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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Control theory. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
1. OBJECT AND SUBJECT OF CONTROL THEORY To implement the management process, a management implementation mechanism is needed. Control mechanism It is the environment in which management activities are carried out. Such a control environment is the control system and control technology. Two interpretations of the concept of "management": 1) as a process of managing an organization - management activities; 2) as a control mechanism. Object of control theory is management as a process and as a mechanism. To determine the subject of management theory, it is necessary to consider the process of formation of scientific theory. The subject of control theory - managerial relations, in which social, economic, political relations and interests are expressed, manifested in the impact on society or its individual elements in order to streamline them, preserve their specificity, develop and improve; as well as development trends in management practices, management methods and technologies. The main stages in the development of control theory: The first stage in the development of control theory: study of the genesis of the control mechanism and the main stages of its formation, the emergence of the control mechanism and philosophical generalization of the model of the control mechanism. It is necessary to analyze the historical trends in the world development of management science; aspects of management and comparative characteristics of types of civilization. At this stage, the evolution of scientific management schools and the contribution of various schools to management theory are analyzed. The content of the first stage is the philosophical and historical foundations of management theory. Second phase: definition of the concept of management, management system, goals and functions of management theory, the concept of management decisions and control actions, as well as the main properties of organizational management. The third stage: formulation based on the knowledge of objective laws in management theory of the relevant rules and recommendations for the practical activities of managers and management bodies. Knowledge of the laws, principles of management helps to develop management methods and management style of the organization. The fourth stage study and research of management theory: methodology for developing and making decisions, organization planning, control, a system of communications and motivation for management activities. Fifth stage: study and research of management processes, creation of a management system (functional structure, organizational structure, scheme of organizational relations, personnel professionalism), as well as management techniques (document management systems, communication and telecommunications systems, automated control systems, computer and office equipment, office furniture). Sixth stage development of management theory - the creation of methodological foundations for assessing the effectiveness of management. This stage includes: goals, principles, criteria and methods for evaluating the effectiveness of management. 2. THE CONCEPT OF CONTROL The most common definitions of the concept of "management": 1) determination of the goal and the result of its achievement with the help of necessary and sufficient methods, means and influences; 2) the function of organized systems of diverse nature (biological, social, technical), which ensures the preservation of their specific structure, maintenance of the mode of activity, implementation of their programs and goals of activity; 3) creation and implementation of influences that ensure the desired functioning of the object, leading to a specific goal; 4) the process of organizing a targeted impact on a certain part of the environment, called the control object, as a result of which the needs of the subject interacting with this object are satisfied; 5) the process of forming goals and ways to achieve them; 6) the use of cause-and-effect relationships, in which the behavior of the system leads to the desired result (the system achieves the goal or solves the problem); 7) impact on an object that improves the functioning or development of this object; 8) management - the process of purposeful influence of the subject of management on the object of management in order to achieve certain results of activity. Subject of management - a natural or legal person who exercises power influence. In the management process lie: the authority of the subject of management, its organizational, administrative, economic, moral and ethical levers of influence. Control object - that, on which the imperious influence of the object of control is directed. The object of management can be individuals and legal entities, social, socio-economic systems and processes. The main stages of the process of formation of scientific theory: - observation of ongoing processes and their analysis using methods known from other sciences; - synthesis of knowledge and creation of the theoretical foundations of science (principles, dependencies, laws and regularities); - formalization and systematization of ongoing processes, compilation of their typology; - development of applied scientific bases for the analysis and synthesis of observed processes; - creation of a methodology for studying processes of a given typology; - accumulation of statistical data on the effectiveness of the proposed methodology and its adjustment. Features of the control process: Management is a purposeful process that is carried out continuously in time and space, requiring in-depth analysis, development and setting of specific goals. The more accurately the result corresponds to the set goal, the higher the quality of management. 3. MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF F. TAYLOR’S SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT SCHOOL AND A. FAYOL’S ADMINISTRATIVE SCHOOL F. Taylor School of Scientific Management. The founder of the school of scientific management is Frederick Taylor. Taylor originally referred to his system as "task management." The concept of "scientific management" was first used in 1910 by Louis Brandweiss. Frederick Taylor believed that management as a special function consists of principles that can be applied to social activities. The basic principles of Frederick Taylor: 1. Scientific study of each individual type of labor activity. 2. Selection, training and education of workers and managers based on scientific criteria. 3. Uniform and fair distribution of responsibilities. 4. Interaction of administration with workers. Taylor believed that it was the responsibility of a manager to select people who could meet the job requirements, and then to prepare and train these people to work in a particular direction. He developed differential payment system, according to which workers received wages in accordance with their output. The system of differentiated piece rates should stimulate greater productivity of workers, since this raises the piece rate of wages. Taylor's main idea was that management should become a system based on certain scientific principles, should be carried out by specially developed methods and activities. Administrative (classical) school of Henri Fayol. The founder of the administrative school of government is Henri Fayol (1826-1926). Representatives of the administrative school considered management as a universal process, consisting of such management functions as planning, organization, motivation, control and coordination, proposed a systematized theory of management of the entire organization (by dividing the organization into units that perform the main functions - finance, production, marketing) . The main task of the administrative school is the creation of universal principles of management, following which the organization will function successfully. Management principles formulated by Henri Fayol: unity of command (provides unity of point of view, unity of action and unity of management), division of labor (specialization), discipline, unity of leadership (activities pursuing the same goal must have one leader and be guided by a common plan), justice, power and responsibility , reward, initiative (contemplation and implementation of the plan), order, centralization, corporate spirit, etc. 4. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SCHOOL OF HUMAN RELATIONS, THE BEHAVIORAL SCHOOL AND THE QUANTITATIVE SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT School of Human Relations Prerequisites for occurrence: simplification of ideas about the motives of human behavior, underestimation of the human factor, characteristic of the "classical" school, were a prerequisite for the emergence at the turn of the 30s. XX century "school of human relations". It is based on the achievements of psychology and sociology. Founders of the School of Human Relations: Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger. Feature of the school of human relations in management: shifting the focus from work management to people management, staff. Elton Mayo (1880-1949) empirically showed that advanced methods in the field of organization of production and high wages do not give the desired result if the social atmosphere in the work team does not contribute to high labor productivity. As one of the authors of the theory of human relations, he called for the improvement of relations between entrepreneurs and workers. In general, representatives of the school of human relations believed that group values are the most important condition for the scientific organization of management. They criticized Taylorism, which limits the tasks of management to stimulating the individual efforts of workers. Behavioral model in management The theory of human relations has received its natural development and continued in the formation behavioral (behavioral) approach to management. The essence of the behavioral approach It consists in identifying the nature of the employee's behavior at his workplace and his productivity, depending on the changing working conditions and the relationship between employees and managers. Determining factors for improving the efficiency of the organization, in which management is based on a behavioral approach: 1) the employee's awareness of his capabilities; 2) satisfaction received from the work performed; 3) social interaction and the existence of common goals and interests of the workforce. Behavior-oriented management consists of the following aspects: 1) taking into account the psychology of the employee's behavior in the labor process, depending on the motivation of his actions; 2) communication with other employees; 3) the authority of the leader; 4) leadership in the team. The School of Behavioral Sciences has contributed to the growth of organizational performance by increasing the efficiency of the use of human resources. Development quantitative school associated with the development of statistics and mathematics. Representatives of this school are: R Ackoff, L. Bertalanffy, S. Vir. The school used the exact sciences (economic and mathematical methods (EMM), statistics, cybernetics, operations research theory) to solve managerial problems. Representatives of this school contributed to a deeper understanding of complex managerial problems, applied precise methods for making decisions in difficult situations. The reason for the use of EMM and precise methods in management was the introduction and development of computer technology. 5. ESSENCE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE MANAGEMENT OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROCESSES Management - element and function of organized systems: biological, social, technical, etc., which ensures the preservation of their structure, the implementation of the mode of activity, the implementation of the program and the purpose of the activity. Management in socio-economic systems is studied within the framework of the theory of management of socio-economic processes. Varieties of special control theories: 1) theory of state regulation of the economy; 2) regional and municipal management. Tasks of management science: creates, systematizes and disseminates knowledge on how to carry out management activities. The subject of management science - managerial relations, in which economic, social and political relations and interests, technologies and methods of management and trends in the development of management practice are manifested simultaneously. Control objects: 1) aspects of economic activity (product quality, interaction with the consumer, marketing); 2) industries (industry, agriculture, transport); 3) territorial communities of people (region, district, city); 4) individual stages of reproduction (production, supply, marketing, R&D); 5) types of resources (financial, human, etc.); 6) characteristics of production (efficiency, attitude to work, quality of life, level of employment). Subjects of management: board of directors, director, manager, mayor of the city, city council, head of department, quality group, city chamber of commerce and industry, as well as any other people or groups of people exercising managerial influence on the management object. The main element of any socio-economic system is a person, he can be both an object and a subject of management. It is on a person that control actions are directed within the framework of state and corporate governance. The person and the organization as a whole react to the control action, taking into account preliminary assessments and an independent analysis of the consequences of their own reaction. The way a person perceives managerial influences, how he reacts to them - the efficiency of the entire system as a whole depends on this. Consequently, human management is inseparable from the management of an organization, industry, city, region, country. Main control functions: 1) goal setting; 2) analysis; 3) forecasting; 4) planning; 5) organization; 6) coordination; 7) motivation; 8) training; 9) accounting and control; 10) communication; 11) decision making. All management functions are closely related to each other and complement each other. Management methods - ways to perform management functions. Classification of management methods by content: 1) economic; 2) administrative (organizational and administrative); 3) socio-psychological. 6. GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT The terms "management" and "management" are often used interchangeably, but there are differences between them. Management is a universal human activity, and management is its specific area, including the activities of specialists to ensure the successful operation of the organization. The word "management" is used in relation to people, teams and organizations: the management of an organization means the management of this organization. The subject of the science of general management - general patterns, principles and methods of managing organizations. Two main meanings of the concept of "management": 1) management process; 2) a group of people who make up the governing body. Definition of "management" by the Oxford Dictionary: 1) way of dealing with people; 2) administrative skills and skill of a special kind; 3) the art of management; 4) the governing body and the people who make it up. The main meanings of the term "management" in Russian: 1) the science of management; 2) the process of managing people in organizations; 3) the governing body and the people who make it up. Special management - management of objects taking into account their specifics or management of specific processes, resources. Types of special management: municipal management, service management, financial management; strategic management, innovation management, etc. General management object - people in organizations and the totality of relationships between people that arise in the process of managing these organizations. Object of special management - peculiar relations between people in organizations, reflecting the specifics of these organizations. The object of special management may be some varieties of special processes (financial flows investigated by financial management). Management - the activity of the control subsystem, which consists in the development of the control action, its implementation in order to achieve the goal of the system as a whole. The main thing for the sake of which the management of activities and the activity itself is carried out is target. Management as a conscious purposeful activity is peculiar only to a person and organizational systems. Organizational system - a social system in which the elements are people and groups of people. Signs of a group of people as an organizational system: 1) if it has one goal, which is accepted as a common goal by all members of the group; 2) if the group consists of at least two people who consider themselves part of this group; 3) if it has group members who consciously work together in order to achieve a goal that is meaningful to all. Properties of the organizational system: 1) the ability to identify and satisfy their needs; 2) integrity; 3) regulated behavior and activities of members of the organization; 4) the presence of organizational culture; 5) the ability to self-learning and self-development. 7. EVOLUTION OF MANAGEMENT THOUGHT. NEW CONTROL MODEL Management practice has been going on for many millennia. Any ancient state assumed a harmonious system of government. Development management theory passed gradually. Separate parts of this theory can be found in the Bible, the Koran, the works of famous philosophers, as well as in the works of military science theorists of modern times. Modern holistic management theory - a relatively young science and has only about a hundred years. Its development took place along with the change in management practice in the XNUMXth century. At the end of XIX - early XNUMXth century the most common management model was autocratic model: management was based on the power of the owner or manager, the authority of the leader. There was a strong personal dependence of each employee on his immediate superior, diligence was most valued, and this whole system as a whole was based on Taylorism. In the middle of the XX century. began to dominate economic system, based on economic coercion, on material incentives, on motivation. The economic system is characterized by the initiative of the most active workers. The evolution from the autocratic model to the economic one took place primarily in firms characterized by high performance. By the mid-60s In the practice of management in developed countries, a situation has developed in which neither autocratic nor economic management models could lead the organization to success. The use of any of these two management models could lead the organization to defeat in the competitive struggle. In the 90-s these management models are largely a thing of the past. Established in a competitive environment new management model. The main characteristics of this model are a combination of economic and moral incentives, collectivism and commitment to one's work, one's own team and the organization as a whole. Each employee participates in the activities of the organization, not only fulfilling the range of his duties, but also participates in the search and development of new types of services, new methods of work, new social technologies. Everyone participates in the activities of the organization, submitting proposals for improving working methods, improving the quality of services, and developing the organization. This model was formed at the end of the XNUMXth century. in successful organizations of the countries of the West and the East. Feature: management of any organization, as a rule, carries elements of all three models. But it is possible to single out the model to which this organization gravitates to a greater extent. However, gradually the new model becomes dominant in management practice. New management model - a necessary element of behavior in today's market. The new management model has become more consistent with the rapid and unpredictable changes in the surrounding world. It allows you to quickly adapt to constantly changing conditions. 8. SELF-GOVERNANCE AND SELF-REGULATION IN ORGANIZATIONS In management theory, internal and external management are distinguished. internal management, in which control actions are created in the controlled system itself, inside it. The governing body that creates control actions forms, together with the controlled system, a single economic complex. The governing bodies, as well as the persons exercising management, in case of internal management, are part of the managed organization, in its staff. A variety of internal control is self-government. Self management - this is the internal management of the region, enterprise, organization, firm, company, carried out by their governing bodies and playing a major role in management. With self-government, external management is limited to a narrow range of general problems and is embodied in the form of laws, decrees, government regulations, national programs that are binding on a wide range of organizations and individuals that require mandatory execution by all who are subject to legislative and other regulations. Self-governing territories, organizations can independently make and implement management decisions based on their own internal management. Consequently, in the conditions of self-government, internal management prevails over external management, occupies a leading place in everyday, current management. But in certain, sometimes paramount issues, external management is a priority in relation to internal. external control, at which control inputs enter the controlled system from outside. The managing system is not part of the managed system and is separated into an independent external body. Persons performing external management are not included in the staff of the managed organization, are not its employees, employees. Feature: in relation to organizations, institutions, their divisions, the division of management into internal and external has a certain degree of conventionality. The ratio of internal and external management, which characterizes the degree of democratization of management, largely depends on the nature of the socio-economic system, the dominant tendencies in the country to centralize and decentralize management. Self-regulation - a special case of self-government. Self-regulation is given the role of implementing part of the functions of self-government (current, operational management, control), complementing strategic management. Sometimes self-regulation involves the distribution of different types of economic resources. Self-regulation involves ensuring a stable state of the system under consideration. 9. CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION OF MANAGEMENT The most important principles of management activity are the principles centralization and decentralization, which form the basis of organizational forms of management. One of the principles of management is the optimal combination of centralization and decentralization in management. The principle of combining centralization and decentralization in management implies the need for skillful use of unity of command and collegiality. Centralized management - a process in which global commands, control signals are generated in a single control center and transferred from it to numerous control objects. This form of management organization is most often used by small companies that produce one type of product or products of one industry, the technological process of which is closely linked, enterprises operating mainly in the extractive industries and focusing on the local or national market. Signs of a centralized form of management: 1) functional divisions are more important than production divisions; 2) there are a large number of functional services (departments); 3) research units are located in the central office of the parent company; 4) the functional departments of the head office of the parent company exercise functional control over the product departments, manufacturing plants and sales departments. Centralization level the lower, the more decisions are made directly at the workplace, which are immediately implemented and are of a narrow, special nature. Centralization is characterized by the lack of delegation of authority, which leads to a decrease in efficiency in decision-making. Benefits of centralized management: 1) elimination of possible duplication of various activities; 2) the possibility of bringing to a single standard all operations within the organization; 3) better control over the activities of the organization; 4) more efficient use of personnel, equipment, production facilities. Disadvantages of centralized management: 1) delays in decision-making; 2) decisions are made by those who are poorly acquainted with the real situation at work; 3) the growth of bureaucracy, the accumulation of urgent issues to be resolved, the increase in documentation. Decentralized governance - a process in which a significant number of control actions related to a given object are produced by the object itself on the basis of self-management. The degree of decentralization of management is determined by the degree of granting authority or the right to make independent decisions to the managers of the departments. Delegation of powers is an integral part of decentralization. Factors affecting the level of decentralization: 1) enterprise size; 2) the presence of a suitable leader; 3) the influence of the external environment; 4) the nature of the organization's activities. If commercial operations are spread over large geographic areas, then a greater degree of decentralization is required; 5) use of control. 10. TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN MANAGEMENT At present, the following features of modern management can be distinguished: 1) the rapid development of the organization's culture; 2) strategic management and strategic planning, which are used in an increasing number of management situations; 3) methods and technologies of modern management, worked out in commercial organizations, apply to non-profit areas, including the public sector; 4) formation and development of new special types of management. 1. Organization culture is an important factor in the profit and competitiveness of a commercial organization. Very often, it is a component factor in the success, performance and survival of a non-profit organization. Components of an organization's culture: norms, principles, rules, values, ideals, language, jargon, organization history, legends, images, symbols, metaphors, ceremonies, rituals, forms of rewards and rewards, accommodation, building, environment. 2. Strategic management и strategic planning find their use in an increasing number of managerial situations. Business planning is the personification of the ideas and methods of strategic planning, brought in some cases to normatively fixed procedures. The ideas and approaches of the theory of strategic planning are used in regional, national and international programs. Most often, this is used in target management, which involves setting clear and concise goals that characterize the necessary final state of the managed object, the hierarchy of goals, participation in the process of developing goals of all interested parties, the procedure for evaluating efficiency and effectiveness. 3. Distribution of management concepts, methods and models that have proven their effectiveness in commercial organizations to non-profit organizations. Very often, marketing approaches to management extend to the activities of public organizations, to the activities of city and district administrations (the so-called regional marketing). And in the activities of many non-profit organizations, elements of business planning are used. In general, many organizational culture management techniques used in for-profit organizations find their way into non-profit organizations all the time. 4. Development of special types of management. From the 90s of the XIX century. there is a trend in the development of the following types of management: municipal management, risk management, financial management, investment management, innovation management, business reengineering, crisis management, etc. The formation of an independent type of special management involves the development of special techniques, methods and technologies of management specific to this type of activity. Feature: all special types of management are applied in nature, and their development is based on generalizations of management practices in the relevant special areas. 11. CONCEPT OF PURPOSE Goal - a need option selected from a variety of alternatives formulated on the basis of special knowledge. Need is an objective category. Goal - a subjective category determined by experience. A goal is a specific expression of a need formulated on the basis of experience and determines the exact functioning of the system being formed. Experience the Power of Effective Results - a measure of achieving a specific goal, i.e. a measure of meeting a need. The process of fulfilling the need has alternative solutions. Need - this: 1) something that objectively connects a person with the external environment and is a condition for the life and existence of a person; 2) the requirements of the conditions necessary for its preservation and development, objectively inherent in a living organism. For people, it is the driving force behind behavior, a certain dependence of a person on the outside world. Goal - an idea of a model of the future result that can satisfy the need with the available opportunities. The main properties of the target: - the goal is specific; - the choice of goal is based on the specific needs of the individual or society; - the goal depends on the need and is in this process its direct consequence; - the goal has an element of uncertainty, which leads to a discrepancy between the actual result and the model that was formed; - the existence of uncertainty in the original model makes the goal a means of assessing the future result. It is believed that demand (instruction, directive) of the "higher" organization is unconditional for the "lower", and therefore automatically transforms into a goal for it, which should be fulfilled. In practice, there are the following options for transforming a requirement into a goal: 1. The requirement does not limit the implementation conditions. In this case, the social element needs to form a goal, create conditions that would lead to the desired result. 2. The requirement defines all the elements of the goal. In this case, the "problem of choice" is completely absent. 3. The requirement prescribes only the exact parameters of the result model. The social element has complete freedom of choice within the means at its disposal. In this case, the designated model will be part of the overall goal, and the remaining components will be formulated on the basis of his knowledge in the form of a decision. 4. The requirement does not limit the conditions and methods of implementation, but strictly denotes the model of the result and the totality of means for its implementation. In the process of achieving the goal, the individual has the right to use the means provided to him to achieve the goal at his own discretion. 5. The requirement has no restrictions. In this case, there are no specific prescriptions for all components of the goal. 12. PURPOSE OF MANAGEMENT Key definitions of the purpose of management: 1) the state of the control object that satisfies the needs of the control system; 2) subjective representation of the person responsible for the choice of control, about the motives that should be followed when choosing control actions; 3) the desired state or movement of the object or control system; 4) the required result of activity, modeling the desired state. The formation of management goals is a fundamental initial stage of management. Purposefulness is a conscious movement towards a clear and precise goal. Requirements for the management goal: 1) formulation of the goal in terms of a realistically achievable state; 2) a clear definition of the goal; 3) a clear formulation of the necessary and sufficient conditions for the implementation of goals (resources, deadlines, performers). Types of management depending on the nature of the goal: 1. Program management - the goal is formulated in the action program (program-target management). If the program cannot be formulated clearly, and attention must be paid to solving the problem, the goal is connected to the program. In the course of solving problems, the content of the goals is also specified. 2. Situational management - the goal remains relatively stable and at the same time it is necessary to manage the functioning of social and socio-economic systems. In this situation, control is carried out according to deviations, that is, the control system responds to deviations (reactive control). 3. Target management - with a special value of the goal. All types of target management require knowledge of the entire structure of the overall goal and general methods and ways to achieve them from each manager. Formation of management goals - a process that depends on external and internal interactions of the elements of the control system and environmental factors. Features in determining the stages of formation of management goals: 1. The dependence of the goal on the quality and quantity of information received by the control system from the control object and the environment. The goal is determined by the control system. The essence of this pattern is that before the final formation of the goal, it is necessary to study in detail the possible ways of development of the control object, the expected environmental impacts, possible options for the future states of the object, their properties and other factors. The more complete the knowledge of these factors is, the more precisely the goal of management is formed. 2. Hierarchy of the goal, i.e., the possibility of its division into levels of hierarchy (in space) and stages (in time). Since the goal is the desired future state of the control object, which is characterized by a set of properties that have a hierarchical structure, it can also be represented as a set of private goals (a tree of goals) that characterizes the required state of the control object. It should be taken into account that in the process of moving towards the set goal, the object goes through a number of intermediate states, which can be represented as intermediate goals or stages. 13. ESSENCE AND FEATURES OF CONTROL FUNCTIONS Control function - Orientation of managerial impact on the object of management, the managed system. Management functions express the content of managerial influence - the essence of managerial relations. The control function is subject to a logical algorithm, a strict sequence of regulated actions. Features of control functions: 1. The allocation of individual functions in management is an objective process due to the development of production and the complication of its management. 2. The natural scientific basis for the formation and development of management functions is the division of social labor in general and in the field of management activities in particular. 3. The driving force behind the change in management functions is the need to improve the efficiency of managerial work and the managed system. 4. The control functions are determined by the controlled (object of control) and control (subject of control) subsystems, the laws of control science in force, the principles of control used and the relations that have developed in the control system. 5. The organization of management and the division of managerial labor, the selection and improvement of the organizational structure of management, the use of methods and means of management, information technology, training and placement of personnel, etc., takes into account the composition and content of management functions. 6. Any management function is implemented in conjunction and interaction with other management functions. General control functions Different authors distinguish their lists of common management functions. Taka. Fayol singled out: foresight, planning, organization, coordination, control. The main "domestic" functions include: goal setting, organization, regulation, activation, control. Other authors distinguish three groups of management functions: general functions (goal setting, planning, organization and control); socio-psychological - are mainly related to the nature of production relations in the team (delegation and motivation); technological functions - activities that make up the content of the manager's labor technology (decision-making, communication). The most popular classification is the classification given by M. Meskon. The author believes that the management process consists of the functions of planning, organization, motivation and control. These functions are united by the connecting processes of communication and decision-making, and management (leadership) is considered as an independent activity. General management functions are mandatory for any organizational system, but there are also specific (special) management functions. These include: resource management functions (inventory, personnel, finance management); process management functions (management of production, sales, marketing, logistics); results management functions (management of productivity, quality, costs). 14. PLANNING AND ORGANIZATION AS MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS Planning is a management activity that combines the functions of decision-making, goal-setting, forecasting (including analysis). Planning (in the narrow sense) is the process of developing a system of measures aimed at achieving certain goals. Planning at the micro level (within a specific organization) includes a set of business plans, short-term programs that should contain the expected targets and the necessary measures to achieve them. Planning at the macrolevel is the main form of state regulation of control objects. The history of the development of the planning function in modern society. In the pre-reform period in Russia, planning was the main management element. During this period, systems of national economic plans were developed: annual, five-year, comprehensive, and others. In the 90s, programming and program development became a priority. Programs were developed at various levels: national, regional and municipal. According to the period of time, the programs were divided into long-term, medium-term and short-term. The cycle of planning the development of the control object consists of the following links: 1) analysis of the external environment; 2) identification of strengths and weaknesses of development; 3) use of existing advantages; 4) development of a plan to achieve the goal; 5) adjustment of goals and deviations; 6) definition of goals. Organization. This function is aimed at creating the necessary conditions for achieving the goals. Organization - management activities aimed at ensuring the streamlining of the management process as a whole. The organization represents both the distribution of functions for the execution of management decisions and management functions. The organization makes it possible to provide the basis for the expedient construction of a certain governing body, finding the competence of its structural divisions. Organization tasks: 1. Providing the organization with resources (financial, material, informational, human). 2. Approval of certain parameters, modes of operation of organizational units, relations between them. 3. Formation of the structure of the organization, taking into account the size of the enterprise, its goals, technology, personnel. The main stages of the organization function: 1. Creation of organizational structure. At this stage, the organization is divided into blocks in accordance with its goals and strategies, the tasks and functions of the allocated units are determined. 2. Establishing relationships of authority that link top management with lower levels of management and personnel of the organization and provide the possibility of distribution and coordination of tasks. The principles that must be taken into account in the process of performing the function of the organization: 1) unity of purpose; 2) an inextricable link with the goals of the enterprise, determined by the input of planning; 3) assigning various tasks to employees and combining them into manageable working groups or units; 4) coordination of various activities. 15. FUNCTIONS OF MOTIVATION AND CONTROL Motivation (stimulation) - managerial activity, the process of inducing to choose one or another type of behavior, depending on the strength of the impact of incentives, motives and expected results. Possibilities of motivation: allows you to reveal the potential capabilities of management personnel and increase the degree of their use. Basic principles of motivation: 1. Setting goals and objectives. 2. Glasnost. The presence of feedback. Information about the results of the work of the entire team creates a sense of ownership and responsibility among employees. Information about the performance of each employee can stimulate labor activity with the help of a competitive mood. Information about performance-based compensation and an explanation of the difference in their sizes helps to avoid feelings of unfairness among employees. 3. Linking goals and rewards, defining evaluation criteria. Employees need to know what reward they will receive for certain performance. 4. Unity of moral and material methods of stimulation. The combination of money, material goods and praise leads to more efficient work of employees. 5. Creation of favorable conditions for effective work. A favorable climate in the team, the aesthetics of the workplace have a positive effect on labor activity. 6. Use predominantly positive incentives. The predominance of reprimands, fines can lead to a tense situation in the work team, to the concealment of information due to fear of punishment. 7. Accounting for the personal qualities of the employee. Features of the nature of the ability, the value system of a certain person reveal the motivation factors that can have the greatest impact on him. Control - management activities aimed at identifying, correcting and preventing deviations of the achieved results from the intended settings, parameters, goals. Control options: allows to carry out corrective actions on the control object, ensures the effective implementation of the goal. Objects controls are enterprises and organizations. Subjects control can be heads of organizations, departments of technical control, government agencies. Subject of control - These are the processes taking place in the organization or its elements. Tools performance of the control function - observation, verification of all aspects of the activity, accounting and analysis. Control function steps: 1. Development of standards. Standards are specific goals, the degree of achievement of which is measurable. They should contain the deadlines for completing the work and the criteria by which it is evaluated. 2. Comparison with standards of real results. At this stage, the scale of tolerances is determined, the results are measured, the obtained results are evaluated and the results of the work are compared with the established standards. 3. Taking necessary corrective actions. Such actions may include the elimination of deviations, non-interference in the work or change of standards. 16. MANAGEMENT EFFICIENCY. MANAGEMENT COSTS Management efficiency - this is effective leadership, understood as the ability of a leader to force or induce, to interest subordinate employees to work energetically, productively, with high returns. Management effectiveness - targeted focus on the creation of necessary, useful things that can satisfy certain needs, ensure the achievement of final results that are adequate to the goals of management. management quality, understood as its effectiveness, is characterized by the result, the effect achieved by the subject of management due to its impact on the object of management. Effect is the end result of the activity. Efficiency characterized by the ratio of the effect to the cost of resources that ensured the receipt of the effect, the achievement of the desired result. Efficiency - the effect per unit cost of resources expended to obtain the achieved result. Formula management efficiency: Management efficiency = Management effectiveness / Management costs. Management costs - part of transaction costs not directly related to the production and circulation of goods, but due to these processes, complementing them, representing the design side of such processes. The results of managed economic processes are the result of managerial, economic, and production activities. The formula for the effectiveness of the entire managed economic object or process: Efficiency in the economy is measured by the ratio of the effect obtained, the result to the total costs that led to its receipt. The effectiveness of economic management should be judged by the indicators of economic efficiency of managed objects and processes based on the formula: Efficiency = Outcome / Cost of getting the result. The highest level of management efficiency is the result at the lowest management cost. If management costs are limited to a given value, then it should be established what maximum result can be achieved at a given level of costs. In this case, the highest possible indicator of the effectiveness of management, considered as an independent process, is also achieved. Main management resource - the labor of workers in the sphere of economic management, called managerial labor. Information productivity of managerial work is determined by the amount of management information of the required quality and purpose, or the amount of management documentation produced by an employee for a certain time. Managers productivity indicator - this is the economic effect achieved as a result of the activity of a certain governing body. Feature: the problem of defining, quantifying the effectiveness of management remains the subject of research in management science. 17. STRUCTURE OF THE MANAGEMENT ENVIRONMENT Management environment - a set of subjects and forces (factors) influencing and influencing the position and prospects of the company, the effectiveness of management. Direct impact environment - a set of elements and factors that directly affect the organization; other elements and factors are the medium of indirect influence. Allocate macro- and microenvironment. The macro environment consists of factors of a broad social plan and mainly indirect impact: - economic; - legal; - demographic; - political; - geographical; - national; - information; - scientific and technical; - sociocultural; - technological factors and other resources. Microenvironment consists of separate entities: organizations, groups and individuals that are directly related to this subject of management and its capabilities. The microenvironment includes: 1) elements and factors controlled by the management of the organization (choosing a field of activity, setting goals, management tools in the organization, the level of technology used, professionalism and culture of personnel, etc.); 2) elements and factors not controlled by the organization (including other market participants - specific suppliers, intermediaries, consumers, competitors). Feature: interacting with factors of the microenvironment, the subject of management can control and regulate relations with them or has the right to choose those subjects on the market with which it is beneficial for him to establish relations. In this regard, it is possible to study the microenvironment in relation to a specific market entity, or in general terms. An important place among the characteristics of the organization's environment is its image. Image reflects the features of the organization and its activities, but is formed in the minds of external entities and directly determines the attitude of counterparties towards it, and indirectly - the behavior of employees, groups within the organization. Characteristics of the organization's image: production (it is produced and offered to counterparties only in the way that and how the organization is used to producing and offering); - marketing (sell goods or get a client by any means); - competitive market (orientation to the behavior of competitors and the demand that has formed in the market); - marketing - taking into account the strategic positions of partners and competitors in the development, correction and implementation of the strategy and the active formation of demand in the consumer environment, the priority of long-term contracts that are beneficial to all participants, including manufacturers, intermediaries and consumers. 18. INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL MANAGEMENT ENVIRONMENT Internal environment - a set of characteristics of the firm and its internal subjects (strengths, weaknesses of its elements and connections between them), influencing the position and prospects of the firm. Components of the internal environment: mission, strategy, goals, objectives and structure of the organization, distribution of functions (including management proper), rights and resources, intellectual capital (including organizational and human potential, learning, expectations, needs and group dynamics, including leadership relationships), management style , values, culture and ethics of the organization, as well as system models of the relationships of all the mentioned characteristics. Formalized Models differ in that they are dominated by unilateral methods of influence, incentives-compulsions along the line "from top to bottom": 1) technocratic (characterized by subordination to a given production process); 2) autocratic (submission to the will of the leader); 3) bureaucratic (obedience to the organizational order, instructions of behavior). Personalized Models contain multi-subject mutual influences, orientations of a motivating type: 1) humanizing (an organization is a family, where a specific employee and his creative potential are the main resource of the organization); 2) democratization (differ in freedom of maneuver in making and implementing management decisions, with numerous feedbacks); 3) innovative (characterized by the support of innovations, the granting of authority for creative search, the creation of a creative environment, etc.). External management environment External environment - a set of external subjects and factors that actively influence the position and prospects of the organization, but are not subject to its leadership. The composition of the external environment: The external management environment includes the entire macro environment and part of the micro environment. The macro environment is the same for all subjects of management in a given country, region, for specific organizations, goods and services. Feature: elements of the external environment - consumers, competitors, intermediaries, etc., can be considered as a whole, that is, as a macro environment, and as a micro environment. The main characteristics of the external control environment: 1) multicomponent; 2) growth of complexity, mobility, uncertainty; 3) the growing interconnectedness of factors (a change in one of them leads to a change in other factors); 4) globalization. Globalization - a complex of cross-border interactions between organizations, individuals, institutions and markets, the creation of a single global, internationalized information, commodity, financial space, the integration of a wide variety of entities into global processes. The main directions of globalization: 1) growth and strengthening of the influence of international institutions of civil society; 2) the expansion of technology and financial resources, the flow of goods; 3) expanding the scope of information exchanges via the Internet; 4) activities of transnational corporations; 5) internationalization of certain types of criminal activity. 19. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS The external environment includes: 1) macro factors - political, legal, macroeconomic, scientific and technical, socio-cultural, etc.; 2) factors of the microenvironment - consumers, competitors, suppliers and intermediaries, sources of capital, labor resources. Political situation. In the last decade, the political situation has been characterized by relative stability in the sphere of Russia's own political institutions and in relation to them by social strata. legal factors. The main legal achievements include legislative acts regulating property relations, entrepreneurship, taxation, competition, consumer protection, advertising, trademarks, etc. macroeconomic factors. They are characterized by the following indicators: industrial and agricultural output, gross domestic product, consumer price index, retail trade turnover, investment in fixed capital, real disposable money income of the population, volume of paid services to the population, export and import of goods. informational factors. From the 90s of the XX century. new information technologies in the field of management of organizations and public administration structures are widely used. Scientific, technical and technological factors. The main directions of increasing the competitiveness of Russian science: 1) increasing the prestige of engaging in scientific activities; 2) re-equipment of the park of scientific equipment; 3) countering the brain drain. demographic factors. These include: the number, structure, dynamics and employment of the population. Consumers The main characteristics of consumer behavior: 1) increasing the importance of personal time and saving efforts on the choice and purchase of goods and services; 2) attention to the problems and methods of environmental protection. counterparties in general. The Russian economy is characterized by a lack of trust of economic agents in each other, both in domestic and international relations. Competitors. The most important tool in the struggle of foreign competitors with Russian exporters is anti-dumping legislation. Suppliers and intermediaries. The key area of intermediary competition in the most attractive regional markets in Russia in the next decade will be retail. As part of this, it is necessary to use modern technologies of trade service, merchandising, logistics and distribution. Human Resources - population of working age, except for non-working war and labor invalids and persons receiving an old-age pension on preferential terms, persons of disabled age employed in the economy. Sources of capital - own funds of the organization, borrowed funds (credits from banks or specialized financial institutions - insurance companies). Types of materials and technologies are influenced by the industrial revolution, standardization and mechanization, computerization. Technology is the means by which the resources of production are transformed into the final product. 20. MANAGEMENT METHODOLOGY AND ITS COMPONENTS Management methodology - a scheme of managerial activity, which implies an interconnected awareness of goals, guidelines, as well as means and ways to achieve them. Management methodology components: 1. Approach - a component of the methodology that determines the choice and use of its other components. Varieties of management approaches: 1) systems approach; 2) program-target approach; 3) project approach; 4) consumer-oriented marketing approach; 5) cybernetic; 6) informational; 7) humanistic approach; 8) integration; 9) network approach. 2. Paradigm (from the Greek paradeigma - example, sample) - the original conceptual scheme, a system of concepts that recreates the understanding of significant features of reality, a model for setting problems and solving them, choosing appropriate methods, dominating the scientific community over a specific historical period and confirming a certain stage in theory development. Modern management paradigm focuses on the human personality with an emphasis on knowledge management, on network, partnership principles of interaction. The problem in management - this is a contradiction between the goal and the situation, the resolution of which will cause a change in the situation in the direction of the accepted goal. 4. Priorities (from lat. prior - first, senior) in management - characterize the emphasis on certain areas with which the results of managed activities can be compared. 5. Landmarks - in management they are defined in various areas as well-perceived (qualitatively defined and quantified) objects that make it possible to determine the purpose of the activity, and can be qualified according to the degree of correlation with the prospect, as strategic or operational. 6. Criteria (from the Greek. kriterion - a means for judgment) in management methodology - evaluation measures. The most important are complex indicators that allow you to establish, classify, evaluate various aspects of management activities. 7. Alternatives (from lat. alter - one of two) - possible (usually mutually exclusive) options for future situations, the role, goals and actions of the organization, mechanisms and management procedures. 8. Selection procedures - Methods and technologies for evaluating alternatives. The methodology determines (including on the basis of the applied approaches, criteria, etc.) which procedures it is advisable to use. 9. Controls - tools, control levers. These are materialized aspects, components of management functions, involving the use of specific management methods. 10. Restrictions - means of state protection of the interests of national producers and consumers, as well as ensuring state interests and fulfilling international obligations. 21. THE CONCEPT OF MANAGEMENT METHODS "Method" comes from the Greek word methodos and literally means "the path of research", a way to achieve a goal, solve a problem, a set of techniques or operations of theoretical or practical knowledge and development of reality. Management methods are an integral part of the methodology, and more specifically, the management mechanism. Control mechanism - a set of means and methods of management. Controls (levers, tools) - this is everything with which you can manage (including guidelines, expected consequences, selection and evaluation criteria, restrictions, requirements). Management methods - methods of actuation, use of means and the entire control mechanism. Management methods - ways to implement management functions. Management methods set responsibility, sanctions for failure to perform or insufficiently effective performance of functions and duties. Choice of control methods: management methods are selected and used depending on the combination of management functions and on the choice of its tools. The choice of control methods depends on: the scale of management, goals, the surrounding socio-economic environment, the quality of personnel and the real availability of certain means (tools) of management. Classification of management methods according to various criteria: 1. By the scale of application: a) general, related to the entire system; b) special, addressed to the individual components of this system or, conversely, to the external environment and its subjects, including consumers, intermediaries, competitors, etc. 2. By role at various stages of the life of the organization - methods of researching organizations that form, streamline, stabilize, develop, including methods of liquidation, bankruptcy. 3. By industry and application - in public administration, business, trade, industry, ecology, etc. 4. According to degree of indirect™ impact - direct and indirect. 5. By managerial functions: methods of analysis, planning, motivation, control, etc. 6. By the level of generalization of managerial knowledge - methods of theory and practice of management. 7. For specific objects of management and the nature of the situation, problem to be solved, etc. There are methods of financial management, risk management, innovation management, anti-crisis management, production management, sales (including logistics), communications, quality, employment, personnel, knowledge, projects, small and large enterprises, as well as business process management methods, management methods interaction of business structures with each other and with customers, etc. Classification of management methods by the nature of the impact: 1) economic; 2) administrative (organizational and administrative); 3) socio-psychological. Feature: management methods by the nature of the impact are closely related and have many common features. At the same time, their inherent differences in the ways of influencing control objects allow us to consider each of them separately. 22. ECONOMIC MANAGEMENT METHODS Economic methods of management (EMU) - methods and techniques of influencing people, which are based on the economic relations of people and the use of their economic interests. Economic management methods - a specific mechanism for the conscious use in practice of objective economic laws. Content of economic methods - targeted impact on the economic interests of the individual, team, state in order to achieve optimal results of their functioning with the lowest requirements and material costs. Economic methods of management represent an interconnected system of stimulation and economic impact on all aspects of the life of the state, the collective and the individual and their governing bodies. Economic interests are subdivided to: 1) the interests of the state; 2) the interests of the team; 3) the interests of the individual. The problem of combining the interests of all groups includes the solution of a number of problems: the establishment of rational relationships between the distribution and consumption funds; between payroll and incentive funds, etc. Two groups of economic management methods: 1. Direct economic calculation is based on planned, centralized, directive distribution and redistribution of labor, material and financial resources in order to ensure macro proportions of expanded reproduction. Direct economic calculation is planned and directive. Directiveness is understood as its obligation, which gives it the character of a law. Method assignments: important for the prevention and elimination of emergency situations and in other cases, taking the form of subsidies, subventions and subsidies. 2. Economic calculation is based on the use of cost categories as regulatory instruments and levers for correlating results and costs in the production and sale of products. EMU principles: 1) consistency; 2) complexity. EMS are based on all the levers of management: 1) profit; 2) finance; 3) loans; 4) profitability; 5) return on assets; 6) wages, etc. Essence of EMU: by influencing the economic interests of employees and economic counterparties with the help of taxes, prices, credit, wages, profits and other economic levers, create an effective mechanism for work. EMUs are based on: on the use of economic incentives that provide for the interest and responsibility of managerial employees for the consequences of decisions made and encourage employees to achieve the implementation of established tasks without special instructions. Feature of EMU: 1) managed processes become more flexible and adaptive; 2) when using economic methods, feedback functions more efficiently, it becomes possible to control more effectively; 3) the spread of economic methods is combined with the relative isolation of individual units and an increase in the level of self-regulation. 23. ADMINISTRATIVE AND SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL MANAGEMENT METHODS Administrative (organizational-administrative or organizational-administrative) management methods create basic management systems in the form of stable links and relationships, provisions governing the rights and responsibilities of departments and individual employees. Administrative Methods implemented through direct influence of managers on subordinates: 1) through administrative orders; 2) on the basis of concluded agreements; 3) through orders and demands; 4) charters and regulations; 5) rules, regulations, instructions and other documents that organizationally regulate the activities of subordinates. Feature of administrative methods: are based on the power of the leader and are methods of power motivation based on coercion or on the possibility of coercion and describing in detail the operations of obtaining the desired result. The relationship of administrative and economic methods: administrative and economic methods of management have much in common and very often complement each other. Socio-psychological methods The essence of socio-psychological methods: by influencing the non-economic interests of employees and economic counterparties, to use an effective mechanism of work. Meaning of methods: influence the needs and interests of the individual and the group, their hierarchy, activate performing, creative activity or communication. Socio-psychological methods involve the use of moral incentives, special methods and conditions of communication, comparisons and other methods of influencing the psychological attitudes and emotional sphere of the psyche of people. Varieties of socio-psychological methods: 1) belief; 2) suggestion; 3) "infection"; 4) demonstration of examples of behavior. Relationship with other methods: socio-psychological methods of management always complement the administrative-command and economic methods of management. Varieties of general scientific management methods: observation, experiment, analysis, synthesis, deduction and induction, comparison, evaluation, dialectics, systemic and complex approaches. Methods of specific sciences used in management: 1. Mathematical methods: network optimization, linear programming, stock management, Leontiev model, hierarchy analysis method, forecasting methods, methods of probability theory, game theory, control theory of organized systems and some others. 2. Used methods of independent sciences: economics, sociology, psychology, statistics, etc. These include sequential analysis, the method of statistical testing, etc. 3. Methods of pedagogy, teaching, education: methods of searching, processing and analyzing information, mastering the material and presenting the results. This category includes the methods of focus groups, brainstorming (brainstorming), case studies, business and situational games, etc. 24. THE CONCEPT "MANAGEMENT DECISION". ESSENCE AND CONTENT OF THE DECISION PROCESS Decision-making - a complex and responsible stage of the management process, which consists in choosing the most rational way to achieve the established goal. Signs of a management decision: 1) is accepted if there is a management goal, an established criterion for the effectiveness of the management process and a variety of alternative ways to achieve the goal or options for control actions that ensure the achievement of the intended goal; 2) is the result of the implementation of one of the stages of the management process and includes the selected rational (or optimal) way to achieve the goal, or a variant of control actions on the control object, to achieve the goal; 3) can be periodically adjusted when the goal (task) of management changes and new conditions appear in the environment. Management decision at the enterprise, these are the actions of the subject of management (individual or group), which determine the program of the team's activities to effectively resolve the urgent problem based on knowledge of the objective laws of the functioning of the controlled system and analysis of data on its state. The essence of the activity to develop a management decision - development of the best course of action to achieve the set goals. The development of a management decision is a type of management activity. The main components of the process of developing a management decision: activity should be planned, organized, its progress and quality should be monitored. In general, when exercising management functions, a management subsystem should be created, designed to manage the achievement of the goal, i.e., processes for performing management tasks and target management organizations designed to implement these processes. The main stages of the decision making process: 1. Awareness of the task and development of a preliminary solution to create a solution development process. 2. Refinement of the solution for the creation of the solution development process, work planning, creation of a system for monitoring the process and quality of the solution development. 3. Clarification and specification of tasks, determination of measures that need to be implemented in order to achieve the goals. 4. Analysis of the factors of external and internal environments that influence the achievement of the goal. 5. Predictive modeling of activities to achieve the goal. 6. Coordination of the draft decision with the performers. 7. Choosing one of the solutions and bringing it to the performers. Content of the decision - a summary of the accepted option to achieve the goal. The solution should provide for the organization of interaction, provision and operational control of the processes of implementing the solution. It should include the tasks that performers need to perform: at the lower levels of the hierarchy, these are tasks for the implementation, implementation of the solution itself, at higher levels, tasks for the implementation of planning, organization, motivation, communication and control. 25. UNDERSTANDING THE PROBLEM AND DEVELOPING A PRELIMINARY SOLUTION TO CREATE THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPING A SOLUTION (STAGE 1) Stage 1 - the mental, creative activity of the leader. The entrance of the 1st stage is a problem that has arisen or a task set by a higher manager that needs to be clarified. After that, a preliminary decision should be made to create a decision-making process and a group for developing proposals for a decision. Outputs of the 1st stage: - purpose and objectives of the activity; - purpose, objectives and main content for the development of proposals; - the approximate composition of the performers (determining the circle of responsible persons who will participate in the development of the solution); - deadlines for the development of proposals. The outputs of the 1st stage are divided into two tasks: - the first - definition of the purposes and tasks of the forthcoming activity; - the second - a preliminary decision based on the intuition of the leader, on the order of work, timing and composition of the proposal development group. The essence of the 1st stage is the definition of goals and objectives of the future activities of the system and the development of a preliminary decision on the creation of a process and the development of proposals and a managerial target organization - a proposal development group. Actions required to define the purpose and general content of future activities: 1. Understanding the task (problem). 2. Determination of the goal, objectives and general content of future activities. 3. Determining the place of the organization in the implementation of the plan. 4. Establishment of activities strictly regulated by existing laws, recommendations, norms and other documentation. 5. Identification of tasks requiring creative solutions. Based on the solution of this problem, the leader makes a preliminary decision on the procedure, timing and composition of the proposal development group. Manager's tasks: - determine the general structure of the decision-making process, its stages, analyze the activities that need to be performed in order to solve these problems (perform the decision-making stage); - take into account the conditions of the situation in which the decision-making process will be carried out, contribute to the creation of the most favorable climate; - determine the terms of development and the approximate composition of the performers, as well as create a system for monitoring the progress and quality of the decision. At the 1st stage, the leader uses his experience and intuition as the main method, making only the most necessary calculations. In general, at the 1st stage of the decision-making process, the goals and objectives of future activities to achieve the goal are determined and a decision is made to manage this process. 26. CLARIFICATION OF THE DECISION TO CREATE THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOLUTION, PLANNING WORK, CREATION OF A SYSTEM OF CONTROL OVER THE PROCESS AND QUALITY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SOLUTION (2 AND 3 STAGES) entrance The 2nd stage is the output of the 1st: 1) the goals and objectives of the forthcoming activity, as a result of which a decision should be developed, the main content of the proposal; 2) the approximate composition of the performers; 3) terms for the development of proposals. Exit the stage under consideration should be: 1) the work plan of the group for developing proposals and fully reflecting the content of the work, the composition of the group and the deadlines for completing the work; 2) a system for monitoring the progress and quality of the development of a decision, including the organization of control and the forces that perform control, as well as organizations created to implement this stage: a group for developing proposals and monitoring the progress and quality of developing proposals. The order of work at this stage: 1. Planning and organizing future activities. 2. Establishment of persons responsible for control activities. 3. Establishing the timing of control activities. The result of activity at this stage is obtained on the basis of the specified decision of the head. Stage feature: the process of developing a decision plan should coincide with the process of developing a decision, however, the methods used in the planning stages should be different: since it is only about refinement, and not about finding the most suitable option. At this stage, the functions of planning this process and organization are implemented, that is, the creation of real organizations capable of organizing a planned, developed process and monitoring the progress and quality of the decision. Clarification and specification of tasks, determination of measures that need to be implemented in order to achieve the goals (stage 3): 1. Awareness of the purpose of the activity, for the achievement of which a solution should be developed. 2. Establishment of a system of tasks that must be carried out to achieve the goal. 3. Exclusion from the system of tasks defined at the 2nd step of those tasks that are strictly regulated by the governing documentation for inclusion in the list of tasks to be solved in the implementation of the third management function - organization. 4. Comparison of the developed subsystem of tasks that require creative solutions with the one set by the leader at the 1st stage. If the developed system differs from that determined by the head, then it is necessary to provide a reasoned report on the new system of tasks for its approval. 5. Creation of a subsystem of measures that ensure the implementation of each of the presented tasks. 6. Establishment of a technological sequence for the implementation of tasks and activities. Sign In Stage 2 - the purpose of the activity and the main tasks that need to be carried out to achieve the goal set by the leader at the first stage of the decision-making process. Log out - a system of tasks that ensure the effective achievement of the goal, and a subsystem of measures that ensure the fulfillment of these tasks, taking into account the technology for their implementation. 27. ANALYSIS OF FACTORS IN THE EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT AFFECTING THE ACHIEVEMENT OF THE GOAL (4TH STAGE) The order of work at the stage of analysis of factors of external and internal environments that influence the achievement of the goal consists of the following main stages: 1. Analysis of the features and time of activities for the implementation of each of the activities. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the amount of time spent on each of the activities, to determine the factors influencing the change in time boundaries. 2. Establishment of subsystems of internal and external factors affecting the quality of performance. Identification of their main characteristics and features of functioning in certain conditions. 3. Establishing the nature of the change in factors depending on the time to complete each task and each activity separately. 4. Establishment of parameters (quantitative characteristics) characterizing the factors. 5. Establishing the nature of the influence of parameters (factors) on the quality of the implementation of activities. Exit of the 4th stage - a system of tasks and a subsystem of measures that ensure the achievement of the goal - a system of factors of the external and internal environment that affect both the efficiency of the activity as a whole and at its individual stages. Essence of activity at the 4th stage: consideration of the specifics of the implementation of each task, each event and, on their basis, the formulation of a certain set of factors of the external and internal environment, such that the quality of their outputs depends. Environmental factors - characteristics, coordinates of the state of the system - these are factors that do not depend on control actions not directly, but indirectly, although the results of the system's activity can change both the nature of the influence of these factors and the environmental factors themselves. Most often, environmental factors have a stronger impact than internal environmental factors. Internal factors - these are controllable factors that are characterized by systems of indicators, by the value of which one should judge the effectiveness of the system as a whole. Activities should be organized in such a way as to ensure that these indicators are as important as possible, given the existing time and resource constraints. Internal factors may be subject to change depending on the established restrictions, the pursued goals of the activity and their possible adjustment. Feature: such factors are completely dependent on the developed and existing control actions, which are also factors of the internal environment. 28. FORECAST MODELING OF ACTIVITIES TO ACHIEVE THE GOAL (5th STAGE) Entrance for the 5th stage - these are the outputs of the 3rd and 4th stages - predictive modeling of the process of achieving the goal of the future activity, for the management of which a decision is made. Exit of the 5th stage - a set of envisaged options for action and signs of choosing the best of these options or the best option for action. The purpose of modeling when developing a solution - obtaining such information about the future process of activity, which would allow the selection of the best option for this process. The order of work at the modeling stage: 1 step modeling - the type of the main indicator of the quality of activities to achieve the goal is determined. 2-th step - determination of the types and quality of the necessary resources and their availability. Characteristics of the quality of the required and available resources: 1) for performers - productivity, error-free work, depending on the level of training ™, moral, socio-psychological and physiological characteristics; 2) for other types of resources - performance, reliability, etc. On the 3rd step there is a semantic, operational, verbal description of options for future actions. Exit 3rd step stage of modernization is a set of possible options for action, described in an informal way. At this stage, ineffective options are excluded. Feature of 3rd step: in the absence of time, the modeling stage ends at it, and from the obtained verbal models of action options, a qualitative, intuitive choice of the best one is made, which, after agreement and approval, becomes a solution. With a quantitative analysis of the action options determined at the 3rd step of modeling, the modeling process proceeds to 4th step determination of an indicator or indicators of efficiency and a system of parameters on which these indicators depend. On the 5th step model is defined. For social systems, the most acceptable types of future activity models may be loosely structured models. On the 6th step the development of the selected model is carried out, the essence of which will be reduced to the formalization of the process of activity, that is, to the logical and mathematical description of this process. Since the model being developed is predictive, it should provide a predictive value of quality indicators depending on the activity variant established by control actions and on the predicted values of environmental factors. On the 7-th stage programming and debugging of the model. This step is technical, but its implementation reveals all the errors and inaccuracies that were made in the previous steps. 8-th step - study of the model by experimenting on a computer model. 29. APPROVAL OF THE DRAFT DECISION WITH THE PERFORMERS (6TH STAGE). SELECTING ONE OF THE SOLUTION OPTIONS AND BRINGING IT TO THE PERFORMERS (STAGE 7) The technology for coordinating the draft decision with the executors (stage 6) consists of the following main steps: Step 1. Establishment of a list of performers who will participate in the implementation of the decision. Identification of responsible persons. Step 2. Bringing the draft decision to the interested persons. Giving them all the information they need. Step 3. Establishment by interested parties of the degree of their participation in the implementation of the proposed solution. Step 4. Analysis by interested parties of their capabilities. If it is obvious that the solution is realizable, then go to step 7, if not realizable, go to the next step. Step 5. Substantiation of the conclusion about unfeasibility. Step 6. Establishing an acceptable solution. Step 7. Report on your decision to the leader of the proposal development group. Step 8. Preparation of a draft decision for a report to the head. Stage 6 entry - variants of actions to achieve the goal and signs, rules for choosing the best of these actions obtained as a result of modeling. Exit of the 6th stage - coordinated with the executors of the draft decision. The essence of the activity at the stage is the coordination of the draft decision with the performers, the assessment by the performers of the feasibility of the developed solution and its refinement, taking into account the actual resources available to the performers. The order of work at the decision approval stage (stage 7): Step 1. Report of the leaders of the group to develop proposals to the leader (project) of options for achieving the goal, the conditions in which this activity will take place, the rules for choosing the best of the proposed options. Step2. Choice by the manager (of the project) of the best, in his opinion, option, taking into account his own experience, professional knowledge and intuition. There are likely to be cases where the (project) manager will require additional information to make a decision, refine proposals in one way or another, or even change them if such actions, in his opinion, will contribute to more effective activities. Stage 7 entry - coordinated options for achieving the goal and signs, rules for choosing the best of them, taking into account the opinion of the performers. Exit of the 7th stage is the output of the entire decision making process. The essence of the activity at the stage of decision approval is the implementation of a volitional act by the head to approve one of the options for action, which, in the opinion of the head, is the most optimal in the current situation. 30. CLASSIFICATION OF MANAGEMENT DECISIONS BY THE LEVEL OF STANDARDITY AND BY THE SIGN OF SCALE Classification of management decisions depending on the level of standardization, typicality, the presence or absence of analogues: 1) programmed (structured); 2) unprogrammed (weakly structured). Programmed solutions are distinguished by a well-established model, including standard, familiar procedures for their development and justification. The solution algorithm is known in advance and it is only necessary to adapt it to the problem being solved, taking into account its inherent conditions and limitations. Application of programmed solutions: solutions are characteristic of frequently occurring typical problems, simple problem situations, the way out of which requires fairly routine decisions and procedures for their adoption. The goals and objectives of such decisions are either well known or set from outside, and decision makers need to make a choice of course of action from a relatively small set of valid options. Feature: Before using a set of standard, programmatic procedures for making such decisions, it is necessary to make sure that the decision chosen in this way is effective. Unprogrammed Weakly structured solutions are typical for non-standard problems, for situations characterized by novelty and uncertainty. Application of non-programmed solutions: such decisions are made in the case when standard procedures, program models for finding ways out of the current problem situation do not lead to rational, acceptable solutions. Weakly structured solutions are characteristic of fundamentally new, non-standard problems. Based on scale areas of action and the level of managerial decision-making, they are divided into macroeconomic and microeconomic decisions. macroeconomic decisions extend their effect to the entire economy as a whole, to large industries and regions, to representative sectors of the economy and the social sphere. These are decisions that affect the volume and structure of production across the country, the federal and regional budgets, incomes and expenditures of the population, investment in the economy, and economic growth rates. Macroeconomic decisions are made by legislative, executive, and judicial bodies of state power in the highest echelons of government. Most often these are unprogrammed or partially programmed solutions. Microeconomic solutions extend their effect to the economy of corporations, companies, enterprises, small administrative-territorial entities, local objects of state and private property, entrepreneurial activity on a limited scale, households. Macroeconomic decisions are made by owners or managers of microeconomic objects, authorized management bodies, including state bodies, within the framework of their rights and competence. 31. CLASSIFICATION OF MANAGEMENT DECISIONS BY THE DEGREE OF IMPORTANCE According to the degree of significance, importance, duration of action solutions are: 1. Strategic solutions of a global nature, designed for a long period of execution. Varieties of strategic decisions: carrying out cardinal changes in the management system (implementation of actions that contribute to a complete change in the current situation), adoption of long-term plans, programs, projects (as a rule, the duration of such measures is from 1 to 15 years, depending on the complexity and variability of the factors that have influence on them), the approval of budgets, the establishment of a general line of action in the form of concepts of socio-economic development, the development of a long-term economic policy. Feature: strategic decisions are almost always programmed. Most often they contain general areas of activity. Their implementation is preceded by a rather long process of development, coordination, changes and adjustments. 2. Tactical management decisions are associated with medium-term problems, the development of a line of action for a relatively short period of time in accordance with the current situation in production and markets. Tactical decisions are a way of concretizing the strategy, translating it into specific measures to be implemented within a certain planning, program period. Orientation of tactical management decisions: as a rule, such decisions are aimed at achieving intermediate goals, solving problems that contribute to the promotion and general goals. 3. Operational (current) managerial decisions are made on a daily basis based on the conditions of production activities, resource provision, market demand, prices, social demands, events in the political, economic, social, environmental environment. Feature: operational decisions are sensitive to the emerging unforeseen situation, in connection with this they are called situational. Subject of operational decisions: organizational measures, urgent orders, replenishment of emerging losses, losses, replenishment of missing material, labor, financial resources, adjustment of planned, program activities, obtaining current benefits. Programmed decisions have the greatest weight in the totality of current management decisions, since operational decisions are fleeting, urgent in nature, require the fastest execution and immediate response to the situation. 32. CLASSIFICATION OF MANAGEMENT DECISIONS BY THE SIGN OF THE NUMBER OF PERSONS PARTICIPATED IN THE DECISION MAKING 1.Customized decisions are made by the head, the responsible person, they are clearly personified. The individual nature of such decisions extends only to the act of their adoption. Consultants, analysts, assistants to the person making the final decision can participate in the preparation and development of individual decisions. Preliminary approvals of a draft decision are often carried out with interested parties, future executors of the decisions being made. But in the most individual decision, the personal will of the person making the decision is manifested, in connection with which it acquires force on behalf of this person, is confirmed by his signature or public announcement. Advantages of individual solutions: they can be adopted in a short time, and strict personification allows you to specifically identify the person responsible for this decision. With a high qualification of the decision maker, the quality and effectiveness of such decisions are quite high. Disadvantages of individual solutions: individual decision-making increases the likelihood of errors. There is a threat of replacing the objective goal, for the achievement of which a decision must be made, with goals that reflect the personal, selfish interests of the person making the decision. When making individual decisions, signs of self-will, dictatorship, and voluntarism often appear. Consequently, the persons making such decisions must have high moral and ethical qualities. 2. Collegiate Decisions are accepted by a narrow group of persons forming a certain governing body - a collegium. These are directorates, councils, bureaus, presidiums, committees and other bodies that perform the functions of collegial management and leadership. Since collegiate bodies are headed by the heads of this body or the entire organization managed by this body, the head may have the final say in making the final decision. With high activity and independence of the board members, the decision acquires a group character and reflects the will of the majority, which can be supported by voting and decision-making by a majority of votes. 3. Collective decisions - a product of the common will of a large number of people representing production teams, large social groups, the population of the territory or even the entire country. Such decisions are formed during meetings, rallies, conferences or as a result of elections, in which a representative part of the persons who have the right to cast their vote in favor of one or another solution option participates. The presence of collective decisions, participation in their development and the adoption of a large number of stakeholders are important signs of the democratization of management. 33. INTUITIVE AND JUDGEMENT-BASED MANAGEMENT DECISIONS Intuitive Solution based on the intuition of the person making the decision. Such decisions are based not on reasoning, not on a conscious comparison of options, but on a "sixth" sense. The "sixth" feeling is formed by the subconscious, memory, an active desire to find ways out of the current situation. By setting a goal - to solve the problem for people automatically, the mechanisms of search, comparison, selection of solutions that allow coping with the problem are unconsciously triggered. Consciously chosen options for action are based on a preliminary analysis of the problem, the search and comparison of options, the selection of the best, optimal of them. Decisions based on the judgments of those who develop and make these decisions have their origin in systems analysis and a systems approach. Such decisions are scientifically substantiated if scientific methods are used in the process of their preparation, the apparatus for modeling the impact of the decision on the controlled system is used. Decisions based on the judgments of the persons making them reflect both the opinion resulting from the knowledge and experience of the person, and from his intuitions, ideas and beliefs, called "common sense". In this regard, they include intuition as an integral part. In the classification of managerial decisions, there are fleeting and protracted decisions. Fleeting Decisions are made when a quick response to a problem is required. They characterize the speed of reaction of the decision maker to an unexpected problem. The quality and efficiency of short-term solutions are low due to the lack of time required to select a rational and optimal solution. Consequences of delaying decisions: firstly, a belated decision may no longer be necessary; secondly, the slowdown in the development and adoption of a decision in most cases generates an increase in costs, expenses, expenses for preparing a decision, called transaction costs. As soon as the value of the total cost of improving the quality of the solution being prepared exceeds the expected benefit in the process of its implementation, an increase in the time for preparing the solution reduces its effectiveness. One should strive to reduce the time for preparing and making managerial decisions, but within the time limit required to ensure the validity and effectiveness of the decision. In each specific case, such a rule depends on the situation, the type and degree of complexity of the solution, the need for approvals and many other factors. Decluttering the decision - the desire of decision makers to postpone the adoption procedure. Managers who delay decision-making because of uncertainty about success and fear of adverse consequences expect the problem to resolve itself without managerial intervention, or simply be forgotten by those who care about it. But this is a vicious tactic, leading to a subsequent aggravation of a neglected problem. 34. COMMUNICATION AND ITS FEATURES. MANNERS OF COMMUNICATIVE COMMUNICATION Communications - this: 1) transfer of information (ideas, images, assessments, attitudes) from person to person; 2) the interaction by which information is transmitted and received; the process of transmitting and receiving information; 3) a line or channel connecting participants in the exchange of information. Features of communication between people: 1) the possibility of mutual influence of partners on each other through a system of signs (verbal and non-verbal communications); 2) communicative influence only if there is a single or similar system of codification and decodification for the communicator (the person sending the information) and the recipient (the person receiving it); 3) the possibility of the emergence of communication barriers. Interdependencies in the communication process: 1) the sender must make sure that his message is not only received, but also understood properly; 2) the sender must identify in advance the identity of the person to whom he wants to send the message, he must know how the audience will interpret it; 3) the sender must convince the recipient that the message deserves attention; 4) the message must be perceived even in the presence of interference (noise) in the channel, and the feedback must be interpreted correctly. Information transfer is expressed communication message. It is clothed in a specific form: visual, textual, symbolic. It comes to the recipient through a specific communication channel. The structure of the message should answer three questions: 1) whether to make a clear conclusion in the appeal or to give this right to the audience; 2) when to give the most compelling arguments - at the beginning or at the end of the message; 3) whether to state only the arguments "for" or to provide arguments and "against". Communication styles - ways of interacting with other people in the process of communication. Manners of communicative communication: 1) dominant (reducing the role of others in communication); 2) dramatic (exaggeration and emotional coloring of the content of the message); 3) controversial (aggressive or demonstrative manner of communicative communication); 4) soothing (relaxing manner of communication, aimed at reducing the anxiety of the interlocutor); 5) impressive (behavior aimed at impressing a negotiating partner); 6) accurate (aimed at the accuracy of the message); 7) attentive (showing interest in what the interlocutors say in the course of the communicative process); 8) inspired (frequent use of non-verbal behavior - eye contact, gestures, body movement); 9) friendly (open encouragement of the interlocutor); 10) open (representing the desire to express one's opinion, feelings, emotions). 35. TYPES OF COMMUNICATIONS mass communication - a set of open, orderly processes for the transfer of socially significant information that can be purposefully regulated and used by the ruling elite to establish certain spiritual values of a given society and provide an ideological, political, economic or organizational impact on people's assessments, opinions and behavior. Mass communication is characterized by: At first, dispersed audience; Secondly, the presence of large-scale communication processes carried out with the help of technical means; в-третьих, transmission of information simultaneously through different channels; fourthly, accessibility of information to everyone. Intergroup communication - the interaction of people, completely determined by their belonging to different groups or categories of the population and independent of their interpersonal relationships and individual preferences. International communication - is: a) the transfer of information, information between representatives of different national communities, which has both a bilateral and a unilateral character; b) socio-psychological phenomena and processes that arise in the course of direct interaction and communication between people of different nationalities. Components of international communication: First - exchange of information between representatives of different ethnic communities. It depends on the activity of the subjects of communication, their national attitudes, the way of life of peoples. The second part of interethnic communication is the perception and understanding of each other by people of different nationalities, which largely depend on the patterns of communication and the socio-psychological characteristics of the interaction of individuals of different national ethnic groups. Non-verbal communication - communication through gestures (sign language), facial expressions, body movements and a number of other means, excluding speech. Non-verbal means of communication are divided into: 1) visual; 2) skin reactions; 3) reflecting the distance; 4) auxiliary means of communication, including body features (sex, age) and means of their transformation; 5) acoustic or sound; 6) extralinguistic - not related to speech; 7) tactile-kinesthetic; 8) olfactory (smells). Verbal communication - the process of verbal communication between interlocutors. The oral form of communication in an organization can be expressed through meetings, briefings, one-on-one communication, oral presentation in a group. For effective verbal communication, it is necessary to carefully plan the speech, use (if necessary) visual materials, exclude monotony and length of the statement, it is desirable to conduct a conversation in the form of a dialogue, carefully listen to the opinion and comments of the interlocutor, answer his questions. 36. COMMUNICATION CHANNEL Communication channel means or ways by which and by which information is transmitted. There are the following types of communication channels: 1) direct - a communication channel, when information is transmitted directly from the informant to the informed person; 2) indirect - a communication channel when information is transmitted through third parties; 3) official - provide accurate and reliable information; 4) informal - a channel that provides unverified information through rumors, exchange of opinions without reference to reliable sources. Audience persuasion: 1. Direct method of persuasion - persuasion that occurs when an interested audience focuses all attention on favorable arguments. It is not only the arguments themselves that are convincing, but also the reflections stimulated by them. 2. indirect method of persuasion - a belief that occurs when people are influenced by random factors, and when it is not necessary to appeal to reason. This method of influence uses hints that incline to approval without hesitation. There are four components of belief: communicator; message (information); transmission channel; the audience. Audience behavior: 1) thinking, interested audience lends itself to direct persuasion, it is most susceptible to rational arguments; 2) inattentive audience is influenced by indirect hints, she is most affected by whether she likes the switchboard. Good Mood Effect: messages become more persuasive if they are associated with positive feelings. People in a good mood make more hasty decisions. Communication channel selection rule: the more figurative the presentation of information, the more convincing the messages offered. Messages that are easy to understand are most persuasive in form. video recordings. Printed messages provide better engagement and retention and are more persuasive for messages that are difficult to understand. Persuasiveness is determined according to the complexity of the message and the chosen variety of means of communication. The greatest influence on people is not indirect information, but personal contact with people. But the media and personal views are interdependent, as they are formed under the influence of the media. Media exposure occurs in a two-stage communication flow: from the media - to the person, from the person - to the masses. Audience reaction to the message: 1. If it makes you think about counterarguments, it is more difficult to change your previous opinion. 2. Warning that a controversial message is about to arrive stimulates counterargument and reduces persuasiveness. 3. If it is possible to suppress possible objections, the persuasiveness of the controversial message increases. Ways to stimulate thought processes: 1) rhetorical questions; 2) rows of communicators (successive speech of three speakers giving one argument each, instead of one speaker who would give all three arguments); 3) the use by the speaker of relaxed postures, multiple repetitions. 37. PERCEPTION OF INFORMATION. BARRIERS OF COMMUNICATION The perception of information depends on: 1. Trust in the informant, from his competence. One way to build trust with the audience is to start making judgments that the audience agrees with. Another way is to be presented as someone knowledgeable on the subject. 2. Speech style of the communicator affects whether it is perceived as trustworthy. 3. Positive effect confidence and speed of speech, direct look, upholding something. Feature: most people deny that celebrity reviews have an effect on them, because they understand that the star is not an expert. This is where attractiveness plays a big role. Attractiveness has several aspects: physical charm (arguments are more powerful when spoken by beautiful people) and likeness (we tend to like people who look like us). Appeal to counterarguments 1) one-way communication is most effective for those who already agreed with the opinion expressed; 2) a message that considers counterarguments has a stronger effect on those who initially disagreed; 3) the impact of a two-way message is retained in memory longer. Information received first, more convincing. Last information is better remembered. Effect secondary occurs less frequently. Forgetting creates a secondary effect in cases where: 1) two messages are separated by a long time; 2) the audience makes a decision shortly after the second message. Communication barriers - psychological obstacles to the adequate transfer of information between communication partners. Types of barriers: 1) barrier of understanding (misunderstanding); 2) barrier of social and cultural differences; 3) attitude barrier. 1. Emergence barrier of understanding usually associated with a number of reasons, both psychological and other order. It may arise due to errors in the information transmission channel itself - this is the so-called phonetic misunderstanding. Phonetic misunderstanding barrier is generated by factors such as inexpressive fast speech and speech with a large number of parasitic sounds. There are also semantic barriers of misunderstanding, associated with differences in the systems of meanings (thesauri) of the participants in communication. 2. The reason for misunderstanding can be barriers of socio-cultural differences - social, political, religious and professional differences that lead to different interpretations of certain concepts used in the communication process. The very perception of a communication partner as a person of a certain profession, a certain nationality, gender and age can also act as a barrier. The credibility of the communicator in the eyes of the recipient is of great importance for reducing the barrier. 3. Barriers, relationships - psychological phenomena that arise in the process of communication between the communicator and the recipient, which include the emergence of a feeling of hostility, distrust towards one's communicator, which also affects the transmitted information. 38. MODEL OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS Communication process model - constituent components (subjects and objects) of communication: communicator - message (text) - channel - audience (recipient) - feedback. Communicator - one who conveys information. There are three positions of the communicator: 1) when the communicator openly declares himself a supporter of the stated point of view, evaluates various facts in support of it; 2) detached (when the communicator is kept emphatically neutral); 3) closed (when the communicator is silent about his point of view). Message (text) - information that is transmitted in the process of communication. Two types of information: 1. Incentive information manifests itself in the form of an order, advice or request. It is meant to stimulate some kind of action. Stimulation is divided into: a) activation (incitement to action in a given direction); b) interdiction (prohibition of undesirable activities); c) destabilization (mismatch or violation of some autonomous forms of behavior or activity). 2. Ascertaining information manifests itself in the form of a message and does not imply a direct change in behavior. Coding - the process of presenting the idea of communication transmitted to the addressee of information in the form of images, symbols, texts. transcript - the process of getting the idea of communication. Recipient the target audience for which the message is intended. Responsiveness - a set of responses of the recipient, which arise as a result of contact with the appeal. Interference - unplanned distortions or barriers when intervening in the process of communication of environmental factors. Communication channel means or ways by which and by which information is transmitted. Fascination - means that facilitate the acceptance of information and weaken the effect of filters. An example of fascination can be musical, spatial or color accompaniment of speech. In the process of communication, the participants in communication are faced with the task not only to exchange information, but also to achieve its adequate understanding by partners. First, the the form and content of the message essentially depend on the personal characteristics of the communicator himself, his ideas about the recipient and his attitude towards him, as well as on the whole situation in which communication takes place. Second, the the message sent by him does not remain unchanged - it changes under the influence of the individual psychological characteristics of the recipient's personality, as well as the attitude of the latter to the author, the text itself and the situation of communication. Audience (recipient) - those who perceive the information. They should possess communication skills such as non-reflective and reflective listening. Non-reflective listening - or attentive silence - is used at the stages of posing a problem, when it is only being formed by the speaker, and also when the goal of communication on the part of the speaker is emotional discharge. Reflective listening used in situations where the speaker needs not so much emotional support as help in solving certain problems. 39. COMMUNICATION MANAGEMENT One of the important functions of management - establishing effective communication, since it is with its help that the unity of the organization is achieved in achieving the set goals, mutual understanding with partners. Communication management - an objectively oriented type of management that learns and uses the laws of exchange of information, knowledge, intellectual property in the process of formation and development of economic systems. Importance of Communication Management: implements the communication strategy of the organization based on the two-way flow of information. Communication management provides: - development of a strategy for the effectiveness of the organization; - formation of the corporate culture of the organization, which contributes to the cohesion of the team, the creation of corporate values and ideals; - formation of communication channels within the organization and beyond. Tools for forming communication channels in organizations: in-house publications (newspapers, magazines); leaflets; "hot phone"; audio and visual aids; Bulletin board; channels of interpersonal (business and informal) communication. The role of communications in management: is one of the effective methods of managing the development of any organization, territory. The main factors of effective communication: 1. Communication is more effective in cases where the appeal corresponds to the beliefs and preferences of the recipient. 2. The degree of impact of the appeal increases if the addressee is interested in this topic, has sufficiently complete information about the issue under discussion. 3. The likelihood of a positive response from the recipient is higher if the source of communication has a greater monopoly. 4. Communication must always take into account the social context, which always influences perception. 5. Communication will be more effective if the source is considered professional, its goals and orientation are known, it has a high status, it has respect from the audience. Feature of the communication process: the ideas or functions of communication must be carefully formulated, accepted and understood, translated into writing or speech, and then transmitted. The main obstacles to full communication: lack of a clear goal; wrong channel selection; censorship; inconsistency between action and message; wrong choice of language means; incorrect design; inability to express one's thoughts; wrong time; underestimation of the addressee; lack of useful information. 40. CONCEPT AND SPECIFICITY OF HUMAN RESOURCE There are four replaceable concepts of the role of personnel in production: 1. Use of labor resources: from the end of the 60th to the XNUMXs of the XNUMXth century. In production, only a function of human activity was considered - labor, measured by the cost of working time and wages. 2. Personnel management: 30s The scientific basis of this concept was the theory of bureaucratic organizations, when a person was considered through his formal role - a position, and his management was realized through administrative mechanisms. 3. Human resource management: from the 60s to the end of the 80s of the XX century. Man began to be regarded as a non-renewable resource - an element of social organization in the cohesion of three components (social relations, labor functions, the state of the employee). 4.Management: since the 90s of the XX century. Until now. In accordance with this concept, a person is the main subject of the organization and a special object of management, which cannot be considered only as a "resource". The general trend: With the development of the productive forces and the process of managing them, the role and place of man himself in production changes. Two role features of a person in social production:1) a person as a resource of the production system (labor or human), a significant element of the production and management process; 2) a person as a person with needs, motives, values, relationships - not only an object, but also the main subject of management. Human Resources - population with physical and intellectual capacity in accordance with the conditions of reproduction of the labor force. Staff - all employees (labor collective, personnel) who carry out production or management operations and are engaged in the processing of objects of labor using means of labor. Human resources contain both a resource labor component, i.e., personnel and its qualities, correlated with a specific workplace, and sociocultural characteristics, personal and psychological properties of people, expressed in their attitude to the organization, the tasks set, the colleagues and managers surrounding them. Human capital - a component of human resources, which is characterized by the level of intellectual and spiritual development, qualifications, innovative abilities of employees, their professional skills and conscientiousness, acquired in the process of upbringing, education and work. Composition of human capital: the values cultivated by the organization, the culture of work and the general approach to business. Specifics of human resources: 1) people are capable of continuous improvement and development, this is the most important and long-term source of increasing the efficiency of any society or organization; 2) people have intelligence, therefore, their reaction to external influence will be emotionally meaningful, and not mechanical; 3) people choose a particular activity based on their needs. 41. ACTIVATE HUMAN RESOURCES Activity - a general characteristic of a person, the ability to produce socially significant transformations of the environment based on the appropriation of the wealth of the spiritual, material and corporate culture of the organization. Forms of manifestation of activity: - in creative activities aimed at solving creative production problems (participation in rationalization and invention, development of new labor methods, etc.); - in production and economic activity, which characterizes the degree to which the employee exceeds the normative indicators of labor, product quality, etc.; - in the process of personality development as a result of labor activity through advanced training, improvement of professional skills, development of related professions, etc.; - in social activities in the sphere of production, aimed at the formation of collectivist relations, the development of mutual assistance and cooperation, and the expansion of the participation of workers in the management of production. Social activity of the employee - creative attitude to work, participation in production management, as well as in the formation of personal attitudes and value orientations, rules for teamwork, in the creation of an organizational culture in production. Factor affecting human activity at work: 1) his personal motives, his active life position; 2) purposeful external impact on a person as an object of control in order to enhance his activity. Factors that predetermine the need to activate human resources: - transformation of knowledge into the most important resource of production and further development of the economy; - people's awareness of their special place in the entire system of both production and social relations; - orientation of people to their own interests, personal and collective value orientations. Two sides of activating human resources: 1) development of human resources; 2) formation of the organizational structure and culture of the organization. Two strategies for managing human resource activation: First is about teaching people a new vision, a new goal, new technologies and skills so that their behavior changes as a result. The second is associated with the development of cooperation between people, as a result of which employees jointly form visions, goals, plans and ways of implementing them. This strategy requires a specific structure and organizational culture, which takes a lot of time to create. The advantage is that you do not need to coordinate anything with anyone. The right to make decisions belongs to employees, and this ensures their loyalty to what they have to do. 42. HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT. EMPLOYEE TRAINING Initial stage of human resource development activities: development and implementation of orientation programs for newly hired employees. The induction procedure indirectly relates to human resource development programs, not being training or the formation of the necessary skills and knowledge, but it is with it that not only the employee’s acquaintance with the enterprise begins, but also the setting of tasks for self-development, based on long-term, strategic goals of use its potential. The order of the induction procedure: a new employee is met by an employee from the personnel management department and ensures that the necessary documents are completed. Then he is taken to the workplace, which must be prepared accordingly, after which his acquaintance with the organization begins. The list of topics for conversation may include the following information: 1) the history of the enterprise and the prospects for its development; 2) description of the main activities of the organization; top and middle management; 3) documents of the organization; 4) content of work, job description, boundaries of authority and responsibility; 5) order in the field of work with the customer; 6) interaction with other departments or employees; 7) safety precautions; 8) a list of documents that a new employee needs to familiarize with first. Participants in the learning process: 1) top management of the organization, enterprise; 2) managers of the middle level of management; 3) lower managers; 4) ordinary employees of the organization, enterprise. The main tasks of the manager in staff training: 1) determine, based on the assessment of the employee’s activities, what knowledge and skills he lacks, discuss this problem with a subordinate, designate the training procedure; 2) plan with the HR department the terms of training; 3) after training, help the employee in using the acquired knowledge to improve the efficiency of his activities. The main methods of personnel development: 1) adaptation of newly hired or appointed employees by introducing them to the state of affairs and familiarization with existing problems; 2) creation of quality groups or circles; 3) involvement of employees in the analysis of existing problems or specific cases and the creation of appropriate projects to eliminate them; 4) study of practical situations; 5) activities for the development of personnel, during which the main attention is paid to learning to think logically and work as part of a group; 6) distance learning; 7) distance learning; 8) individual training; 9) counseling; 10) mentoring; 11) familiarization with the experience of other enterprises or divisions; 12) transfer of authority (delegation); 13) preparation of messages, reports, reviews, information; 14) creation and development of management and work teams; 15) preparation or familiarization with instructions, manuals; 16) development of working procedures and standards; 17) holding "business games"; 18) self-education; 19) internships. 43. ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE Structure and organizational culture are important factors in activating human resources. One of the main tasks of any leader is to create organizational structures that allow not only to adapt to the ongoing changes, but also to actively contribute to this process. Tasks of the organizational structure: 1) promote the activation of a person in production; 2) provide the employee with the opportunity to show their knowledge, skills, skills on an initiative basis. Horizontal control increases the role of such value ideas that underlie the activity of an employee, such as initiative, risk, responsibility, independence. Goal such management is to subordinate the work of groups or departments of the organization not so much to the fulfillment of the task set at the top, but to the solution of emerging problems by joint efforts on the basis of initiative, active behavior of employees, independence, and ability to foresee. Feature of horizontal control: 1) increasing the activity of employees; 2) delegation of tasks to employees, which develops the ability of staff to make decisions, take responsibility. The head of any division under these conditions must help ensure that his division is largely self-governing. Self management - the process of transforming a person, the entire labor collective from an object of management into a subject of management activity. This is a way of organizing management, when the team itself decides on the issues of recruitment, distribution of functional duties, and joint earnings. Self-management is impossible without the manifestation of activity by each member of this team. Feature of self-management - to raise requirements to all workers. Teams of workers are not only links in a hierarchical structure, they often become work or management teams, representing another form of human resource activation. The qualities necessary for employees in the process of self-management: 1) ability to work collaboratively; 2) efficiency; 3) responsibility; 4) interpersonal communication. The main characteristics of the team: 1) the team has a common history, during which it develops common rules of behavior and relationships; 2) team members have the same value orientations; 3) commands become the basis for the manifestation of personality activity. The selection of people to work as part of a team, their appropriate training, involvement in the work and unification of all employees - these are precisely the measures to create conditions for the activation of human resources. Conditions for the activity of team members: 1) the ability to quickly and correctly assess the situation; 2) combining individual professional and intellectual abilities; 3) creating conditions for the use of new ways, methods, techniques and technologies of work that allow the team as a whole to adapt to the unknown future, to effectively use the tacit knowledge scattered among people to achieve production efficiency. 44. ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE OF THE ENTERPRISE Organizational culture - a system of formal and informal norms and rules of activity, values, expectations, behavioral rituals and behavior patterns that exist in the enterprise. The process of activating human resources by forming an organizational culture is modeled in the form three interrelated approaches. 1. Representation about the activity of the employee and his development. To do this, management must clearly articulate its idea of what it would like to see the activity of employees. You should also demonstrate your willingness to act in accordance with the agreed ideas. Management should make it clear to the employee how it reacts to such values, which are based on human activity, namely: concern for consumers; enterprise; innovation and invention; responsibility, etc. 2. Harmonization of values and norms. People need to comprehend and make their rationale for changing their activity, that is, what it would mean for them personally and for the organization as a whole. 3. Supporting and motivating processes - training, informing, system of stimulation and motivation. Employee training is attention to the formation of the culture of the organization. It is unlikely that with the help of other measures, any manager can so clearly and tangibly demonstrate his interest in the employee and the desire to improve the enterprise. Formation of the organizational culture of the enterprise - creating conditions for developing and following the system of values that has been formed in this work collective. It is necessary to convey this system of values to all employees of the enterprise. Setting the task of activating the activity of a person, the management of the organization sets the task of obtaining from him the behavior that initiates change. However, the difficulty lies in assessing the quality of active actions. Qualities of an active leader or employee: 1) deep and accurate knowledge of production; 2) understanding the causes of occurring phenomena, the origins of problems; 3) anxiety about how not to make a mistake and not be bypassed by rivals. Rules to follow to activate workers: - comparison of goals with personal responsibility and a list of actions; - joint coordination of goals; - cooperation and mutual assistance; - Determination of deadlines for completing tasks and their exact observance; - open discussion of new information; - implementation of measures to prevent the repetition of errors; - continuous self-development. 45. FEATURES OF MANAGEMENT IN THE PUBLIC SERVICE Management in the civil service is implemented through the following main functions: 1) planning; 2) organization; 3) coordination; 4) motivation; 5) control. The division of managerial labor is normatively fixed in the organizational structure, and repetitive and standard actions - in managerial procedures. When managing in the public service, a number of actions are carried out: 1) setting goals; 2) priorities are determined; 3) plans and action programs are drawn up; 4) management procedures are fixed; 5) the organizational structure is being formed and developed. Motivation systems for personnel are being built in state organizations, procedures for hiring and career advancement are being worked out, and appropriate control procedures are being approved. Management in the public service - one of the types of special management, which studies the specifics of the manifestation of functions, as well as special patterns and trends that distinguish management in the civil service from management in other areas. Varieties of management in the public service: 1) ministerial administration; 2) military administration; 3) emergency management; 4) regional and municipal government, etc. Features of the main management functions in the civil service: 1) planning and forecasting in public institutions are formed in accordance with the goals set by higher authorities; 2) organization The civil service has a hierarchical structure and corresponding management procedures. In this regard, within the framework of the civil service, a special administrative-bureaucratic management style is being formed, which has much in common with the management style in large commercial organizations; 3) motivation in the public service is based not only on monetary rewards, but also on prestige, career opportunities; 4) control and evaluation of results within the civil service are carried out by higher structural units and at the same time by people both directly and with the help of the media and public organizations. The main characteristics of management in the civil service: 1) administrative control; 2) division into those who issue instructions and those who carry them out; 3) following instructions; 4) concentration of power and political will; 5) authoritarian management style. Management trends in the civil service: 1) formation of temporary working groups; 2) strategic planning; 3) delegation of authority; 4) a gradual transition from the traditional administrative management model, in which the key element was following the instructions, to a new management model, in which the backbone element is the focus on achieving results. Modern directions of development public sector: 1) managerial and financial innovations; 2) denationalization, privatization; 3) new information technologies; 4) contractual basis for the performance of state functions. 46. TECHNOLOGIES OF MODERN MANAGEMENT IN THE PUBLIC SERVICE 1. Transfer of management methods, technologies and techniques from the field of commercial activities to the state. 2. In an increasing number of specific areas of public service, non-standard solutions to emerging problems are required. The traditional model of governance is being replaced by a new one, and democratic governance is taking the place of authoritarian governance. 3. The monopoly of state institutions on the provision of certain services to the population is gradually being destroyed. An example is the sphere of municipal services, where an increasing number of services are moving from a public to a private basis - the construction of roads, the operation of housing stock, the provision of communication services. 4. A person is considered as a client and consumer of services. Characteristics of successful management 1) innovation. Innovation refers to the technology of creating teams - flexible temporary creative groups aimed at creating a new or improving an old "product"; 2) investment in human capital. The new management model in the civil service provides for continuous training and advanced training, careful selection of personnel, and the provision of job security. Continuous staff training is essential; 3) adaptability organization is achieved through the relative stability of the team, if it has common values and a common vision; 4) granting independence to small teams, which acquire the rights of independent "teams" or even independent affiliates. "Command" management technologies began to actively penetrate into the practice of public service; 5) consistent adherence to rules and procedures. Evaluation of the actions of the staff occurs largely because of how clearly the rules and procedures were followed; 6) focus on goals and mission. Mission formation is gradually being consolidated in the civil service; 7) quantitative evaluation of results: a) efficiency assessment (the ratio of results to costs); b) effectiveness (the ratio of the actual result to the planned one); c) savings (the ratio of planned costs to actual ones); 8) measurement of results. Increased attention is paid to the measurement and monitoring of the results obtained in the process of certain actions of the public service. The central point of control of any public spending should be the question of the extent to which the goals are achieved and whether the costs correspond to the results obtained; 9) consumer control public service services. Implementation methods: a) directly; b) with the help of public organizations and mass media. Features of control: a) in the context of decentralization, management becomes more stringent; b) approaches the direct executors and begins to be carried out by them; 10) marketing and strategic planning - a vivid example of the successful use of management techniques of commercial organizations in the public service. 47. ESSENCE OF INNOVATION MANAGEMENT Innovation management - management of innovations and innovations. Innovation is a progressive innovation, an element that is new to the system that adopts and uses it. Innovation (from the English word innovation) is the process of creating, distributing and using innovation that contributes to the development and improvement of the firm's performance in order to meet certain needs. It applies to a product or service, the way it is produced; to any improvement that provides cost savings or creates conditions for such savings. Innovation process - a set of scientific, technical, technological and organizational changes that occur in the process of implementing innovations. The innovation process is the process of transforming scientific knowledge into innovation, a sequential chain of events during which innovation matures from an idea to a specific product, technology or service. Implementation - the first appearance on the market of a new product, service or bringing a new technology to the design capacity. This process is not interrupted even after implementation, because as the innovation spreads, it improves, becomes more efficient, and acquires new consumer properties. This opens up new areas of application for it, new markets, and, consequently, new consumers who perceive this product, technology or service as new for themselves. The concept of innovation is closely related to the concepts of "technology" and "invention". Technology - a way, a method of carrying out any process or any activity, knowledge systematically applied for useful purposes. Invention or opening is a description of a new phenomenon or a solution to a known problem. Purpose of innovation processes: cover all scientific, technical, production, marketing activities of manufacturers and, ultimately, are aimed at meeting the needs of the market. Stages of the innovative process of material production: 1) generating a new idea; 2) experimental implementation of a new idea; 3) development in production; 4) mass production; 5) consumption. Reasons for the emergence of innovation: 1) globalization of financial transactions; 2) the constant possibility of the emergence of new competitors; 3) development of new information technologies and new possibilities of modern electronic labor tools. The main installations of the leader-innovator: 1) expansion of production in order to create new products and services, create new market segments; 2) focus on achieving high quality, high responsibility to the consumer; 3) the choice of a knowledge-intensive type of accumulation, in which funds intended for the development of production are invested in R&D; 4) application of methods of strategic management, participation of each employee in the renewal and management of production and in the appropriation of profits, etc.; 5) creation of small creative groups, formation of conditions for collective decision-making; 6) a small number of levels of hierarchy in management. 48. MANAGEMENT INNOVATIONS IN ADMINISTRATIVE AND MANAGEMENT ACTIVITIES Innovations reflect the mechanism of development of social systems of any type. The main properties of social innovations: 1) purposefulness of changes. Innovations are aimed at achieving a specific result that justifies their application. The purpose of innovation is to increase the efficiency of the organization; 2) the qualitative nature of the changes. Qualitative changes in the system have the maximum impact on the results of its functioning. The peculiarity of this type of behavior is that it affects the mechanisms of cooperation of human behavior, therefore it is quite complex. The reason for the application of managerial innovation - low performance of the system. The use of managerial innovations makes it possible to solve organizational problems that hinder the achievement of the normative (desired) state of the social system. Scope of management innovations: managerial innovations are applied in various types of social systems. They have a direct impact on improving the efficiency of administrative activities. Raising the scientific level of administrative and managerial activity depends on the systematic application of managerial innovations. Objective factors constraining managerial innovations: - the contradiction of the old and the new. Innovation necessarily violates the existing system of relations in the organization and requires the transformation of the existing organizational structure; - complexity, complexity of managerial innovations. For the preparation and implementation of managerial innovations, it is necessary to collect and analyze information on various qualitative indicators and carry out changes in a large number of organizational relationships; - limited development of state and municipal government. In the existing hierarchical system, the strategic goals of the activities of administrative institutions are formed at a higher level of management. And for the implementation of innovations, decentralization is necessary. Subjective factors constraining managerial innovations: - insufficient competence of state and municipal employees. Many managers and specialists do not have the necessary amount of knowledge on the problems of organizing managerial work; - low level of integration of theory and practice of administrative activity. Most of the new scientific developments in the field of improving the methods and structures of management have not yet found proper interest on the part of officials. Organization of managerial innovations - activities to establish the parameters of the innovation process and regulate the development and implementation of managerial innovations in accordance with the goal of organizational changes in the institution. 49. PRINCIPLES OF THE ORGANIZATION OF MANAGEMENT INNOVATION Principles of organizing managerial innovations - installations developed by theory and practice, which must be guided in the process of innovation management. The use of principles makes it possible to increase the effectiveness of the preparation and implementation of managerial innovations and, ultimately, to increase the effectiveness of administrative activities. There are general and technological principles for organizing managerial innovations. General principles of organizing managerial innovations: 1) the principle of relevance of innovations; 2) the principle of controllability of the innovation process; 3) the principle of systematic innovation. The principle of the relevance of innovations - managerial innovations should be considered as a result of the organizational development of the system of administrative activity. The current state of the management system is reflected in the content of the planned organizational changes. In this regard, the innovation project should be organically connected with the existing need in the management body to improve the structure and methods of management. The principle of controllability of the innovation process means that there are objective prerequisites for providing managerial influences on the process of development and implementation of innovations. The task of purposeful controlled impact on the innovation process - ensuring compliance of the actual state of the innovation process with the desired, planned state. The principle of systematic innovation means that managerial innovations are a single process consisting of the stages of their development, implementation and implementation. The coherence of these stages among themselves has a significant impact on the final results of innovation. Innovation tasks and the main organizational changes are recorded in the plan, the implementation of which is based on the developed program and its implementation. Innovation process should be consistent with the process of performing the main functions of the organization. The implementation of the powers of state and municipal government bodies cannot be suspended during the implementation of innovations. But the innovation creates a temporary environment of instability until it is fully implemented. In the process of organization, it is necessary to ensure such a balance of old and new, in which the implemented innovations will not have a negative impact on the achievement of the goals of the governing body during the implementation period. Efficiency managerial innovations depends on organizational, financial, informational, psychological factors. The process of preparing and implementing innovations must be internally consistent. It is necessary to determine the tasks of organizational development that are common to all, a plan for changing the management structure that is common to all structural divisions. Performance management innovation is directly proportional to the interest and participation of the management of the institution in the innovation process. 50. SUBJECTS AND OBJECTS OF MANAGEMENT INNOVATIONS Subject of innovation - a specialized body for managing the innovation process. The main condition for the implementation of the function of organizing managerial innovations is organizational assignment to a specific group of performers. Conditions for the successful fulfillment of the function of organizing managerial innovations: 1) the official approval of those responsible for managing the innovation process ensures the stability of the functioning of the subject of innovation. This requires the preparation of appropriate documentation regulating the status and functions of the subject of innovation; 2) the formation of a special body for managing the development and implementation of innovations means that the corresponding function is included in the system of division of managerial labor in the institution; 3) the appointment of those responsible for the implementation of measures to organize managerial innovations makes it possible to concentrate the efforts of specialists and resources to solve managerial problems of a particular type. Powers that allow the subject of innovation to work effectively: 1) coordination of the work of structural units in the process of introducing innovation; 2) the right to independently prepare decisions within the competence; 3) control over the execution of decisions made. For peer review draft decisions, it is advisable to involve representatives of higher organizations, as well as scientists, in the meetings of the commission. Objects of innovation - the components of the management system subjected to purposeful change. The objects of innovation reflect the subject side of the organizational development of state and municipal governments. Innovation is always the result of changing a particular element of an organization. Selection of objects of innovation is always based on an assessment of the actual state of the management system. The content of the planned organizational changes depends on the specific object of innovation. Types of innovation objects: goals; tasks; structure; technology; staff. Goals and objectives activities are of strategic importance for the functioning of the governing bodies. Interaction with the external environment creates conditions for the transformation of the nature and content of goals and objectives. The maximum influence on the change in the target orientation of administrative activity is exerted by the object of management and higher authorities. Feature of administrative activity lies in the fact that its goals and objectives do not change arbitrarily. The goals and objectives of state and municipal governments are fixed and regulated by legal acts or decisions of higher authorities. The stability of the goals and functions of administrative institutions is necessary for the fulfillment of the powers assigned to them. The structure of activity reflects stable linear and functional relationships between the components of administrative activity. Each set of executable functions corresponds to a certain type of structure. Its change depends on the complexity and intensity of managerial problems, on the effectiveness of the applied management methods, and on resources. 51. METHODS OF ORGANIZING MANAGEMENT INNOVATION The organization of managerial innovations occurs with the help of methods that ensure the development and implementation of innovations in the field of administrative activity. Methods are developed and proven methods of influencing the object of innovation in order to obtain an innovative effect. Influencing the object, the subject of the innovation process chooses ways to change the object of innovation in accordance with the objectives of the organizational development of administrative activity. Such a choice is carried out according to the established criterion and organizes the activity of the subject of innovations according to a certain principle. Innovation dissemination method includes a set of actions of the subject of innovation in the process of purposeful change in the structure and methods of management activity. Ways of formation of methods of innovative activity: 1. As a result of special scientific research. 2. As a set of rules confirmed by experience. The expediency of applying this or that method depends on the task that is at this stage of the organization of the innovation process. Diagnostic examination helps to establish the level of the actual discrepancy between the real readiness of the administrative institution to improve management activities and the normative state. Diagnostics helps to obtain prompt and objective information about the presence of organizational problems. Indicators for assessing the innovative potential of administrative activities: - the presence or absence of ways to stimulate and coordinate the participation of the team in the innovation process; - the level of centralization (decentralization) of authority for making managerial decisions in the organization; - the level of personnel competence in the field of preparation and implementation of managerial innovations. Based on the data obtained, a decision is made on the need to use a certain type of management innovation. Diagnostics creates an information base for making such decisions. The analysis of documents involves the collection and generalization of information, fixed in the form of texts. Such texts have the form of official documents regulating the activities of the governing body. The organizational and administrative documents selected for analysis show what the official position of the institution's management is in relation to the application of managerial innovations, what forms innovations have in this organization, what norms and rules govern the innovation process. Analysis capabilities: analysis of documents provides quantitative and qualitative information about the state of the organization's innovation climate. 52. OBSERVATION, INTERVIEW AND EXPERIMENT AS VARIETY OF METHODS OF ORGANIZATION OF MANAGEMENT INNOVATION Observation as a method of diagnostics lies in the fact that during a certain period of time all phenomena are recorded that in any way express the state of the organization's innovative climate. Events recorded in the observation diary: forms of team participation in the development and implementation of innovations, preparation of written (oral) instructions on the need to introduce managerial innovations, actions of the institution's management in the process of preparing and implementing innovations. Interview allows you to get a picture of individual and group opinions of employees regarding the prospects for the implementation of managerial innovations in their institution. Survey forms: interviews and questionnaires. The Interview - the oral answers of the respondents to the questions asked are recorded. The interview questionnaire is compiled in such a way that it is possible to obtain an unambiguous statement of state and municipal employees about their attitude to the application of managerial innovations. Questionnaires - Respondents give answers to the questions of a special questionnaire based on the proposed answers. The data obtained during the survey are summarized and presented in tabular or graphical form. Questions in the questionnaire can have both open (various answer options) and closed forms (answer options "yes" or "no"). Experiment - allows you to adequately diagnose the state of the management system. The main condition for conducting an organizational-diagnostic experiment is the presence of a control object. Components of the experiment: 1) creation of an experimental situation (impact on the experimental object); 2) measuring the state of the experimental and control objects, comparing the results; 3) analysis of the obtained data, preparation of conclusions and recommendations. Intensification of the innovation process - one of the methods of organizing managerial innovations. Method features: solves the problem of increasing the effect of innovation while consistently reducing the costs associated with its development and implementation. Feature: the results of the innovation process will correspond to the goals of the organizational development of state and municipal governments, provided that the social and organizational costs of applying a certain innovation will be minimal. This effect can be achieved by testing the developed project of managerial innovation on a limited number of components of administrative activity. 53. ORGANIZATION OF MANAGEMENT INNOVATION Organization of managerial innovations - creation of an organizational mechanism for the implementation of innovations. Basis for adjusting the program of organizational change in the organization - identified deviations and specific reactions of the management system to the introduction of a certain type of management innovation. Structure of the innovation process reproduces the composition and sequence of actions aimed at organizing managerial innovations. Stages of managerial innovation: 1)formation of the organizational environment for implementation; 2) methodological support of innovation; 3) monitoring of the innovation process. At the stage of formation of the organizational environment for implementation, it is necessary to form a management body for the innovation process and prepare the necessary organizational conditions for the successful implementation of innovation. Actions inherent in this stage: 1) founding a commission for the improvement of management; 2) training of personnel for the introduction of innovations; 3) information-analytical and logistical support of innovation. For execution first operation Regulations should be prepared on the Management Improvement Commission, which approves the functions, powers and organization of its work. The commission is considered formed and begins its work from the moment the order of the head of the governing body is issued. For execution second operation it is necessary to conduct staff training so that the employees of the management body acquire the necessary knowledge and skills of professional activity in the context of changing the structure and methods of management. For implementation third operation it is necessary to establish communication channels in the process of developing and implementing managerial innovations and to form the material and financial base for the implementation of the project. In the second stage the key task is the use of scientific methods for organizing the innovation process on a systematic basis. Necessary actions: 1) development of a diagnostic study program; 2) selection of the innovation project; 3) preparation of the innovation implementation program. To implement first operation it is necessary to determine the procedure for collecting empirical information about the state of the innovation climate in the governing body. For second operation it is necessary to prepare alternative variants of innovation and give preference to the most optimal one. For implementation third operation a mechanism for implementing the innovation should be developed. The program highlights: the procedure for resource support, the composition of measures, responsible executors, the schedule for the implementation of innovations. In the third stage it is necessary to organize the current control of the innovation process in the management body. Actions performed at this stage: 1) organization of feedback; 2) evaluation of the results of innovation. 54. SYSTEM AND ITS COMPONENTS. SIGNS OF AN ECONOMIC SYSTEM System - some set of interrelated parts - components, combined to achieve a common goal into a single whole. Characteristic features of the system: 1) the existence of interconnected parts in an object; 2) interaction between parts of the object; 3) the orderliness of this interaction to achieve the overall goal of the system. Main system components: 1) system element; 2) relationships between elements; 3) subsystem; 4) the structure of the system. The first component of the system - the minimum integral part of the system, which can functionally reflect individual general patterns of the system as a whole. The second component of the system - relationships between elements or connections. Connection types: 1. Neutral, when both elements do not undergo any structural or functional changes. 2. Functional, when one element, acting on another, leads to structural or functional changes in this element. The third component of the system - a subsystem consisting of a number of system elements that can be combined according to similar functional manifestations. A system can have a different number of subsystems. The fourth component of the system - system structure. Structure - a set of connections, relationships between the elements of the system, between its subsystems, between the system itself and the external environment. Internal structure of the system - the totality of all connections within the system. Complete structure - the totality of all connections both within the system and the system with the external environment. Integrity - all parts of the system are united and form a single whole due to the unity of the purpose of creation and operation (target feature), location (territorial feature), management (organizational feature). 1. Size and complexity - the existence of a large number of elements, the multifunctionality of the system and its constituent elements, branched connections between parts, a complex structure. 2. Adaptability - the ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions or other operating conditions by changing the structure, functions of individual elements and involving spare parts and resources in the work. 3. Ability to develop - the existence of the development potential of the system to improve its structure. 4. Interdependence of functioning parts - the elements of the system are interconnected so that the functioning of some elements depends on the functioning of others. 5. Automatic - the ability to perform individual functions automatically in the absence of control commands, influences from the control system by switching to internal self-government. 6. Dynamism - the dependence of the parameters of functioning on time, the probability of making changes to the system, allowing you to adjust the functions of the system over time. 55. TYPES OF SYSTEMS. OPEN AND CLOSED SYSTEMS 1. Varieties of non-living systems: a) systems with a periodically changing structure in time and having several functions; b) systems with a stable structure, not subject to functional influences for a long period of time. 2. Varieties of living systems: a) systems with a relatively developed ability to perceive information, but do not possess self-consciousness; b) systems with a self-preserving structure and a low level of information processing; c) systems with developed self-awareness, thinking, non-trivial behavior; d) social systems and social organizations. 3. Varieties of social systems: a) systems of self-government. With the help of these systems, local self-government organizes socio-economic and cultural processes in a certain territory; b) management systems for business organizations, i.e. economic entities pursuing their interests through the production and sale of goods (services); c) public administration systems; such systems determine the qualitative state of society, its development, the opportunities it creates for the population of the country; d) management systems for institutions, groups, organizations, associations. According to the degree of connection with the external environment, systems are divided into open and closed systems. Open systems intensively exchange energy, matter or information with the environment. Open systems include the country's economy as a whole, sectors of the economy, enterprises, organizations, etc. When managing an open system, it is necessary to analyze the relationship of the system with the internal and external environment, take into account factors that have a direct or indirect impact. closed, isolated systems operate with a relatively small exchange (a closed cycle of information processing or a closed technological cycle). When managing a closed system, one should carefully analyze the composition of its components and the processes that occur with them. Feature: the system can be open or closed for matter, energy or information separately. System boundaries: 1) natural borders; 2) the boundaries established on the basis of the objectives of the study, which are distinguished by the researcher, the observer. One object can contain many different systems. Enterprise as a technological system - this is a manufacturing enterprise, considered as a set of equipment, technological processes, materials and products manufactured using equipment. Enterprise as an economic system - identifying the place of the enterprise in question in the system of the industry, region, country's economy, world economy, determining the attitude of the employees of the enterprise to the means of production, their participation in the labor process and the distribution of results. Feature: the economic systems singled out in this way are at the same time subsystems of more general systems containing them. The part of the system that is not included in the given subsystem is considered in relation to it as the external environment surrounding the subsystem. 56. PATTERNS OF CONTROL OF DIFFERENT SYSTEMS Management of technology or technology is the impact of a person on technical objects and technological processes in order to obtain the desired result. Wildlife Management - a process in which people, relying on biological laws, influence the behavior of living beings, use biological technologies for their own purposes. Management of machinery, technology, wildlife - part of a more general management process, covering the management of society, society. Society management - the impact of a part of this society in the form of bodies, the administrative apparatus that have received or appropriated such powers, or acting by methods of persuasion on social phenomena, processes and the masses of people participating in them. This management pursues political, economic, social goals that reflect the interests of society as a whole, or of individual social groups, or those who have received the authority to rule. The mission of managing society is performed by the state. Society management in the broad sense of the word - management of objects, processes, relations of a diverse nature. Management of inanimate nature is carried out by its transformation, extraction of raw materials, use of natural energy. Objects of inanimate nature obey only the physical laws of existence, movement, transformation of matter and energy. People can manage technical objects and technological processes, which are creations created by people themselves. The most common form of control - this is information generated by people in the form of signals, commands, prescriptions, proposals and other influences, directed to individuals, families, teams, the entire population, society. The management of some people by other people is the most typical management process in the modern world. Varieties of management depend on the type of object to which the control actions are oriented, and on the circle of people who are influenced by those who manage: the management of society, the state, the economy, social processes, organizations, production teams, the household and many other similar types of management. Signs of management: 1) impact on people, production teams and social groups, taking into account their interests, motives for action; 2) focus on giving production-economic and socio-economic processes, economic relations between people, social groups, regions, states of the nature that is required by persons exercising management, corresponds to their goals; 3) influence on people, ensuring their participation in economic activity, in the processes of transforming economic and natural resources into a product of ensuring the life of society. 57. POSSIBILITIES OF THE SYSTEM APPROACH. VARIETY OF SYSTEM RELATIONSHIPS. ENTROPY Possibilities of a systematic approach: allows you to solve problems related to the management of socio-economic processes, helps to anticipate the results of decisions and reduce the risk and consequences of failures. The system is a holistic formation, a complex of interrelated elements that, in connection with their unity, have qualitatively new characteristics. Any system acts as an element of a system of a higher order, and any element of the system - a system of a lower order. System attributes: 1) components and elements of the system; 2) functions of the system and its components; 3) internal and external influences; 4) integrative qualities; 5) structure; 6) general goal and a set of sub-goals; 7) inclusion in a more complex system as a component and element; 8) historicity; 9) system management structure; 10) information. The main property of the system is integrity. It means that if it can be divided into elements, then the properties and functions of the elements (since they are in the system) are determined by their place within the whole, and the properties of the whole cannot be created and defined without some properties of the elements. Purpose of system elements: - all elements carry out activities to achieve the goal facing the system as a whole; - elements of the system play the role of a factor that orients the researcher to the development of research. System integrity is maintained through communication. Links exist between the elements of the system. Types of system connections: - structure connections (structural); - communications of interaction (cooperative, corporate, conflict, etc.); - links of functioning (ensuring the vital activity of the object); - connections of generation (causing to life); - transformation links (implemented through an object or through the interaction of objects); - development links (modification of functional links); - management links (created on the basis of the program and act as a way to implement it). Entropy - one of the most important system characteristics is a quantitative measure of disorder in the system. Entropy features: - characterizes the ratio of disorganized ™ and organization of systems of various nature; - predetermines the behavior of people in complex artificial systems, in economics, politics, interethnic relations and other real complex systems. Entropy dynamics: - with the progressive development of the social system in it faster entropy decreases; - if the entropy increases, therefore, the processes of destruction, destruction, movement towards disorder, uncertainty and chaos prevail in the system, which can lead to the destruction and death of this system. 58. STAGES AND PRINCIPLES OF THE SYSTEM APPROACH TO MANAGEMENT. BASIC CONCEPTS OF THE SYSTEM APPROACH System approach in management considers managerial activity as a system, i.e., as a set of elements interacting with each other in time and space. The functioning of the elements of the system is aimed at achieving a common goal. The main stages of a systematic approach to management: 1. Selection of the object of study from the total mass of phenomena and processes, determination of the limits of the system, its main parts, elements, connections with the environment. 2. Establishment of the main criteria for the expedient operation of the system, as well as the main restrictions and conditions for existence. 3. Determination of variants of structures and elements, finding factors that affect the system. 4. Development of the system model. 5. Optimization of the system to achieve the goal. 6. Establishment of the optimal system control scheme. 7. Determination of reliable feedback based on the results of functioning, establishment of the reliability of the system functioning. Basic principles of a systematic approach: 1) structure - the possibility of describing the system through the establishment of connections and relations of its elements; 2) integrity - the characteristic of the system itself is not reduced to the sum of the characteristics of its constituent elements; 3) hierarchy - subordination of elements. Basic concepts of a systematic approach. 1. Purpose - maintaining or achieving the desired or required state of the system. 2. Elements - parts of the system. 3. Links of elements - the relationship between the elements of the system, expressed in the exchange of energy, information, matter. 4. Structure - the internal structure of the system, due to stable connections between its elements. 5. System status - a set of parameters characterizing the system as a whole. 6. Operation - the process of transition from one state of the system to another or the preservation of its initial state. 7. Organization - structural and functional state of the system. 8. Control action - targeted impact on the system to correct its state by changing the input parameters. 9. Result - the final state of the system, achieved under the influence of the management and functioning of the system. Control systems have a structure characterized by the existence two communication channels between the subject of management and the object of management: 1) direct communication channel to transfer the control action; 2) feedback channel to convey information about the state and functioning of the object. Implementation of the management process: the control process takes place on the basis of the use and processing of incoming information about the behavior (state) of the object and the impact of the environment on it. Environment - everything that is not part of the system, but affects or may affect it. Sign In - goals, resources. Log out - results; at the current moment - indicators characterizing the state of the system. Contact Us - monitoring the state of the system to control the ongoing changes. System boundaries - limits of influence of management. 59. MANAGEMENT FROM THE POSITION OF A SYSTEM APPROACH Management from the standpoint of a systematic approach - implementation of a set of impacts on the object, selected from a variety of possible impacts based on information about the behavior of the object and the state of the environment to achieve a given goal. Management - the function of the system, aimed either at preserving its main quality (i.e., a set of properties, the loss of which leads to the destruction of the system), or at performing actions that ensure the stability of operation and the achievement of the set goal. Control features: 1) involves measuring the output parameters of the system, comparing the measurement results with some given standards; 2) influence on the input of the system (regulation, adjustment of the input) to establish the required mode of operation. Management system - a system in which control functions are implemented. Control algorithm - a set of rules according to which, based on the analysis of information about the goal of control, the state of the control object, the environment, and external and internal influences, management information is formed about the required set of control actions. Solution - prescription for action for the control object (plan, instruction, order, etc.). Making decisions - selection of a solution from a set of considered options using a criterion or principle of choice. Control system requirements Components of the system life cycle: emergence, formation, functioning, development (transformation) or death. Self-organizing system A system in which the source of change is within the system. Adaptation - the reaction of the system, aimed at adapting to constantly changing environmental conditions. Applying a systematic approach: the concept of a systematic approach is used at all levels of methodology, sometimes it is used as a set of procedures and techniques that create the form and conditions for the implementation of the relevant principles. Feature of a systematic approach to management: to implement a systematic study, a number of methodological conditions should be met: study of the object's relations; finding backbone connections; disclosure of the structural characteristics of the object, etc. Main system properties: ensuring the stability of existence in a changing world and protection from unauthorized external influences; ensuring the specified purpose of functioning. Management requirements: 1) continuity - the implementation of management with the necessary frequency; 2) flexibility - change of forms of management depending on the situation and changes in long-term trends; 3) all-situation; 4) efficiency - the ability to respond in time to changes in the internal and external environment; 5) efficiency - cost-effectiveness of the chosen management decisions and the entire process of implementation of management activities. 60. SITUATIONAL AND PROCESS APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT Possibilities of the situational approach: 1) represents the possibility of direct application of scientific methods to specific situations and conditions; 2) the situational approach preserves the concept of the management process; 3) it emphasizes the inextricable relationship between management functions. Situation - a specific set of circumstances or factors that affect the organization at a particular time. The situational approach attempts to link specific management techniques and methods to specific specific situations in order to achieve the organization's goals most effectively. Requirements for a leader using a situational approach: it is necessary to analyze the situation and determine which factors are most important in a given situation and what possible effect may arise due to a change in one factor or group of factors. The Success of the Case Approach depends on the exact definition of the most important factors or variables that affect the organization and the process of making managerial decisions. Factors affecting the success of an organization: 1. External - reflect the influence of the external environment, contributing to the successful solution of the organization's problems (beneficial factors) or counteracting the organization's goals (harmful factors). internal - characterize the mutual influence of internal variables and driving forces within the organization on the process. 2. Managed - factors that can be influenced by the manager at his own discretion. Unmanaged - factors that the manager cannot influence. 3. Certain - factors, the values of which are known with the required accuracy. Undefined - factors whose values are not known or not fully known: 1) factors of non-stochastic nature - factors that by their nature are not described by the probability distribution law or they are so new and complex that there is not enough relevant information about them; 2) random factors - factors, the values of which are not defined, but are described by the probability distribution law. Process approach to management - an approach to management theory based on the concept that management is a continuous series of interrelated activities or functions. Management process - the total volume of continuous interrelated activities or functions. This approach was proposed by A. Fayol, a representative of the school of administrative management. The process approach considers management functions as interrelated. M. Meskon believes that "management is considered as a process, because the work to achieve goals with the help of others is not some kind of one-time action, but a series of interrelated continuous actions. These actions, each of which is a process in itself, are very important for the success of the organization. They are called managerial functions. Each managerial function is also a process, because it also consists of a series of interrelated activities. The management process is the sum of all functions." 61. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION OF CONTROL SYSTEMS Two groups of methods for studying control systems: 1. Theoretical: a) methods of deduction and induction - obtaining knowledge about an object by logical reasoning: from the particular to the general (induction) or from the general to the particular (deduction), or the third method - from the particular to the particular (transduction), but it is often based on intuition and must be supported as intermediate or justifying by methods of induction and deduction; b) methods of analysis and synthesis - division of the object into separate component parts with further unification of some of these parts based on other grouping features. The advantages of the method: allows you to consider in detail and deeply the functional structural features of the object, to form and justify the methods of its reconstruction; c) the method of ascent from the abstract to the concrete - establishing a logical connection between an abstract consideration of the features of the management system and a holistic judgment about a particular system; d) abstraction method - mental distraction of the subject of research from the least significant details of the object, its characteristics, properties, focus on the study of the most significant aspects of the object; e) modeling methods are associated with the abstraction method and involve the study and analysis of the object model, which includes only its characteristics that are most significant for solving the problem, with further transfer of conclusions and recommendations to a specific object or group of objects. Application of modeling methods: in cases where the real objects of research are too large-scale, multifactorial, inaccessible to the researcher directly, or if it is impossible to interfere with their functioning. The essence of the modeling method: the object of study is replaced by a model corresponding to the problem under study, using which you can conduct an experiment, study the possible behavior of the object when factors and parameters of the external and internal environment change, the occurrence of certain events, the implementation by the object or subject of control of conditioned actions. Model - a copy of a real object that has its main properties and characteristics and is able to imitate its behavior. Model feature: it is always in a certain relation with the real object. Requirements for the model: 1) present the object in a simplified form, but with an acceptable degree of simplicity for a given type and purpose of the study, problems and tasks; 2) enable the transition from model information to real. 2. Empirical: a) comparison method - comparison of the properties and characteristics of the object with similar properties and characteristics of the standard of the most common sample or analogue in order to identify common and differences from the sample. Methods of comparison are at the same time methods of evaluation; b) observation method - fixing, registration of indicators, parameters, properties of the object under study without the intrusion of the researcher and research tools into the processes occurring with the object and into its environment.
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