:

1) direct material costs;

2) direct labor costs together with deductions for public needs;

3) other direct costs;

4) overhead.

In foreign practice, cost calculation items include three components:

1) direct costs of materials;

2) direct wage costs;

3) overhead.

Abroad, the calculation of costs and prime cost is based on the theory of cost division into fixed and variable. This is due to the fact that in enterprises operating in market conditions, fluctuations in the utilization of production capacities quite often occur, which in turn cause fluctuations in sales volumes. The latter entail changes in the cost of production, and consequently, in financial results.

13. Profit as part of the price

Profit, along with the cost, is one of the most important components of the price for the enterprise.

Profit - this is a form of income, which is defined as the difference between the total revenue from the sale of goods and total costs.

net profit (profit remaining at the disposal of the enterprise) receive after taxes. It is divided in the ratio established by the company into an accumulation fund and a consumption fund.

From the accumulation fund, the enterprise finances various investment projects and personnel training, and from the consumption fund social payments are made to employees and for the maintenance of kindergartens and pioneer camps.

A rational entrepreneur seeks to maximize profits.

The state should also be interested in maximizing the profits of enterprises, since in the state budget the profit tax is in second place after the value added tax.

If prices are fixed, then profit depends on changes in the cost of goods. Therefore, profit is an indicator of the economic efficiency of production, its increase increases the income of enterprises and the state budget.

In inflationary conditions, an increase in profits can be a contribution to rising prices.

Profitability is the relative amount of profit. If the state regulates prices, then it is not profit itself that is regulated, but the rate of return, since the absolute value of profit is a derivative value that depends on the rate of return. There are many types of profitability: return on costs, return on capital, return on property, etc.

Pricing takes into account the profitability of products, similar to the profitability of costs. It is an indicator of the efficiency of output, as it reflects the relationship between the profit received from the sale of goods and the costs of its production. Moreover, the profit, which is included in the estimated wholesale price, must ensure the effective operation of the enterprise in accordance with applicable laws without loss to the budget.

Profit from the sale of goods at selling prices is calculated as the difference between the proceeds from the sale of goods at free wholesale prices, without taxes and fees, not included in the cost price, and the costs included in the cost price (for production and sale). No marginal rates of return are set.

Tax practice says that when determining the price of a particular product, it should include profit calculated on the basis of a profitability level of at least 25%.

An important problem in pricing is the determination of the amount of profit included in the price of products of natural monopolies. In accordance with the Law "On Natural Monopolies", one of the ways to regulate the activities of natural monopolies is price regulation by setting prices (tariffs) or price ceilings (tariffs).

Mark-ups (discounts) of intermediaries as part of the price

Bulk purchases, storage of products and their sale to consumer enterprises or retailers are carried out by supply and marketing, wholesale intermediary firms and wholesalers. These market entities bear the costs of purchasing goods and selling them.

The costs of wholesale trade are covered by supply and marketing allowances, which are the price for the services of wholesalers, and therefore include costs and profits. The composition of the supply and marketing allowances to the basic price includes the costs of purchase, storage, packaging, packaging, transportation and sale, as well as the rate of return.

If manufacturers sell their products at a free selling price, then the amount of supply and marketing allowances is determined by the subjects of the wholesale link independently. Moreover, when determining the amount of allowances, the demand and supply of goods on the market, as well as consumer properties and product quality, are taken into account.

If goods are delivered to Russia from abroad, then customs duties and fees for customs procedures are included in the costs of supply and marketing firms when selling products at free prices.

Retailers cover the costs of selling goods to the public with the help of trade allowance.

The amount of trading allowances is determined by the seller himself on the basis of the existing market conditions. The markup includes the costs of the retailer, in particular, transportation costs, other costs for the purchase and sale of products, as well as the rate of return and value added tax.

In the event that trade markups are regulated, retailers use the established trade markup.

In the Russian Federation, local executive authorities set the amount of trade markups on prices for baby food, medicines, medical products, products sold in the Far North, etc.

For products sold at public catering establishments, prices are set on the basis of free selling or purchase prices and a single mark-up.

The amount of margins is set for raw materials and goods sold at catering establishments. Margins are set so that they cover the costs of production, circulation and sales, value added tax, deductions to the state budget (with the exception of organizations exempt from paying this tax on income) and ensure the profitability of the enterprise. In the Russian Federation, state executive authorities can regulate the amount of markups on products sold at public catering establishments.

The size of distribution costs depends on the conditions of sale. The greater the number of intermediaries involved in the sale of goods, the greater will be the distribution costs, the higher will be the selling price.

15. Direct and indirect taxes included in the price

The price also includes taxes.... Tax - this is a collection or payment of a compulsory nature, levied by the state on the property and income of individuals and business entities and used to cover the costs of the state and solve social problems without providing taxable objects with a special equivalent.

Since taxes are part of the price, thanks to them it plays an important socio-economic role:

1) taxes realized in price are the main source of state budget revenues;

2) taxes in the price have an impact on the development of production, they can contribute to its expansion or reduction;

3) taxes can be a means of regulating the price level, influencing their dynamics, influencing the level of inflation, and an incentive to lower prices;

4) taxes can play an active social role, namely, to restore social justice by influencing the incomes of various groups of the population.

The price includes the following types of taxes:

1) social taxes;

2) value added tax;

3) excise;

4) income tax (not an independent component of the price).

Social taxes - these are contributions to the health and social insurance fund, to the pension fund, to the employment fund. The amount of these social taxes is related to wages, is calculated numerically, and is included in the cost of production as an independent cost item, namely, deductions for social needs.

Direct taxes income and property of individuals and legal entities are taxed. Direct taxes include personal income tax, corporate and enterprise profit tax, land tax, etc.

Indirect taxes - These are taxes on goods and services included in the price of goods and services and tariffs. Indirect taxes include value added tax (VAT), excises, customs duties, etc.

VAT is a form of withdrawal of part of the value created, which is part of the price of a product or service. VAT is calculated as the difference between the amount of tax received by the company on goods (services and works) sold and the amount of tax paid by the company on purchased materials and raw materials.

Excise - This is an indirect tax that is part of the price of the goods and is levied on the buyer. The excise tax is established on certain types of goods and services and mineral raw materials.

Excises are a means of withdrawing income included in the price of goods. Goods subject to excise are also subject to value added tax, taking into account the amount of excise, i.e. these goods are subject to double taxation. Thus, the tax is levied on the amount of another tax, the amount of excise is included in the base of taxation of value added tax.

VAT and excises are pricing factors. They raise prices by making certain goods unaffordable to low-income families, redistribute funds from consumer incomes to the state budget, reducing demand.

Indirect taxes, which are part of the prices for raw materials, materials and components, increase the cost of manufactured goods.

16. Factors affecting prices

In the process of determining the pricing strategy of a firm, all factors that can affect prices should be taken into account and analyzed. Typically, the firm has no control over these factors. Some of these factors cause prices to fall, while others contribute to their increase.

Factors causing price reduction:

1) expansion and growth of production;

2) scientific and technological progress;

3) reduction of production and turnover costs;

4) increase in labor productivity;

5) high level of competition;

6) tax cuts;

7) establishing direct links.

Factors causing price increases:

1) reduction in production;

2) unstable situation in the economy;

3) monopoly;

4) high demand;

5) an increase in the amount of money in circulation;

6) tax increase;

7) salary increase;

8) improvement of the product, improvement of its quality;

9) fashion for goods;

10) increase in labor prices;

11) irrational use of capital, labor, equipment.

The level and dynamics of prices is strongly influenced by financial and credit sphere, Moreover, fluctuations in the purchasing power of the monetary unit directly affect the price level. Devaluation or its expectation causes prices to rise.

consumer factor has a significant impact on the firm's pricing decisions. The relationship between prices and the quantity of goods purchased at these prices is established for two reasons:

1) the operation of the law of demand and the law of supply and price elasticity;

2) the heterogeneity of the impact of prices on buyers of different categories.

State regulation of prices has several directions.

The establishment of fixed prices by manufacturers of goods and subjects of wholesale and market trade as a result of collusion is prohibited by law and is punishable by fines. Violations of this kind are called "horizontal price fixing".

"Vertical price fixing" is another type of infringement punishable by law. This violation consists in the fact that manufacturers and wholesalers influence retail trade and retail prices, requiring the sale of their goods at certain prices.

Price discrimination is also prohibited by law if it interferes with the mechanism of competition.

Members of distribution channels from the manufacturing plant to wholesale and retail also influence the firm's pricing decisions. All participants set themselves the goal of maximizing the volume of sales and being able to control prices to a greater extent. The manufacturer can influence the price through monopoly distribution of goods, minimizing the sale of products in stores that sell goods at discount prices. The manufacturing enterprise opens its own retail outlets and shops, where it can directly determine the prices for its products.

17. Features of pricing in various types of market

In the market pure competition the demand for the enterprise is completely price elastic, since there are many firms in the market, and they do not have the ability to individually control any significant market share. If the firm increases output, the price usually does not change. In a market of pure competition, there is an inverse relationship between demand and price.

If the supply of goods in the industry increases, then the price will decrease for all firms present on the market.

In a purely competitive market, no firm participates in the pricing process, and prices are determined through the interaction of supply and demand.

In the market pure monopoly there is only one seller. It can be a company or a government organization.

A monopoly firm determines the price of its own products without taking into account the pricing policies of other firms.

With the help of a state monopoly, it is possible to set the price of a product below its cost, causing an increase in the consumption of the product by sections of the population that do not have the opportunity to purchase it at full price. You can also increase the price, which will cause a reduction in consumption of the product.

A monopoly firm that is not limited in its pricing policy still sets the optimal price level based on the demand for its products. The pricing policy of a monopoly firm is based on price discrimination, according to which the firm sells goods at different prices, regardless of differences in costs.

In the market monopolistic competition

there are many firms selling their goods at different prices, and the prices of their goods vary widely.

The products of these firms differ in their physical characteristics and in consumer preferences, which explains the large price range.

In a monopolistically competitive market, a firm sets the price of its products based on the following factors:

1) the structure of consumer demand;

2) prices for the products of competing firms;

3) production costs.

In conditions of monopolistic competition, various pricing strategies are used. The most popular strategy is the geographic pricing strategy, in which the firm's products are sold in different countries at different prices.

In the market oligopolistic competition dominated by a few large firms, whose products can be both homogeneous and heterogeneous.

In this type of market, firms use a variety of pricing strategies. One of these strategies is the strategy of coordinating actions in setting prices, which exists in two versions: the adoption of an agreement on prices and a parallel pricing policy. Parallel pricing policy is the coordination of prices, expressed, for example, in the calculation of production costs according to established items, then adding the established rate of return and setting the final price. Under the influence of market factors, all prices change in the same proportions and direction.

18. Stages of pricing

The pricing process includes the following steps:

1) setting pricing goals.

There are three main goals of pricing policy:

a) ensuring the survival of the company;

b) profit maximization;

c) market retention;

2) definition of demand. This is one of the most important stages in the pricing process, since it is impossible to calculate the optimal price without analyzing the demand for the product.

The firm must also analyze the change in demand for its products at different prices and take into account all possible reasons for the change in demand. The magnitude of demand is determined by various factors, namely: the need for a product, prices for substitute products, prices for complimentary products, consumer preferences, etc.

3) analysis and cost accounting. Fixed and variable costs together form gross costs, the value of which represents the minimum value of the price of the product. The value of costs must be taken into account when lowering the price of a product, since if the price level is lower than the value of costs, the company will incur losses.

4) taking into account the prices of competitors. A great influence on demand, and consequently on the price, is exerted by prices for competitive products. The firm should have complete information about the prices of competitive firms and the distinctive features of their products. This information can be used as a basis in the pricing process, and it can also be used to determine the place of the company among competitors.

5) choice of pricing method. At this stage, the firm can begin to determine the price of its product. The optimal price is the price that will reimburse all production costs, the costs of distribution and sale of goods and provide the company with a certain rate of profit. There are the following options for setting the price level:

1) minimum level (determined by costs);

2) the maximum level (formed by the demand for the product);

3) optimal level.

The following methods of setting prices are most widely used:

1) a method based on production costs;

2) method of return on capital: based on the addition to the cost per unit of production of interest on invested capital;

3) the advantage of this method is the ability to take into account the payment for financial resources involved in the production and sale of goods;

4) determination of prices with a focus on demand. When using this method, the greater the degree of product differentiation, the greater the elasticity of prices acceptable to buyers. Products can be differentiated by many indicators: by technical parameters, by design, by reliability, etc. This method is based on a good awareness of the manufacturer about the needs and preferences of customers, as well as on the ability to focus on the specific qualities of their products;

5) The current price pricing method is used in pure and oligopolistic competition markets. The firm under these conditions sets the price at a slightly higher or slightly lower level than the price level of competitors;

6) Determination of the final price.

19. Price information and its role in pricing policy

To implement an effective pricing policy, a company must first of all have reliable information about competing firms and their products, production costs and other costs, profit margins, tax policy, etc. This information should be comprehensively studied to make the right pricing decisions. .

Typically, a firm collects information in the following four areas:

1) product market (type of competition);

2) the industry in which the firm operates;

3) competing industries;

4) government activities in the field of entrepreneurship.

In the process of collecting price information, the firm should also consider:

1) the market for their products;

2) the potential of their products;

3) the behavior of existing competitors and the capabilities of potential competitors;

4) government policy on entrepreneurship.

To make effective pricing decisions, a firm must have the following information:

About the market:

1) market segments in which products are sold;

2) needs and preferences of potential buyers;

3) geographical location of sales markets;

4) market capacity;

5) existing and potential competitors;

6) prospects for increasing sales of their products;

7) market conditions and forecasts for the next two years.

About product:

1) the novelty of the goods;

2) comparative assessment of the quality of competitive goods and goods of this company;

3) comparative assessment of prices for goods of competing firms and prices for goods of this firm;

4) the ability of the product to meet the existing and potential needs of consumers;

5) the need for improvement;

6) the reaction of buyers to the price of goods.

On market competition and government policy:

1) government policy and its impact on the market;

2) availability of competitive goods on sale;

3) market share occupied by competitors;

4) prospects for price changes;

5) financial condition of competitors;

6) expected behavior of competitors;

7) official information about the profits and losses of competitors.

About production and costs:

1) production volumes and volumes of warehouse stocks at a given point in time;

2) the company's costs for a given amount of inventory;

3) the impact of changes in production volume on costs;

4) the impact of changes in the volume of inventory on costs;

5) costs that are directly related to the adoption of pricing decisions.

On sales revenue and profit:

1) the ratio of revenue, profit and costs for various types of goods sold or produced by the company;

2) the relationship between production volumes and sales proceeds;

3) the relationship between production volumes and profits;

4) the share of profit in the price of a unit of goods sold;

5) the ratio of the share of profit in the price of a unit of goods sold by this firm, and the price of a unit of goods sold by competing firms.

20. Goals of pricing policy

The following main goals of pricing policy are distinguished:

1) ensuring the continued existence of the company. In an environment of strong competition, reduced demand and the presence of excess capacity in the enterprise, the company has to resort to lowering the prices of its products in order to continue production or eliminate stocks. Moreover, in such a situation, profit does not play a role. As long as the price of a good covers a portion of the firm's fixed and variable costs, it can continue to exist. But this goal can only be pursued in the short term;

2) profit maximization in the short run. Most firms want to set a price for their products that would provide them with maximum profit. In order to achieve this goal, it is necessary to determine the amount of preliminary demand and preliminary costs for each individual price (ie, price alternative). Next, you need to choose from these alternatives the one that will bring the company maximum profit in the short term;

3) maximizing turnover in the short term. To achieve this goal, intermediaries are paid a percentage of commissions on the volume of products sold by them;

4) maximum increase in sales. Firms that set themselves this goal are based on the fact that an increase in sales will lead to a decrease in unit costs, and hence an increase in profits. Such firms lower the prices of their products to a minimum, relying on the reaction of the market. This is called "price-to-market". If the firm lowers the prices of its products to an acceptable minimum, increases its market share, thereby reducing the cost per unit of goods, then it can further reduce prices.

However, such a policy will only have good results if the following conditions are met:

a) strong sensitivity of demand to prices;

b) the ability to reduce production and sales costs per unit of goods as a result of an increase in production volumes;

competitors will not follow the example of this company and will not start lowering prices too;

5) "cream skimming". This goal is achieved by setting high prices. This tactic is commonly used for product innovations that are priced well above the cost of production. This pricing is called "premium pricing". When sales at a given price start to decrease, the firm lowers the price to attract more buyers. As a result, in each segment of the price market, the firm achieves the maximum possible sales volume;

6) quality leadership. If a firm becomes a leader in quality, then it sets a high price for its products in order to cover the costs of quality improvement and the research and development work carried out for this.

All the considered goals of pricing policy can be set for the company at different times, at different prices, in different ratios, but they are all subject to a common goal - profit maximization in the long run.

21. Life cycle pricing policy

The concept of the product life cycle is based on the fact that the time the product is on the market is limited. That is, each product has its own life cycle, which includes the following stages:

1) development and release to the market;

2) growth;

3) maturity;

4) falls.

The product life cycle policy takes into account the following factors in pricing:

1) change in costs after an increase in production volumes;

2) change in demand throughout the life cycle of the product;

3) the time of presence of goods on the market.

Stage of development and release of goods on the market

characterized by high research, development and production costs and freedom from competitors.

The price at this stage is the criterion for evaluating the quality of the goods. The buyer does not yet have the opportunity to compare the product with the alternative. Therefore, at this stage, the buyer is relatively insensitive to the price of the new product. The price at this stage should cover the initial costs of research and development of new production.

growth stage. At this stage, the product faces competitors. That is, the consumer has a choice. At the same time, the consumer begins to receive more information about the product, which increases its sensitivity to price.

At this stage, the price is high, but already reduced compared to the previous stage. The price at this stage must meet the quality requirements of customer value.

At the growth stage, the following pricing policy goals can be achieved:

1) "cream skimming", i.e., the price is set higher than the prices of competing firms, which draws attention to the high quality of the product;

2) setting the "parity" price. That is, the firm enters into an explicit or veiled price collusion with competitors or focuses on the leader in determining the price. In this situation, the company focuses on the mass buyer.

Product maturity stage. A characteristic feature of this stage is that the most price-sensitive group of buyers is present on the market.

At the stage of maturity, the following phenomena are observed:

1) saturation of the market with a product;

2) the number of competitors decreases, as there is an elimination of firms that could not withstand competition at the previous stage, primarily due to high production costs;

3) many firms begin to develop a new product.

The price level at this stage is low.

At this stage, its market share plays a big role for the company, since its decrease, even under the condition of low costs and the absence of prospects for a price increase, will lead to the inability to recoup the costs.

Fall stage. At this stage, the product eventually disappears from the market due to low capacity utilization.

The price goes down compared to the previous stages, but may go up if a "lagging" buyer enters the market. How prices change at this stage depends on the firm's ability to eliminate excess capacity and switch to new products.

The price and profit can drop sharply, or they can fix at a low level.

22. Basic Pricing Strategies

There are the following main types of pricing strategies:

1) high price strategy. Through this strategy, "cream skimming" occurs - obtaining excess profits at the expense of buyers for whom the product has a high value and who are ready to buy it at a price significantly higher than the normal market value.

This strategy is used if the company is sure that there is a group of buyers who will show effective demand for a product that is sold at an inflated price. A high price strategy is justified if:

a) the lack of competition is guaranteed in the near future;

b) the costs of developing a new market for competitors are too high;

c) raw materials, materials or components of the new product are limited;

d) selling new products is difficult.

The pricing policy in the conditions of applying this strategy is to maximize profits until competitors appear on the market;

2) average price strategy, or neutral pricing. This strategy is applied at all stages of the product life cycle, with the exception of the decline stage, and is typical for firms that aim to make a profit in the long run. This strategy is considered fair, as it does not cause a "price war", does not leave firms the opportunity to cash in on buyers, and allows them to receive a rate of return on invested capital;

3) strategy of low prices, or price breakthrough.

Can be used at any stage of the product life cycle. It is most effective if demand is highly price elastic.

Is used for:

a) penetration into the market, maximizing the share of the market for the sale of goods (crowding out policy);

b) increasing the utilization of production capacities;

c) avoid bankruptcy.

The purpose of applying a low price strategy is to make a profit in the long term, and not in the short term;

4) target price strategy. Usually used by large corporations. No matter how the prices of goods change, with this strategy, the volume of sales of goods and profit remain unchanged. Profit is the target value in this situation;

5) preferential pricing strategy. It is used to increase sales volumes at the falling stage of the product life cycle. It is carried out with the help of various discounts to the basic price;

6) "tied" pricing strategy. It consists in the fact that when setting the price of a product, the firm focuses on the price of consumption (the price of the product plus the costs of its operation);

7) follow-the-leader strategy. This strategy does not consist in setting the price of the product strictly equal to the price of the product of the leading firm, but in the fact that the price of the leader is taken into account when setting the price.

The price can be set higher or lower than the price of the leading firm, but within certain limits, which are established by qualitative and technical superiority.

23. Costly pricing methods

The following cost methods are mainly used to calculate the market price:

1) method based on the determination of total costs. It consists in summing up the total costs and profits that the firm expects. Total costs are calculated as the sum of variable and fixed costs. The advantages of this method include its simplicity and convenience. But this method has two significant disadvantages:

a) when setting the price, the demand presented by buyers for this product is not taken into account, competition is not taken into account, therefore, a situation may arise when there will be no demand for a product at a set price;

b) when using this method, fixed (overhead) costs are introduced into the cost of goods, i.e., the costs of maintaining the enterprise, and not for manufacturing products. Thus, the full cost method is conditional, since it does not reflect the actual contribution of the product to the company's income;

2) Direct cost method. The essence of the method is to set the price by adding a premium to the variable costs - profit. Unlike the first method, fixed costs are not covered by the prices of an individual product, but by the difference between the sum of the prices of goods sold and variable costs. This difference is called "added" or "marginal" profit;

3) marginal cost method. Also based on cost analysis, but more complex than previous methods. When using marginal pricing, the markup is added only to the marginally high cost of manufacturing each next unit of goods. This method is justified if the sales volumes at a higher price are guaranteed, sufficient to cover the fixed costs. If used incorrectly or insufficiently controlled, the application of this method can lead to unforeseen catastrophic results;

4) pricing method based on break-even analysis. The firm seeks a price level that would bring her the desired (target) profit.

The break-even point can be determined by graphical and analytical methods. To find the break-even point using the analytical method, the following formula is used: Break-even point = Fixed costs (FC) / Gross profit (TP);

5) method of accounting for return on investment.

The main tasks of this method:

a) determine the total costs for different production methods;

b) determine the volume of production, which, subject to the sale of goods at a set price, will make it possible to recoup the attracted financial capital. The return on investment accounting method is the only pricing method that takes into account the payment for the use of financial capital attracted for the production and sale of products. The main disadvantage of this method is the use of interest rates, which are extremely unstable in terms of inflation.

24. Setting prices for a new product

The greatest difficulties for the firm are associated with setting the price of a new product that is just being put on the market.

Establishing a price for a truly new product. The firm that puts a new product on the market and has a patent on it, as a rule, sets the price for it "skimming", or the price of introduction to the market. Moreover, firms seek to maximize their profits while they have no competitors.

Establishing a price for a new imitator product.

In today's market conditions, the manufacturer must continuously improve its products technically and improve their quality. Improving the product entails an increase in costs, and consequently, an increase in the price of the product. To successfully compete in the market, the company needs to use a strategy that allows you to lower prices for traditional products for this market segment.

Setting prices to promote sales.

In some cases, firms lower the prices of their products below the market price level, and under some conditions even below the cost level.

Setting discount prices. Discounts act as a reward for the buyer for a purchase or for certain actions. That is, firms change the initial prices of their products.

Pricing within the commodity nomenclature.

Establishing prices within the product range. If the firm produces a whole product range, and not a single product, then it is necessary to set step prices for different products. When establishing a price step, it is necessary to take into account the difference in costs, assessments of their characteristics by the consumer, as well as prices for competitive products.

Setting prices for complementary goods.

Often, in addition to the main product, firms offer auxiliary products. During the pricing process, it is necessary to decide which products should be included in the price as a standard kit, and which ones should be offered as additional ones.

Establishing prices for essential supplies. Some products require mandatory accessories that are necessary for the operation of the main product. Manufacturers can set prices low for essential items and high prices for essential supplies as a pricing strategy, resulting in high profits.

Setting prices for by-products of production. Some factories produce by-products during the production process. If they are not of high value, and getting rid of them is expensive, then the price of the main product goes down. The firm seeks to sell by-products at any price, as long as it covers the cost of storing and shipping them. This allows the firm to lower the price of its main product.

Setting prices on a geographical basis.

Consists of setting different prices in different parts of the country.

Setting discriminatory prices. The principle is that a firm sells a product at different prices without taking into account differences in costs.

25. Proactive price changes

Firms that have their own pricing system and pricing strategy may occasionally find themselves in conditions that make it necessary to lower or increase the prices of their products. This can take into account changes in costs, competition and demand for the product.

Proactive price reduction. A firm may lower prices for several reasons.

1. Incomplete loading of production capacities. In this situation, the company needs to increase turnover, and it cannot achieve this through intensive trading efforts or improving the quality of the product.

2. Reducing market share due to strong price competition. A firm may also initiate a price cut if it seeks to take a leading position in the market with its help. In this case, it either immediately enters the market with prices lower than those of competing firms, or it is the first to lower prices in order to occupy such a market share that will create conditions for it to reduce production costs. In such a situation, the firm sets sliding or falling price for goods.

Initiative price reduction is usually used for consumer goods. It is justified if the market is characterized by high price elasticity of demand, i.e. price reduction is the most optimal way to increase consumer demand for your product.

To implement the strategy of proactive price reduction, it is necessary to develop measures to reduce production costs and introduce new production technologies.

The prices of the firm's products and the volume of its output are interrelated. The larger the volume of output, the more the firm's production capacities are loaded, the more opportunities there are to reduce production costs, and, consequently, prices.

In order to create such conditions in the market, the company needs to make it difficult for new competitors to enter this sales market. That is, the company needs, in addition to reducing production costs, to improve the quality of its products and engage in innovative activities.

Proactive price increase.

A firm may initiate a price increase for the following reasons.

1. Steady inflation caused by increased costs. An increase in costs, when it is not associated with an increase in productivity, entails a decrease in the rate of profit, and therefore forces firms to raise prices. Often, price increases exceed cost increases due to inflationary expectations or government price controls.

2. Excessive demand. In the event that a firm cannot fully meet demand, it can raise the price of its products, introduce a rationed distribution, or use both. A firm can raise prices relatively imperceptibly by removing discounts and adding more expensive items to its range, but it can also raise prices openly.

26. The reaction of consumers, firms and competitors to price changes

Consumer reaction to price changes.

Consumers can understand price changes in different ways, and not always adequately.

Consumers can understand the price reduction as follows:

1) this product model is obsolete;

2) the product has certain flaws;

3) the company has financial difficulties;

4) in the near future, the price will still go down, which means that you should wait with the purchase of goods;

6) the quality of the goods is lower than the quality of goods that were sold at a normal price. A price increase can be interpreted by buyers in a positive way:

1) the demand for this product has increased, and it is necessary to purchase it faster before it becomes a shortage;

2) the product has a special value significance, and the seller, by virtue of this, will strive to set the maximum price for this product for this market segment.

Reaction of competitors to price changes. A firm, if it is going to change the price of its product, must take into account the reaction to the change not only of consumers, but also of competing firms. As a rule, competitors take retaliatory actions if there are few sellers in this market segment, their products are slightly differentiated, and buyers are reliably informed. This situation is typical for the market of oligopolistic competition.

Before changing prices for its products, the company must predict and take into account the likely reactions of competitors. If there are only two firms in the market (duopoly) and the competitor always reacts in the same way to price changes, then his actions can be predicted. But a competitor may perceive price changes as a challenge and proceed in their further actions from momentary interests. To forecast the reaction of competitors, it is necessary to know their interests (increasing sales volumes, stimulating demand, etc.).

If a company has many competitors, then it needs to take into account that they can act both in the same way and in different ways due to different financial situations, market share, etc.

If a certain number of competitors react in the same way to price changes, then other competitors are likely to behave in the same way.

The firm's response to price changes by competitors.

In order to develop a strategy for its future behavior in response to price changes by competitors, the company needs to know:

1) what goals the competitor pursued by changing prices. The goals may be: to dominate the market, to fully utilize their production capacity, to fully cover increased costs or to change prices in the entire industry;

2) whether the competitor plans to change prices for a long period of time or this change will be effective only in the short term;

3) will the firm's market share and its profits change if it does nothing in response; what other firms are going to do;

4) how the competitor and other firms will react to each of the possible responses.

27. Econometric methods for determining prices

Method of specific indicatorsis used if it is required to determine and analyze prices for products that have one main parameter, on which the price level depends. First, the unit price (C_ud):

where C_б- the price of the basic product;

П_б - value of the parameter of the basic product.

The price of a new product is calculated as follows:_н = C_ud× P_н

where P_нthe value of the main parameter of the new product.

Regression analysis methodis used to identify the existing relationship between a change in price and a change in the technical and economic parameters of a product, as well as to build and align value relationships:

C = F(x₁,x₂ …x_n),

where x₁,x₂ …x_n- product parameters.

parametric series- this is a set of structurally and / or technically homogeneous products that perform the same functions and differ in the value of the main technical and economic parameters.

The resulting regression equations can be of different types:

y = a₀ +ea₁x₂- linear regression equation,

y = a₀PX₂n - power regression equation,

y= a₀ + Ea_iX_i +Eb_iX²_i - parabolic regression equation.

If the prices for goods already included in the parametric series were also determined by regression analysis, then the grossest mistake would be27бits application to determine the relationship between the change in price and the parametric series, since an important condition for its application, the independence of observations, is violated.

Scoring methodlies in the fact that experts specializing in this field give an assessment of the significance of each parameter for consumers, i.e. a certain number of points. The sum of points assigned to product parameters is an assessment of the technical and economic level of the product.

The price of a new product is calculated as follows:

1) the price of one point is calculated:

2) the price of a new product is determined:

C n \uXNUMXd E (B_Hi *V_i) * C',

where C_б- the price of the base product;

Б_bi- assessment in points of the i -th parameter of the base product;

B_Hi- assessment in points of the i -th parameter of the new product;

C' - the price of one point;

V_i- the weight of the parameter.

Aggregate method consists in calculating the sum of prices for the individual components of the product included in the parametric series, the cost of original assemblies, assembly costs and the established rate of return.

28. Price discrimination

Price discrimination - is the sale of the same goods, produced by one enterprise and with the same costs, to different buyers at different prices.

If conditions of perfect competition have developed on the market, then price discrimination is impossible, because in a competitive market, uniform market prices for a homogeneous product are formed on the basis of the interaction of supply and demand. Price discrimination is possible only in the absence of competition in the market.

Necessary conditions for price discrimination.

1. The firm has monopoly power.

2. The firm is able to determine the price elasticity of demand for different market segments and groups of buyers with different reserve prices.

3. Price elasticity of demand for different groups of buyers should vary significantly.

4. If a price discrimination policy is applied to a given product, then it should not be resold between buyers in different markets. If a product is freely resold between markets with different prices, price discrimination will not be possible.

The most favorable conditions for price discrimination are created in the service sector, since the resale of services is impossible. In the sphere of commodity circulation, conditions for price discrimination are created if the markets with different prices for the product in respect of which price discrimination is carried out are separated geographically or by high tariff barriers, i.e., the resale of goods is associated with high costs.

There are three types of price discrimination:

1) perfect price discrimination (first-degree discrimination) It is carried out on the condition that for each unit of an identical product a price is set, which is determined by the demand price. In this case, the entire consumer surplus is withdrawn by the monopoly firm. In its pure form, this type of price discrimination is rare, as it is difficult to implement. It can be approximately carried out under the condition of individual production, i.e., production, which is characterized by the manufacture of each type of product according to specific consumer orders. Prices in this case are determined in the contract;

2) second degree price discrimination is carried out as follows: a monopoly enterprise sells at different prices not each individual unit of production, but its entire batches, respectively, of the same demand curve. In practice, price discrimination of the second type is often implemented through various discounts;

3) third degree price discrimination is based, unlike the first two types, not on differences in demand prices for units of production, but on market segmentation, that is, on the division of buyers into separate groups, and each group has its own demand function. When conducting this type of price discrimination, the monopolist needs to set prices for each individual group of buyers, which should maximize the overall profit as a result.

29. Pricing in a monopolized market

Such a market structure as a monopoly is characterized by the following features.

1. There are many buyers and one manufacturer in the market.

2. There are no goods on the market that can be substitutes for the goods of the monopoly producer.

3. Market entry barriers are very difficult to overcome, therefore, the influx of new producers is impossible.

The monopolist not only independently determines the volume of production, and, accordingly, the amount of supply, but also sets the price for its products.

In a monopoly, the manufacturer must choose whether to limit the volume of sales in order to maintain a high price level or lower the price to increase sales. In other words, when a monopoly producer decides on the volumes of output and sales, he must take into account that with the expansion of production, he will acquire the cost of additional output, but will lose part of the value of the former smaller volumes of production and sales due to a decrease in price.

Since the monopoly producer himself determines the volume of sales and the price of his products, he must also prevent such a situation when the losses from lowering the price exceed the gain in income from the sale of additional units of production. To make effective decisions about changes in production and sales volumes, he should compare the total income from the sale of k units of production with the total income from the sale of (k + 1) units of production, i.e., the value of marginal revenue. As a rule, in a monopoly, in contrast to a perfectly competitive market, the manufacturer produces fewer products, but sets high prices for them.

A monopoly producer sets a price that is greater than marginal cost by an amount that is inversely proportional to the price elasticity of demand.

The measure of monopoly power is the value equal to the difference between the price set for the monopolist's product, which maximizes the monopolist's profit, and the marginal cost. Monopoly pricing rule: P = MC / (1 + 1 / e_D), where MC - marginal cost;

e_D - coefficient of elasticity of demand for the firm;

P is the price calculated as a simple margin over marginal cost.

If the elasticity of demand for the firm will be of great importance, then such a cape will be small, that is, the firm has little monopoly power. If the demand for the firm is almost inelastic, then the cape will be large, the firm has a large monopoly power.

In the long run, the price that maximizes the firm's profit will be lower than in the short run. This is because demand for any good is more elastic in the long run than it is in the short run.

30. Average prices and general price level

Price level- this is a generalizing indicator that characterizes the general state of prices for goods with similar consumer properties for a certain period of time in a specified territory.

You can evaluate the following price levels:

1) individual;

2) medium;

3) generalizing.

Individual price level- this is the amount of money paid for a unit of goods in the market. It is an absolute value.

For a set of homogeneous goods based on individual prices, one can define average price level, which is a generalized characteristic for a given set of goods.

The following formulas are used to determine the average price:

1. Average chronological.

where t is the number of months in the reporting period. It is used when the moments of price registration are equidistant. It is usually used when calculating the average price for a year or half a year.

2. Chronological weighted average.

where P_i- average price for the period,

t_iis the number of months in the period.

The formula is used if the moments of price registration are not equidistant (not evenly spaced).

3. Arithmetic weighted average. This formula is used if the number of goods sold or percentages of the number of goods sold are recorded.

where Q is the number of goods sold in physical units.

4. Average harmonic weighted.

This formula is applied if information is given about turnovers in rubles, i.e., turnovers that correspond to different price levels. The value is taken as the weight. where PQ is the turnover in rubles.

Generalized price level - it is a measure of the cost of an established consumer basket, combining different price levels. This indicator will be a characteristic not only of the price of an established set of goods, but also of the "price of life".

31. The role of prices in inflationary processes

Price increase - one of the most important indicators of inflation. The decrease in the purchasing power of money, caused by an excess of cash and non-cash means of payment in circulation, gives rise to inflation in prices, demand, costs, income, etc.

Inflation is present in all market economies.

Inflation is manifested in the depreciation of money in relation to gold, which causes an increase in the market price of gold in relation to foreign currencies and goods (causes an increase in prices for goods).

An excess of money in circulation causes their depreciation and, consequently, an increase in prices. Some economists argue that inflation is an increase in the general price level and use the consumer price index to measure it.

But not all price increases are inflationary. Prices may rise due to an increase in production costs or due to improved quality of goods, the release of new models, etc. In such cases, price increases are not inflationary.

External signs of inflationary price growth are:

1) massive price increases, i.e., prices are rising for almost all types of goods;

2) the continuity of price growth;

3) rising prices over a long period.

It is very difficult to draw a clear line between inflationary and non-inflationary price increases.

One of the varieties of the Keynesian theory of inflation explains inflation by the growth of production costs (cost inflation). According to this theory, the mechanism of inflation is determined by the relationship between the desire of firms to increase prices to maximize profits and the demands of workers to increase wages.

According to the monetarist theory of inflation, at the primary stage, production volumes increase due to an increase in the amount of money in circulation. The latter also entails an increase in the rate of solvent turnover and the investment of additional financial capital. At the same time, the growth rate of prices is less than the growth rate of the amount of money in circulation.

In the next stage of inflation, the growth rate of prices increases in comparison with the growth rate of the amount of money in circulation.

Rising prices in the extractive industries are the cause of inflation in the economy, as they have a significant impact on costs in most sectors of the economy. The reasons for the rise in prices in the extractive industries may be an increase in the level of wages in these industries, equipment costs, etc. The rise in prices in the main sectors of agriculture and transport tariffs also play a significant economic role and significantly affect the costs in related industries. The increase in prices and tariffs for raw materials, energy carriers and transport puts almost all sectors of the economy in a difficult position. The rise in prices in the raw material industries entails an increase in prices in the industries that use raw materials and energy carriers, and in the future in other industries.

In conditions of high inflation rates, the main task and duty of the government is to curb the rate of price growth and control price changes.

32. Stages of inflation development and price dynamics

Inflation in its development goes through several stages, and each of them is characterized by a certain type of inflation and rising prices.

The first stage of the development of inflation is characterized by a relatively slow flow of inflationary processes. This is moderate, or creeping, inflation. It is 2-3%, respectively, the price increase does not exceed 9%. If cash costs and expenses grow, then the population perceives this relatively calmly. Nevertheless, economic growth and the pace of scientific and technological progress are declining.

At the second stage, the rise in prices is already expressed by a double-digit figure (galloping or galloping inflation). Economic growth practically stops. Prices rise from 20% to 200% per year. All transactions are concluded subject to price increases or in foreign currency. With money, the population seeks to acquire material values. In conditions of hyperinflation, prices and the amount of money in circulation grow very quickly. The difference between the level of prices and wages is widening very rapidly. This leads to a drop in the standard of living of the population. High price increases are devastating to output and employment as consumers and producers try to stay ahead of price increases by spending all their income on immediate, now, and investment goods. Thus, there is a "flight from money."

The cost of living is rising, and workers are demanding higher nominal wages to offset expected inflation and rising prices. This entails an increase in costs, and consequently, an increase in prices and new demands to increase wages, followed by an increase in prices again. Thus, an inflationary spiral of wages and prices emerges in the economy.

In conditions of hyperinflation, prices rise unevenly, jerkily, and normal economic ties and relations are destroyed. Manufacturers cannot determine the optimal price for their products. Consumers do not receive reliable price information, they cease to navigate the current price situation. Money is depreciating at a rapid pace, no longer fulfilling the functions of a measure of value, a means of payment and circulation. Money ceases to be a means of accumulation.

The main causes of inflation (inflation of costs and inflation of demand) lie in the manufacturing sector. In demand-pull inflation, the price level rises because of excess demand. That is, the effective demand of buyers exceeds the quantity of goods that society can produce with given production possibilities. Therefore, excess demand causes prices to rise.

Indicators by which inflation is measured:

1) price index;

2) purchasing power index of the national currency;

3) inflation rates;

4) wage index;

5) the index of real incomes of the population. Also used in practice:

1) consumer price indices;

2) production price indices;

3) deflator.

33. The consequences of inflationary price increases and their impact on economic development

Prices are a kind of reflection of the general situation in the economic life of the country. Inflation, especially hyperinflation, has devastating effects on an economy.

First of all, this is manifested in the fact that prices of different types (for example, wholesale and retail), stages of production and circulation rise at different rates. Prices rise both for final goods and for factors of production, and unevenly. Prices can rise in the absence of inflation, but this will not have such a negative impact on the economy as inflationary price increases. Uneven inflationary price growth destabilizes the economic situation as a whole, leads to the ruin of individual economic entities.

The rise in prices affects, first of all, the material values of the sphere of circulation. Inventories stored in stocks depreciate. In this regard, it is necessary to systematically re-evaluate the stocks of raw materials, materials, as well as work in progress and fixed production assets. But this revaluation will still not keep up with the rise in prices.

The unpredictable redistribution of incomes of the population is the main negative consequence of inflation.

1. Due to the inflationary rise in prices, the incomes of the segments of the population with a fixed salary (state employees: pensioners, civil servants, students, etc.) are falling sharply, since the growth rate of their nominal income does not keep up with the inflation rate. In this regard, it is necessary to index the income of the population, corresponding to the rate of inflation.

2. For groups of the population with non-fixed incomes, the growth of their nominal income may exceed the rate of price growth. In this case, these population groups will benefit from inflation. Inflation can also benefit firms and other profit-making entities if the prices of their products rise at a higher rate than the prices of factors of production, i.e. costs.

3. The rise in prices accompanying inflation devalues the savings of citizens kept in banks, insurance and other paper assets, the value of which is fixed.

4. In conditions of inflation, there is a redistribution of income between debtors and creditors. Inflation plays into the hands of debtors, since the loan taken by them depreciates in accordance with the rate of inflation.

An inflationary rise in prices leads to an increase in the interest rate, since the lender, in order not to remain at a loss and receive interest on the loan, must set the interest rate in such a way that it exceeds the price increase. An increase in interest rates leads to a decrease in the profitability of enterprises, and therefore disrupts the course of production, reduces production volumes and may even cause a complete stop.

34. Pricing and pricing policy in the fuel and energy complex

Prices for products of the fuel and energy complex are formed under the influence of many factors and criteria. These include:

1) costs;

2) the ratio of supply and demand;

3) state policy for regulating the activities of enterprises in the fuel and energy complex;

4) prices in the world market;

5) investment policy, etc.

With the further development of market relations, the number of prices regulated by state bodies decreases, and the share of free market prices grows. The pricing process is increasingly influenced by competition both between individual types of energy carriers and between fuel producing enterprises.

Today, prices for products of the fuel and energy complex are not fully free and market-based. Price dynamics are greatly influenced by inflation expectations and the interests of producers, but at the same time, it is practically not affected by changes in demand from consumers. The current wholesale prices of the producers of the fuel and energy complex are characterized by a continuous increase. These price dynamics have led to persistent inequalities both between the prices of individual types of energy and between the prices of energy and most goods and services.

Prices for fuel and energy resources for consumers vary significantly (approximately 8-10 times). This happens for the following reasons:

1) uneven distribution of resources;

2) a large territory of the country;

3) high transport costs. The prices of fuel producing enterprises also differ significantly (by about 2-4 times) and the prices for oil products (by about 2 times).

The fuel and energy industries of developed countries with market economies are characterized by the presence of natural monopolies. A monopoly gives producers the opportunity to inflate costs, unreasonably raise prices, degrade quality, etc. Such actions must be stopped through state regulation.

In the Russian Federation in the gas industry during 1993-1995. a pricing strategy was used, in accordance with which gas prices for industrial buyers were adjusted each month in line with the increase in prices for industrial products in the previous month. Prices did not differ either seasonally or regionally.

In foreign trade, prices for bulk purchases of gas are usually determined in accordance with price formulas that take into account the prices of the so-called "basket" of energy resources, in particular fuel oil (the price of which is a derivative of the price of oil) and coal.

Oil prices are determined on the basis of a complex balance of interests and forces, which includes the mechanisms of production quotas.

Currently, the current antimonopoly regulation of prices is met with strong resistance from interested forces (political and economic) and is not yet able to change the price environment and the situation on the market.

35. Pricing for transport services

Transport tariff - This is the price for the transportation of material objects. Transport rates include:

1) freight rates;

2) passenger fares.

Freight transport transports goods from producers to the buyer and thereby increases their final cost. Passenger fares belong to the service sector.

Freight rates are formed on the basis of socially necessary labor costs for the transportation of material objects. The transport tariff is the monetary equivalent of the cost of transportation. Freight transportation costs are formed from:

1) expenses for initial-final operations;

2) transportation costs.

Costs for start-up operations consist of:

1) costs for the formation of trains;

2) loading costs at the point of dispatch;

3) the cost of unloading at the point of arrival. Movement operations consist of:

1) the cost of moving goods;

2) expenses for the maintenance of means of communication;

3) expenses for the maintenance of the energy sector, etc.

Expenses for start-end operations do not depend on the distances of transportation of goods, but depend only on the mass and volume of the cargo, i.e., per 1 ton, they remain unchanged.

Movement costs vary depending on the travel distance. Based on 1 ton, movement costs change in direct proportion to the distance of transportation.

Transportation costs are formed from the costs of initial-final operations and movement costs.

The cost of transportation of 1 ton of cargo is calculated by the formula:

COST = P + ZD,

where P is the cost of initial and final operations for 1 ton of cargo;

Z - the cost of transporting 1 ton of cargo over a distance of 1 km;

D - transportation distance (km).

Then the cost of a tonne-kilometer of transport cargo turnover will be calculated as follows: COST = R / D + Z.

As the distance increases, the cost per ton-kilometer will decrease, since for each ton-kilometer the share of costs for initial-end operations will decrease.

Freight transport tariffs are calculated as the cost of a ton-kilometer of freight turnover plus the rate of return, which is necessary for the normal functioning of transport with expanded reproduction. Freight transport rates do not include VAT (Value Added Tax) charged on freight charges.

The division of transportation costs into costs of initial-final operations and movement costs makes it possible to establish two-part rates. This type of tariff more accurately reflects the formation of socially necessary labor costs and allows for approximately equal profitability for transportation of different distances, and also makes it possible to simplify price lists for the transportation of goods.

The cost of a ton-kilometer of cargo turnover is also determined by the characteristics of each individual type of cargo. High tariff rates are set for the transportation of perishable products, live fish, etc.

36. Pricing in the market of scientific and technical products

Scientific and technical products are understood as the results of scientific research and development work. To determine the price level of a variant of scientific and technical products, it is necessary to know the level of its economic efficiency, which is revealed using a comparative analysis. The price is directly proportional to the economic effect.

In general, the economic effect can be calculated as the difference between the income that will be expected to be received during the use of a new technology or tool, and the costs of research, development and application.

The price of scientific and technical products that begin to be developed is usually determined in an agreement between the customer and the research organization. The price is drawn up in a special document attached to the contract.

When determining the contract price, they are based on the principle of economic profitability, both for the research organization and for the customer. That is, the contract price for scientific and technical products should have a lower and an upper limit.

The lower price limit for scientific and technical products is set using the cost method:

Ц_np = C + C x P_с,

where C_np- lower price limit; C - the cost of scientific and technical products, agreed with the customer; R_с- Estimated profitability.

The upper price limit for scientific and technical products is directly related to the economic effect of this product and is calculated by the formula:

Ц_in=E_intx (1-K_З)

where C_in- upper price limit for scientific and technical products; Eint - integral economic effect (total economic effect); To_З- the share of the value of the economic effect, capable of providing the customer with the level of calculated profitability during the use (production) of scientific and technical products. It is important to take into account that the value of the upper price limit for scientific and technical products must exceed the value of the lower limit. Otherwise, scientific and technical products will be economically inefficient. The contract price is a compromise category, since it depends on the value of the share of the economic effect that is included in the contract price, i.e. on E_int.

Contract price = C_in + E_int

E value_int established by agreement between the developer and the customer. The larger the share of E_int in E_int, the more developers benefit from such prices, the smaller the share of E_int in E_int, the more profitable such prices for customers.

The market of scientific and technical products is licensed. in the licensed market, the price of scientific and technical products is the price of a license. The latter is also a contract price, its value directly depends on the economic effect of a specific scientific and technical product in the field of its application.

The price of a license can be realized either as periodic payments (royalties) during the term of the license agreement, or as a one-time payment (lump-sum payment), the amount of which is determined in advance depending on expert estimates.

37. Features of pricing in the service sector

Services have a set of characteristic features that make them fundamentally different from goods. These traits are:

1) intangible nature (intangibility);

2) individual consumption;

3) impossibility of storage;

4) close relationship between production and consumption of services;

5) quality instability;

6) the need to take into account not only the result, but also the process of providing services.

In the service sector, the main pricing factors are supply and demand. Pricing in the service sector is also significantly influenced by the greater social significance of social services and externalities. In this regard, purely market pricing methods are not always applicable, and the price must be equipped with such additional financial levers as production benefits and subsidies and consumer subsidies (typical for health care, education, etc.).

In addition, a certain set of services refers to excluded public goods (health care, education), i.e., there is a need to combine free and paid services, as well as price discrimination for certain consumer groups.

The service sector is highly sensitive to market conditions. In this regard, significant pricing flexibility, strong price differentiation in accordance with the dynamics of demand (in particular, over different time periods) and the use of a system of price discounts are necessary to obtain a stable income with uneven demand.

In the process of setting prices for services, it is also necessary to take into account that the demand for services has a high price and income elasticity.

A very important point in determining prices for services is also the asymmetry of information that is typical for the service sector. The price of a service is often considered by the consumer as an indicator of its quality and a market signal, since the consumer does not always have the opportunity to obtain reliable information about the quality of the service provided to him.

The price for services in its structure is wholesale, but it performs the functions of both wholesale and retail prices.

Service prices can be calculated:

1) per unit of consumed service (tickets to the theater, cinema);

2) as the sum of the prices for the works necessary for the provision of this service (dental services);

3) as a set of prices for the implementation of complementary services (services of travel companies);

4) on the principle of a subscription, which gives the right to use this service for a certain period of time without limiting the amount (tickets for public transport).

Both free and regulated prices are set for services (if a natural monopoly has developed in the industry), as well as fixed, flexible and seasonal prices. There is also a system of discounts on prices.

In various industries, the composition of the price of services is not the same. The price may include only the cost and profit (rent), and may include taxes (tourist services).

38. Health care pricing

There are several ways to pay for medical care, and hence, ways to calculate the price of a polyclinic (hospital) service.

For polyclinics, the following methods of payment for medical care are distinguished:

1) for a separate service (examination, procedure);

2) for a separate service in accordance with the unified system of tariffs;

3) for a comprehensive service (visiting a doctor);

4) in accordance with the per capita principle.

When calculating prices in the system of compulsory medical insurance for outpatient services, the following formula is used:

C \uXNUMXd W + M + I + R + P + B,

where W is the salary of medical personnel in the case of outpatient services;

M - the cost of medicines required for outpatient services;

I - the cost of soft inventory in the case of outpatient services;

R - remuneration of labor of other groups of personnel (administrative and managerial, service and general polyclinic), the cost of soft inventory for these groups of personnel in the case of outpatient services;

P - other expenses in the case of outpatient services (clerical, household, etc.);

B - ancillary costs for medical diagnostics in the case of outpatient services. All components of this formula are determined on the basis of the corresponding article of the cost estimate for the unit (medical specialty), and the time costs for a separate case of outpatient services, the number of posts of doctors of this specialty at an outpatient appointment and the utilization rate of working time for each position should be taken into account.

Prices for inpatient care services can be calculated using the same formula.

Prices for paid medical services, in contrast to the prices in the system of compulsory medical insurance, are determined by medical institutions independently, approved by management and are free.

Prices for paid medical services are calculated according to the formula:

C \uXNUMXd W + O + M + A + H + R + P, where W is the average salary of medical personnel of a medical institution, calculated for the norm of time (conducting one examination, etc.);

O - deductions for public needs;

M - the cost of materials in accordance with the consumption rates;

A - deductions to the depreciation fund;

H - indirect or overhead costs;

P - other expenses;

P is the rate of return.

The price of a paid medical service depends on its quality, determined by the qualifications of the doctor, the quality of the equipment involved, the comfort of the conditions for the provision of the service, etc. This causes a wide differentiation in prices even for the same services (dental services are a vivid example).

In the process of pricing for paid medical services, the structure of the market, the presence of competition, the income of the population and the strategy of the given medical institution are also taken into account.

In some cases, segmentation of the market by groups of the population with different incomes and the use of preferential prices and discounts are possible.

39. Price in the labor market

Market conditions affect the price and cost of labor in different ways. Market conditions have a direct impact on the price of labor power, and indirectly on the cost, through the prices of goods and services consumed by wage workers.

Labor prices serve as a kind of benchmark in the relationship between wage workers and employers. In the labor market, as well as in the goods market, there is supply and demand.

The price of labordepends on the balance of supply and demand in the labor market. If the demand for labor is greater than its supply, then the price of labor rises. If the opposite situation arises, i.e., the supply of labor is greater than the demand for it, then the price of labor goes down. As a rule, significant discrepancies between the demand and supply of labor arise from changes in market conditions during transition periods between phases of the economic cycle.

If the economy is in a state of recovery and growth, then a high market situation is formed, production expands, new enterprises open and, accordingly, new jobs appear, and therefore the demand for labor grows. As a result, the price of labor in the labor market is growing rapidly.

If there is a recession in the economy, enterprises are closed, the production of goods and services is declining, then a significant part of the hired workers turns out to be superfluous, the number of unemployed increases, which overwhelms the labor market. Accordingly, the supply of labor in the labor market is growing, and demand is declining, which leads to a decrease in the price of labor. Market conditions can change not only in connection with the transition between phases of the economic cycle, but also in the process of competition, that is, almost constantly. In this regard, in the presence of free competition, labor prices change continuously.

The price of labor is based on some objective value - labor cost. It comes down to the price of the means of subsistence of the wage worker and his family. The means of subsistence imply the means necessary to ensure life, maintain working capacity and satisfy its material and spiritual needs. The lower limit of the cost of labor determines the minimum consumer budget in its monetary equivalent; below this limit, the labor force degrades and collapses. The minimum consumer budget is also used as a basis for calculating the size of the minimum wage, pensions, scholarships, etc.

Wages is an economic category that modifies and specifies the price of labor power. Wages and the price of labor are very closely related, but not equivalent. The price of labor is a category of the labor market, is formed in the labor market and depends on the ratio of demand and supply of labor. And wages are a category of production and depend not only on the market price of labor, but also on working conditions, labor complexity, etc.

40. Price of land. Features of pricing in the land market

With the development of market relations in Russia, land has become a commodity, i.e., any land plot can become the property, respectively, each land plot has its own price. Land, like any commodity, has its own consumer and market value.

consumer value is a reflection of the value of the land to the user.

Market price - is the price of the land that is most likely to be sold on the open market under competitive conditions.

Land is, like any product, an object of sale and purchase operations, satisfies the needs of consumers and has a set of qualitative and quantitative characteristics.

The price of land is capitalized rent. The price of land, like the price of any commodity, is formed on the basis of the interaction of supply and demand. If the price on the land market falls, then the demand for land increases. If land prices rise, then demand falls.

One of the main characteristics of land as a commodity is that the amount of land available on the market is naturally limited. In this regard, the price of land is determined mainly by demand. Demand for land, as a rule, is formed on the basis of the level of prices for products produced on land. For example, if the prices of cereals fall, then the demand that is derived from these prices will also fall, and consequently the price of land will fall. The amount of demand for land is affected by economic, climatic and other factors.

In the process of determining the price of land, it is also necessary to take into account the absolute inelasticity of its supply. That is, any owner of land who is interested in maximizing income will offer land at any price, otherwise he risks losing rent altogether.

J. Riccardo deduced the following consequences from the absolute inelasticity of the supply of land on the market:

1. The opinion that the prices for products grown on the land (grain) are high is incorrect, since landowners set high rents. There is a reverse link here: the price of land is high because high prices are set for products grown on it.

2. An increase in taxes on the income of landowners does not cause an increase in food prices, but only reduces the amount of their rent.

3. The value of land is entirely determined by the value of the products that are grown on it, and not vice versa.

Land is a special object of market relations. The land market positions land as a special value with a diverse set of properties that need to be used effectively. Land is classified into categories according to its purpose, which makes it possible to apply a differentiated approach to market transactions.

41. Types of value and prices of land

The value of the property- this is the price of the land plot, which is the most probable when it is sold on the open market in a competitive environment or when performing another similar operation (insurance). The object of real estate may be a land plot or long-term rights to lease it. The value of a property is also called market value.

Regulatory price of land- this is the cost of a land plot with a certain set of qualitative characteristics and a certain location, calculated on the basis of potential income for the estimated payback period.

The normative price of land is determined on the basis of:

1) land tax rates, and multiplying coefficients must be taken into account;

2) price level.

When determining the standard price, the following are not taken into account: land tax benefits, tax increases for exceeding the norms of land acquisition.

For specific plots, the standard price is calculated as 200 times the land tax rate per unit area of the plot with the corresponding purpose.

The constituent entities of the Russian Federation have the right to set multipliers to the standard price of land, but in such a way that it ultimately does not exceed 75% of the market price of land in a given category and zone.

Local authorities can change the established normative price of land by no more than 25%.

It should also be taken into account that when selling mortgaged plots in court, no restrictions are set for prices.

The normative price of land is applied in the following cases:

1) when transferring land into ownership;

2) when establishing above the unpaid norm of common joint property;

3) upon inheritance;

4) upon donation;

5) when using the site as collateral for obtaining a loan;

6) when a land plot is withdrawn for state or public needs;

7) when extending ownership rights to a building or residential building;

8) in other cases provided for by law. The concept of the normative price of land and its algorithm

calculation approved in the Law of the Russian Federation "On payment for land".

Market value of the land - this is the price of a land plot, which is the most probable when it is sold on the open market in conditions of competition and conscious rational actions of buyers and sellers who receive the full amount of reliable information and are free from the impact of unforeseen emergency circumstances.

Market value is affected by:

1) utility;

2) demand;

3) alienability;

4) scarcity;

5) liquidity.

The equilibrium market value is determined by the interaction of these factors. It can be considered an objective characteristic of a land plot for a given period of time and for the current market situation.

Estimated price of the land- this is the price of a specific sale and purchase transaction that has already been concluded. The transaction price, in addition to objective factors, can also be influenced by: the buyer’s special interest in this particular area, advertising, insufficient information about market conditions, etc.

42. Methods for assessing the market value of land

Best and most efficient use method. The principle of best and most efficient use assumes that the land will be used in the most efficient and cost-effective manner, selected from a range of possible and legal options, and that is physically and financially feasible.

In the process of analyzing the best and most efficient use, all possible alternative options for the development (or development) of a given land plot are compared with each other. For each of the considered options, the residual value of the land plot is determined. The option that produces the highest residual value is the option for its best and most efficient use.

Capitalization of land rent. To calculate the value of a piece of land using this method, the rent for the land is capitalized by using a capitalization ratio for the land, which is determined from market data.

Partitioning method. The calculation of the cost of a land plot using this method is carried out as follows:

1) the number of plots in a breakdown and their sizes are determined on the basis of physical and legal possibilities, as well as economic feasibility;

2) the estimated income from the sale or lease of the received plots is calculated;

3) the net income from the sale is calculated (the difference between the potential income from the sale and the amount of costs for the construction of plots).

Sales comparison method. Most preferred and commonly used. You must select a unit of comparison based on market information, and then adjust the sales prices for the items of comparison. Basic comparison elements for earth:

1) property rights;

2) location;

3) utilities;

4) physical characteristics;

5) conditions of sale;

6) terms of financing;

7) zoning conditions.

You can take several units of comparison and adjust the price of each of them. As a result, you will get several cost values that will determine the cost range.

distribution method. This method is based on the assertion that for any type of real estate there is a normal ratio of the value of the land plot and the value of buildings. This ratio is more valid for new improvements that reflect the best and most efficient use of the land. As the age of buildings increases, the ratio of the value of the land plot to the total value of the object increases.

Using the distribution method does not provide an accurate market value.

Selection method. It is a kind of distribution method. The value of land is calculated as the difference between the value of the property and the value of the improvements, taking into account depreciation.

Ground residue technique. It is used if there is no data on the sale of vacant land plots.

To calculate the cost you need to know:

1) the cost of construction;

2) net operating income from real estate;

3) capitalization ratios.

43. Price of capital assets

The price of labor is the wage rate, the price of land is rent, the price of capital is interest. These are service prices. production factors. These prices are rental prices and form the current income of the owners of factors of production.

Rental pricesis the price of hiring or leasing a factor of production per unit of time.

Capital pricesare the prices for a factor of production at which it is bought or sold.

Capitalization- the process of transition from rolling to capital prices.

The rental price of a factor of production in commodity and factor markets, under the condition of perfect competition, is the value of the marginal product of this factor of production.

If the consumer of factor services needs to decide whether or not to buy a given factor of production, then he needs to compare the additional income from the use of a new unit of the factor with the rental price of this factor. An enterprise or firm will buy the services of a factor of production until the rental price is less than the additional income received through the use of this factor.

When buying a factor of production at its capital price, a firm or an individual buys its services for the entire future period of use, i.e., before making a purchase decision, it is necessary to compare the capital price of a factor of production with the additional income that can be received for the entire period of operation of the factor. But the purchase of the factor must be paid for at the current moment, and the future owner will receive income from the exploitation of the factor only after a certain period of time during which he will use this factor. The problem of matching purchase costs with the future income stream can be solved by using the present value of the future income stream or discounting.

Future earnings can be transformed into their present value (today's equivalent) using a transformation measure.

measure of transformationis the value (1 + i), where i is the market interest rate.

The present value (PV) of income (C), which is expected to be received in a year, is calculated by the formula:

PV = C / (1 + i).

If income is expected to be received in n years, then today's and future values (FV) will be calculated using the following formulas:

PV = FV / (1 + i)n;

FV = PV x (1 + i) n.

The factor 1 / (1 + i)n is called discount factor, and (1 + i) n - growth factor. The values of these factors for various n and i are given in special tables.

Equilibrium in the market for factors of production will be established under the condition that the capital price is equal to the present value of the income that is expected to be received over time from the exploitation of this factor of production. Moreover, the current value of the stream of future income, distributed over time, directly depends on the discount rate (market interest rate).

The discount factor (or interest rate) plays the role of the cost of lost opportunities, it is also called opportunity cost of capital.

44. The essence of the price of credit

In modern conditions, the relationship between pricing and credit is manifested under the influence of the following factors:

1) supply and demand for banking services;

2) conjuncture of commodity, currency and stock markets;

3) an increase in inflation rates due to the devaluation of the ruble.

This dependence is also significantly influenced by the bank's strategy in relation to determining the level of profitability of the services provided, in particular, the loans provided. Thus, an important point in the activities of the bank is the establishment of the procedure for calculating the loans. The fee for allocated loans is the price of the loan.

The supply of loan capital is largely determined by the level of development of the credit system and the existing volume of free credit resources. Thus, the more free credit resources are available, the more opportunities banks and other lending institutions have to provide loans to borrowers at relatively low interest rates. Such conditions are usually created when the Central Bank conducts a policy of credit expansion.

But the large volumes of free resources present in the economy lead to a drop in demand for bank loans, i.e., the interest rate is significantly affected by government regulation of the economy and market forces.

The Bank, like any organization, seeks to maximize profits from its operations. Thus, the goals and interests of the bank require that the price of its product be set at the highest possible level.

But the bank must also comply with the interests of customers, that is, set prices for its product that are real and affordable for potential customers. Therefore, the bank must set the price for the use of its resources at the optimal level, which should take into account the need to regulate interest rates so that they can provide a normal level of profitability and liquidity.

The most accurate indicator of prices for banking products (for loans in this case) is the rate of interest, or the rate of interest. It is calculated using the following formula:

Interest rate = (Income / Amount of loan provided) x 100%.

As a rule, the interest rate (it is also called the margin) is indicated in the form of annual interest. If the interest rate rises, then the loan becomes more expensive, and if it goes down, then the loan becomes cheaper accordingly. The dynamics of the cost of a loan significantly affects not only the bank's customers and the bank itself, but also the country's economy as a whole. If the cost of credit rises, then the sources for expanding production are reduced.

The following external factors influence the change in the loan price:

1) monetary policy in the country;

2) the level of competition in the credit services market.

45. Contract price in foreign trade and the method of fixing it

When setting the contract price of purchase and sale, it is necessary to determine:

1) price units;

2) price basis;

3) price currency;

4) price fixing method;

5) price level.

Sultan chose price units determined by the characteristics of the product and the practice of trade in the world market for this type of product. The contract price can be determined for:

1) a certain number of units of goods (a quantitative unit of goods) in units of measurement usually used in the sale of this product (weight, length, volume, etc.);

2) a unit of weight based on the basic content of the main substance in a unit (ores, chemicals);

3) a unit of weight, depending on fluctuations in natural weight and the percentage of impurities and moisture.

The price for the supply of products of different levels of quality and assortment is set per unit of products of each type (brand) or grade separately.

Price basis determines whether the price of the goods includes the costs of transportation, warehousing, insurance and other costs for the delivery of the goods.

Price currency. The contract price may be expressed in the currency of the exporting country, in the currency of the importing country, or in the currency of a third country. In the process of choosing a currency, the prices of mass goods play a large role in the customs that have developed in the trade in these goods.

For exporting countries, the desire to fix the price in a more stable currency is typical, while for importing countries, on the contrary, it is typical to set the price in a currency that is more prone to depreciation.

Price fixing method. The contract price can be fixed directly at the time of the conclusion of the contract, can be determined throughout the entire period of its validity or at the time of the contract. According to the method of fixing prices are classified as follows:

1) fixed price;

2) moving price;

3) price with subsequent fixation.

If a movable price is set, then the contract must contain a clause ("price reduction or increase clause"), according to which, if at the time of the transaction the market price for this product changes, then the price fixed in the contract must also change accordingly.

As a rule, the contract must establish acceptable limits for the deviation of the market price from the contract price, which are usually 2-5%. If the price deviates within the established limits, the fixed price is not revised.

If the contract establishes a moving price, then the source must be indicated, on the basis of which conclusions will be drawn about the change in the market price. As a rule, movable prices apply to food and industrial commodities that are supplied under long-term contracts.

The price with subsequent fixation is determined during the execution of the contract, in which the conditions for fixing and the method of determining the price should be established.

46. Calculation of prices for exported products

The bid price of the exporting country is determined by the following methods:

1) on the basis of production costs;

2) with a focus on demand;

3) with a focus on the price level of competitors. Cost-based pricing method extremely simple. The price is determined on the basis of the basic costs per unit of production, to which the profit of the enterprise and unaccounted costs are added.

The scheme for calculating export prices differs insignificantly from the scheme for calculating domestic prices. The difference lies in the additional costs of implementation. These include:

1) remuneration (commission) of sellers and sales representatives;

2) customs costs in the importing country;

3) transportation costs;

4) financing costs;

5) the cost of goods insurance;

6) packaging costs;

7) reserve funds for unforeseen expenses;

8) the costs of drawing up contracts and execution of other papers.

There are two approaches to pricing when using the method of pricing based on production costs:

1) on the basis of total production costs. The essence of this approach is to calculate the total cost per unit of output (full costs), to which is added the rate of return that the company expects to receive;

2) on the basis of the marginal cost of production. With this approach, only the costs directly to production are taken into account.

Demand Based Pricing Method lies in the fact that the price of a product is set only on the basis of the demand for this product, that is, on the basis of the amount that the buyer is willing and able to pay for this product. The production costs of this method are the limiting factor.

The demand-driven pricing method is successfully used when there are interchangeable products on the market, the presence of which gives the buyer the opportunity to compare similar products. the use of this method when calculating prices for exported products is inefficient, since in this case only the number of concluded contracts is known. In this case, neither buyers nor sellers have the opportunity to compare different types of goods, since the specific qualitative characteristics of the goods are already indicated in the contract, which also sets the price for these goods.

The method of determining prices based on the price level of competitors is carried out as follows:

1) from the database of prices, it is necessary to make a selection of fresh information about the prices of competitors' products, which is similar or comparable to that which this firm exports;

2) the main technical and economic indicators of the goods (including the terms of delivery) of this company and the goods taken as the basis for comparison are entered in the table;

3) with the help of certain amendments, the price of exported goods is brought to the conditions of sale in the market in question.

47. Adjustments to prices for exported and imported products

Amendment to the terms of sale (wholesale and retail).

If the goods are purchased in bulk, then, as a rule, significant discounts are provided for the importing company. Thus, if a competitive material is the subject of an import transaction, and the buyer is a wholesaler, and the price is calculated for a contract entered into by an importer who buys the goods for exploitation and not for sale on the market, then an adjustment should be made for the amount of the wholesale discount from the price of the competitive material.

Adjustment for lower production costs and higher productivity. If the volume of supply increases, then production costs decrease and the labor productivity of the supplier firm increases. This fact must be taken into account by the importer when determining the price.

Correction for serialization. Discounts on serialization are applied, since the supplier company, with an increase in production volume, reduces production costs per unit of output.

Amendment to the package. It is used when determining prices for complete equipment purchased from a general supplier. It depends on the number and origin of sub-supplier firms, as well as on the volume of deliveries and the contractual amount of deliveries.

Adjustments for the currency of the upcoming transaction. The calculation of prices for an import contract is performed as follows.

1. Prices for products based on competitive materials, expressed in foreign currency, are calculated per unit of product measurement in accordance with the initial conditions of the calculated price.

2. Prices for products under competitive offers and contracts, expressed in foreign currency, are converted into rubles according to the exchange rate of the Central Bank of the Russian Federation valid on the date of payment or into the price of competitive materials in accordance with changes in the exchange rate of these currencies against the ruble for a certain period.

Amendment for the term of the forthcoming transaction. The amendment date is used to take into account price dynamics, inflation rates, changes in the exchange rate, and other things, when a shortage of modern competitive materials is detected and it is necessary to attract similar ones from previous periods.

Amendments to payment terms. The introduction of this amendment is due to the fact that the terms of payment play a significant role in determining the price of imported products. The price of an import transaction varies significantly depending on the terms of payment.

Amendment to Additional Contract Terms. It implies the adjustment of the price calculated for the import contract by the amount of the missing or by the amount of the added components of the contract that are part of the price, in comparison with the competitive material.

Bidding amendment. It is a discount from the original price, usually inflated.

Correction for the difference in technical and economic parameters. When calculating the price, it assumes a comparison with the parameters of similar products from leading manufacturers.

48. Exchange rate and prices

Exchange rate- is the price of a unit of national currency, which is expressed in units of foreign currency.

Currency quoteis a method of determining the exchange rate. There are direct and indirect currency quotes.

Direct currency quote - This is a method of determining the exchange rate, which consists in expressing the exchange rate of the national currency with a certain number of units of foreign currency.

Indirect currency quote - it is a way of determining the exchange rate, which, on the contrary, consists in expressing the exchange rate of a foreign currency with a certain number of units of the national currency.

Exchange rates are also classified by time horizon into:

1) spot rate - this is the rate at which the currency is exchanged within no more than two business days from the date of acceptance of the agreement on the rate quotation;

2) forward rate is the rate at which currencies are exchanged for each other at a certain point in the future.

There are the following types of exchange rates used to determine the real trends in the movement of exchange rates:

1) nominal exchange rate - is the current currency quote;

2) real exchange rate - it is the nominal exchange rate recalculated taking into account inflation rates;

3) nominal effective exchange rate - is an index of the exchange rate in relation to the currencies of the countries that are trading partners;

4) real effective exchange rate - is the price-adjusted nominal effective exchange rate. Exchange rates are also classified according to the degree of rigidity of the definition into:

1) fixed - these are exchange rates, which are characterized by an established ratio between currencies;

2) limited flexibility - these are exchange rates for which certain limits of exchange rate floating are provided;

3) floating are exchange rates that are determined by supply and demand.

In addition, there are hybrid types of exchange rates that combine elements of fixed and floating rates. These include: currency band, controlled float and creeping fixation.

Like any commodity, foreign currency has its own price in the foreign exchange market, which is determined by the interaction of supply and demand. The demand for foreign currency is driven by the need to pay for imported goods and acquire foreign assets (for example, securities).

The supply arises from the receipt of export earnings, as well as through the purchase of national securities and other assets by foreign citizens.

The exchange rate changes under the influence of supply and demand. With a floating exchange rate, the depreciation of the national currency is called its depreciation and the rise in the rate rise in price. With a fixed exchange rate, respectively - devaluation и revaluation. Moreover, the floating rate changes automatically, while the fixed rate changes only in accordance with the decision of the state.

49. State regulation of prices

In the current economic situation, the regulatory impact on the economy and pricing processes in particular can be exerted not only by the state, but also by monopoly enterprises. That is, the regulation of the economy has two levels: the macro level, where the state acts as the subject of regulation, and the micro level, where private firms are the subjects of regulation. Thus, the market strategy of the company depends on the economic, in particular the pricing policy of the state.

Price policy - this is the activity of state bodies, local governments and pricing entities, carried out with the aim of regulating and controlling prices in the national economy, the sphere of trade. Price policy is carried out by analyzing the practice and applied pricing strategies, monitoring compliance with the requirements of state price discipline, as well as by limiting the negative consequences of monopoly activities in the manner prescribed by antimonopoly legislation.

Price policy is part of the economic policy of the state and plays a very important role in a market economy. The pricing policy performs the following tasks:

1) contribute to the development of market relations;

2) is a means of protecting private, state and other forms of ownership;

3) helps to reduce the rate of inflation and mitigate its negative consequences;

4) promotes the development of competition;

5) creates conditions for the free movement of goods, services and financial flows, as well as for free economic activity.

The bodies that form and implement the pricing policy are included in the structure of the executive authorities. At the federal level, such bodies are the government of the Russian Federation and federal executive authorities. In particular, such bodies are the Ministry of Economy of the Russian Federation and the Department of Prices, which is its integral part.

Price Department is the central body of the federal executive power and carries out, in addition to state regulation, intersectoral price coordination.

The main tasks of the Price Department:

1) development and submission of proposals for the implementation of the state pricing policy;

2) improvement of the price mechanism for greater efficiency of prices in the development of market relations;

3) increasing the efficiency of solving social problems through pricing mechanisms;

4) analysis of pricing practices in the national economy and preparation of projects for improving the state pricing policy;

5) improving the application of state-regulated market prices;

6) making forecasts of price changes in various sectors of the national economy;

7) regulation of pricing for goods of monopoly enterprises;

8) supervision over compliance with pricing legislation;

9) management of pricing bodies;

10) study of the experience of the pricing policy of the countries of near and far abroad.

In the constituent entities of the Russian Federation, the pricing policy is carried out by the relevant legislative and executive bodies.

50. The main directions of the state pricing policy in Russia

The main directions of the state price policy in Russia for the near future are established by the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation "On measures to streamline the state regulation of prices (tariffs)" and the decree of the Government of the Russian Federation.

The main directions of the state price policy in accordance with these documents:

1) consistent liberalization of prices and tariffs. Price liberalization should be linked to the development of a competitive market environment;

2) state regulation of prices and tariffs for products of natural monopolies. In industries where there are natural monopolies, the development of competition is inexpedient or impossible. In this regard, in order to prevent overpricing and tariffs by natural monopolies and reducing the production of their products, government regulation is necessary. The Federal Law "On Natural Monopolies" establishes the areas of activity of natural monopolies, which are subject to state regulation, in particular, price regulation.

These documents form the legal basis of state regulation. On their basis, the Government of the Russian Federation makes decisions in the field of state regulation of the economy, coordinates the actions of the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation involved in price regulation; determines and revises the lists of goods, the prices of which should be regulated in the domestic commodity markets.

Federal executive authorities regulate prices and tariffs for electricity, gas, rail transport services, communications services (there is a natural monopoly in this industry) and goods purchased exclusively (primarily) by the state.

State regulation of prices for products of natural monopolies is a necessary condition for reducing inflation in the industrial sector and increasing economic growth rates - improving the quality and competitiveness of domestic products by reducing costs.

The regulation of prices and tariffs of local (local) natural monopolies is carried out by the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation.

The following tariffs and surcharges of transport, supply and marketing and trade organizations are authorized to regulate the executive authorities of the constituent entities of the Russian Federation:

1) supply and marketing and trade mark-ups on the prices of goods sold in the regions of the Far North and similar areas with limited delivery times for goods;

2) margins and trade allowances for products sold at catering establishments at vocational schools, general education and higher educational institutions;

3) trade allowances and markups for baby food, etc.

The list of goods and services subject to direct price regulation has been significantly reduced in recent years. Goods and services, prices for which are regulated at the federal and regional levels, account for 15-16% of the total social product value.

51. Prices and pricing issues in the Civil Code of the Russian Federation

In the Civil Code of the Russian Federation Art. 424 defines the features of the existing pricing practice. This article states that in the performance of the contract, payment is made at a price that is established by agreement of the parties. This article affirms the practice of using free market prices in the Russian Federation.

Tariffs, rates are defined in the Civil Code as a kind of prices. Pricing also applies to:

1) banking operations (interest rates on loans, etc.);

2) labor relations (rates for work performed), etc.

Moreover, in certain cases stipulated by law, prices are set or regulated by public authorities.

After the conclusion of the contract, prices can only be changed on the terms specified in the contract itself or provided for by law.

If the price is not set in the contract and cannot be calculated on the basis of the terms of the contract, then the performance of the contract is paid in accordance with market prices for similar types of goods and services.

The article "Payment for goods" establishes that the buyer must pay for the goods at the time of purchase at its full price before or after its transfer by the seller. If the buyer does not fulfill his obligation to pay for the goods, the seller has the right to demand from the buyer not only payment for the goods in the amount of its full price, but also the payment of interest for the use of other people's funds.

In Art. 503 establishes the rights of the buyer if he was sold a product of poor, inadequate quality. The buyer has the right to demand:

1) reduction of the purchase price of the goods in proportion to the non-conformity of quality;

2) covering the costs of correcting defects in the goods.

Article 555 establishes the position of the price in the contract for the sale of real estate. This article emphasizes that the contract for the sale of real estate should provide for the price of this property.

If the sale and purchase agreement does not contain conditions on the price of real estate, approved in writing by agreement of the parties, then such an agreement is considered invalid (not concluded). Moreover, the procedure for determining the price, established in Art. 424 of the Code does not apply in this case.

Since real estate objects (buildings, structures, etc.) are inextricably linked with a land plot, norms have been established that determine the legal fate of the land on which the real estate object is located. In accordance with these legal norms, along with the transfer of ownership of a building, structure or other real estate object, the buyer is transferred the rights to the part of the land plot occupied by this object. In Art. 555 also states that the price of a property should include the price of the land it occupies.

52. Principles for determining prices for tax purposes

On January 1, 1999, the first part of the Tax Code of the Russian Federation came into force. In this regard, the procedure for determining prices for goods and services for tax purposes has changed. The selling price used for calculating the tax is the transaction price, which is set in the contract on the basis of an agreement between the parties. This price presumably corresponds to the level of free market prices. Tax authorities are required to justify the correct use of the sale price and determine the level of market prices. The tax authorities control the correctness of the use of transaction prices in the following cases:

1) if the transaction is made between related persons;

2) if the transaction is by nature an exchange transaction;

3) the price level used by the taxpayer for homogeneous goods in the short term fluctuates significantly (by more than 30%).

In these cases, when the prices used by the parties to the transaction deviate from the market prices of homogeneous goods by more than 30%, the tax service has the right to make a reasoned decision, according to which additional taxes and penalties calculated on the basis of market prices should be charged.

Market price of a good or service - this is the price, which is formed on the basis of the interaction of supply and demand in the market of homogeneous (identical) goods or services in similar (comparable) economic conditions.

In the process of determining the market prices of goods, information is taken into account on transactions made at the time of sale of this product with similar (identical) goods in similar (comparable) conditions. In order to determine the comparability of the terms of transactions, it is necessary to take into account the volume of the supplied consignment, the timing of the fulfillment of obligations and other conditions that affect prices.

If there are no transactions for homogeneous (identical) goods on a similar market of goods, or if information about them is not available, the following is used to determine the market price:

1) resale price method;

2) costly method.

Resale price method consists in calculating the market price as the difference between the price of the subsequent sale (resale) of goods by the buyer and his costs for the promotion of the goods, its sale and margins. The margin in this case is calculated in such a way as to obtain a reasonable and characteristic profit for this field of activity.

Cost method is that the market price of the goods is calculated as the costs incurred plus the markup. The costs incurred are the usual indirect and direct production and distribution costs in such cases, as well as transport costs, storage costs, insurance costs, etc. The mark-up is calculated in such a way as to obtain a reasonable and typical profit for this field of activity.

53. Forms and methods of state influence on prices

There is a direct and indirect effect of the state on prices.

Direct (administrative) impact the state on current prices implies the direct participation of the state in determining the levels, structure and dynamics of prices, as well as the establishment of pricing rules.

Government authorities in a market economy can influence prices in the following ways:

1) establish the procedure for calculating the level of costs;

2) regulate the composition of costs through special regulatory documents;

3) establish expenses to be reimbursed from profits;

4) determine the rate of return on the goods of monopoly firms.

Indirect state intervention in pricing involves the use of methods and means that are designed to ensure the growth of product supply on the market, the coordination of incomes of the population and the regulation of the tax rate on both manufactured and consumed goods.

Indirect state intervention in pricing is carried out through:

1) use of preferential taxation;

2) the use of concessional lending;

3) subsidizing and subsidizing from budgetary funds;

4) conclusion of agreements between authorities and individuals and legal entities on fixing prices for their products or services;

5) encouraging the conclusion of agreements between consumers and producers of products with the participation of government authorities; 6) Encouraging the adoption by producers of unilateral obligations to limit price increases.

Forms of direct government intervention in the pricing process.

There are the following forms of direct state intervention in the pricing process.

1. A general price freeze or a price freeze for specific types of goods. A general price freeze is used in case of high inflation rates in the economy.

2. Setting fixed prices and tariffs for goods and services. Prices are fixed at a certain level by decision of public authorities, the level of fixed prices is also determined by the relevant authorities. The rate of profit (profitability), which is part of the price, must first be determined. Disputes arising in the event that when prices are fixed at a certain level, entrepreneurs will not receive standard profit should also be resolved. When a fixed price is introduced, pricing entities must sell their products at prices not exceeding the fixed price level.

3. Establishing the boundaries of a possible price increase for a certain time period or a price limit. A price ceiling is a price level above or below which the price cannot be set. This method of price regulation plays a big role in conditions of scarcity, since the free increase in prices ultimately leads to a reduction in production.

54. Forms of direct state intervention in the pricing process

There are the following forms of direct state intervention in the pricing process.

1. A general price freeze or a price freeze for specific types of goods. It is used in case of high inflation rates in the economy.

2. Setting fixed prices and tariffs for goods and services. Prices are fixed at a certain level by decision of public authorities, the level of fixed prices is also determined by the relevant authorities. The rate of profit (profitability), which is part of the price, must first be determined. Disputes that arise in the event that when prices are fixed at a certain level, entrepreneurs will not receive a standard profit should also be resolved. When a fixed price is introduced, pricing entities must sell their products at prices not exceeding the fixed price level.

By setting a price ceiling, it is possible to protect the population from the price dictates of firms and producers, which can arise if there is no competition in the domestic market. For goods and services of paramount importance, the price ceiling may be determined by local governments.

4. Establishment of the marginal standard of profitability. With this form of direct intervention, when calculating the price of profit, marginal standards of profitability are set. This form of direct intervention is widespread in Russia. It is used to regulate prices for goods of monopoly firms and for certain types of services, the prices for which are set by local governments.

If for a certain product the actual profitability is higher than the established level, then enterprises are obliged to reduce prices for it. In the future, these products should be sold at prices with a profitability not exceeding the established limit level.

In foreign practice, this method is almost never used.

5. Establishment of maximum sizes of supply and marketing and trade margins and allowances may apply to all goods that are sold in the relevant territory.

6. Declaration of pricescan be used for wholesale (selling) prices for certain groups of goods by decision of the executive authorities.

7. Establishment of recommended prices for the most important types of products. If the price is set at a level above the recommended level, then a progressive tax rate can be applied on profits that are received from the sale of goods whose prices are higher than the recommended ones.

8. Establishment of the maximum level of quotation prices.

55. Control over compliance with the procedure for applying regulated prices

In addition to the list of products subject to price regulation, the state may also determine the scope of price regulation and state authorities that should ensure control over compliance with the procedure for applying regulated prices.

Control bodies are classified by levels as follows:

1) control bodies at the federal level. These include the Ministry of Economy of the Russian Federation;

2) control bodies at the level of subjects of the Russian Federation. These include the executive authorities of the subjects that ensure price control within the established limits of their competence;

3) control bodies at the local level. These include local governments.

Financial authorities also have the right to exercise control over prices; bodies providing regulation of natural monopolies; bodies of the state tax service; antimonopoly authorities, as well as state trade inspections, etc.

Under violation of the procedure for applying prices and tariffsnon-compliance with established prices is understood; non-compliance with the conditions limiting the price level; non-submission, in accordance with the requirements of the control bodies, of price documents and other information that may be needed in the course of the audit.

The powers of the control bodies include:

1) verification of all business entities under the jurisdiction of these bodies for compliance with their pricing strategy with the established procedure for applying prices and tariffs;

2) imposition of financial sanctions and collection of fines in the amount of the established amount;

3) bringing to administrative responsibility. Also, the control authorities can give business entities in the process of conducting an inspection any mandatory instructions to eliminate violations.

The scope of authority of local control bodies includes only those business entities that are in municipal ownership.

Business entities that are subject to inspection must provide the price control authorities with all the necessary information within the established time limits. Moreover, the information that is a trade secret of a business entity is not subject to public disclosure.

If during the audit any violations of the procedure for applying prices and tariffs were revealed, then the amount of financial sanctions is calculated as the difference between the actual price for the sale of goods by this entity and the price established by law or in regulations in terms of sales volumes.

If the business entity itself has revealed violations of the procedure for applying prices and tariffs or restrictive conditions, then it is obliged to independently recalculate with buyers. If such a recalculation is not possible, the difference between the actual selling prices and the prices established in the current legislation, in terms of sales volume, must be entered into the budget of the subject.

56. Price regulation in foreign countries

Austria. State regulation of prices is based on the law on prices, the law on cartels and the anti-dumping law.

Approximately 10% of prices are subject to state regulation. These include: prices for scrap, pharmaceutical raw materials, ferrous metal waste, medicines and energy carriers.

Parliament determines prices for salt, postal services, tobacco products, as well as telephone, rail and telegraph rates.

Alcohol prices are determined by the Ministry of Finance.

The Ministry of Economy has the right to establish regulated prices for any product or service for up to 6 months. It may set prices for up to 6 months if the prices for the products of several manufacturers are unreasonably high or if the producers do not reduce the prices of their products while reducing the prices of the materials and raw materials necessary for their manufacture.

USA. State regulation of prices is based on antitrust laws. Price controls are carried out by the Antitrust Office of the US Department of Justice and the Federal Trade Commission.

Most of the prices in the US are formed by companies under the influence of the market mechanism of competition. In industries where there are natural monopolies, prices are regulated by the state. These industries include the energy complex and the communications system. In general, the scope of state regulation includes about 10% of prices.

Some state governments have been given the power to set electricity tariffs, railroad tariffs, and road transport tariffs.

In 1933 a system of farm price regulation was introduced.

The US government can also influence prices through standards and economic requirements. The state also controls interest rates on loans, as they have a significant impact on production costs and the price level.

Greece. The scope of state regulation includes about 20% of prices. Pricing is handled by the Inter-Ministerial Committee on Prices and Revenues. State regulation of pricing is based on the code of market regulation. In accordance with the code, all goods and services, the prices of which are subject to state regulation, are divided into two groups. The first group includes goods and services whose prices are subject to regulation by the Inter-Ministerial Committee on Prices and Income: tobacco, wheat, raisins, electricity tariffs, etc.

The second group includes other goods and services, the prices of which are subject to regulation by the Ministry of Commerce.

Prices for those goods that are not essential goods are set freely, without state regulation.

Author: Yakoreva A.S.

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