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Lecture notes, cheat sheets
Sociology. Cheat sheet: briefly, the most important
Directory / Lecture notes, cheat sheets Table of contents
1. DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY, ITS OBJECT, SUBJECT AND METHOD. SOCIOLOGY AND NATURAL SCIENCES The term "sociology" comes from the Latin. socitas - society and Greek. logos - teaching. Sociology - a science that studies society, the interests and needs of the social groups that make it up. The term "sociology" was introduced into scientific circulation by the French philosopher Auguste Comte in the 30s. XNUMXth century Object of study of sociology - modern society and information about it obtained by other sciences. Subject of sociology - a social organism consisting of social communities, institutions, collectives, groups, as well as the processes of interaction of these complexes with each other. The task of sociology - in determining the patterns of functioning and changes in the social organism. Methods sociology: 1) general scientific research methods; 2) specific research methods peculiar to sociology. General scientific methods: - analysis and synthesis; - system analysis; - method of typology and modeling; - deduction and induction; - movement from the concrete to the abstract; - moving from the abstract to the concrete. Specific methods: - sociological observation; - sociological experiment; - polling methods (questionnaires, interviews, press polls, mail polls, telephone polls, television express polls). Qualitative analysis of social phenomena, focus group methodology, BOU methodology are considered as qualitative research methods. Methods of study and analysis of the results of study (comprehension of the subject of research) are formed into the doctrine of the method of scientific knowledge - theoretical knowledge. Sociology is the science of studying the patterns of development of society in the form of an integral social system. She is closely related to such scientific disciplines, like mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, etc.; applies them to the study of social phenomena. Ancestor of sociology Auguste Comte (1798-1857), as a positivist, he recognized only the natural sciences and considered their methods to be the only scientific ones. In general, it was not possible to make sociology a positive science, but many methods of the natural sciences took root in sociology. The interaction of sociology and the natural sciences is not limited to the development of unique methods. An interdisciplinary approach is very important for the study of society. Using it, it is possible to identify which physicochemical and biological processes can influence social changes and, therefore, predict the behavior of social groups. An important role in the processing of sociological survey data is acquired by computers and the possibilities of informatics. The use of machine calculation methods allows you to process a huge amount of information, create graphs of social activity, etc. In general, the use of an interdisciplinary approach not only provides new data for study, but also influences the development of sociology as a science. 2. SOCIOLOGY IN THE SYSTEM OF THE HUMANITIES Sociological research data are needed by other disciplines that study society. Political scientists, lawyers, journalists need data on the activity of the masses in order to predict and develop a line of conduct for the party, government, compiling a magazine and newspaper. Only natural methods of studying society are not enough. Sociology borrows the methods of the humanities, develops an interdisciplinary approach and new research methods. Sociology shows the conditions for the functioning of a social system. This is necessary for studying and identifying social forces and factors, fixing deviations from average indicators, establishing the causes and consequences of these deviations, which makes it possible to avoid many social upheavals. Sociology is related to all the humanities object of study, but in the system of social sciences there is a discipline with which the relationship is most needed - history. This relationship has given rise to new industries knowledge: social anthropology; historical sociology; sociology of history. In the late 70s - early 80s. XNUMXth century social history became popular civic history, aimed at studying social processes and social structures in historical explanation. This approach expanded the field of knowledge of all humanities. Economy closely related to sociology. K. Marx put production relations, the economic system of society as the basis of all social development. The influence of the economic sciences on sociology is very great. In their research, sociologists rely on the data of economic sciences, use methods and take into account the development trends of the latter. And sociology influences the development of economic sciences and the economy as a whole. In sociology, there are areas of knowledge that deal with the study of labor (sociology of labor), economics (economic sociology), etc., without data from which it is difficult to predict the economy, to draw up a strategy for the economic development of the state. Auguste Comte singled out a section in sociology where social institutions are studied, and among them he noted the state. Politics, like sociology, it penetrates into all spheres of life, therefore it is not enough to consider the state only as a public institution, the study of the relationship of the political sphere of life with others plays a huge role. For this purpose, a special field of knowledge has been singled out in sociology - the sociology of politics. Analysis of the effectiveness of policy in the legal sphere or in education is practically impossible without data from the sociology of politics. Psychology. Individual psychology and sociology have different objects of study: a single person and society. However, if we proceed from the fact that a person is formed by the environment, then for a full-fledged psychological analysis, data on the social status of a person is simply necessary. Social psychology is a field of knowledge that studies the specifics of social norms, interactions that have become established in a particular environment, group, class. Sociology and psychology are closely interrelated in the study of the spiritual life of people. 3. FUNCTIONS AND STRUCTURE OF SOCIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE Term "function" in sociology means: - the value of an element of the system in relation to it as an integrity; - dependence, in which changes in one part of the system depend on changes in another part or on changes in the whole system. Functions of sociology: 1) cognitive; 2) prognostic; 3) managerial; 4) worldview; 5) instrumental. Cognitive function is aimed at the theoretical and empirical study of interrelated social facts. The cognitive function includes a number of others, which together represent a complex of knowledge about the problem. The last function determines the role of sociology in the system of sciences. predictive function associated with social modeling and social planning. Worldview function associated with the evaluative activity of a person, helps to develop his orientation in society, to form an attitude towards others. instrumental function - a separate and independent function aimed at developing methods for searching, processing, analyzing, generalizing primary sociological information. social modeling allows you to create a model of the flow of social processes, group and generalize social material. Social planning provides not just a forecast, but a targeted policy to achieve the goal. Thus, sociology begins to fulfill organizational and managerial function. Another of the most important features is development of ways and methods of studying and analysis of the accumulated material, which are actively used by other social sciences. Sociology not only develops, but also supplements the already existing ways and methods of information processing. 4. STRUCTURE OF SOCIOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE, LEVELS OF KNOWLEDGE AND BRANCHES OF SOCIOLOGY Sociology as a science has a multifaceted and multipurpose purpose. One can imagine the structure and levels of social knowledge in different ways. The most common way is to divide sociology into fundamental and applied. At a fundamental level there is a development of the theoretical base of sociology, the relationship with other sciences is carried out. Main methods: modeling; abstraction. Fundamental theories create a general sociological level of social knowledge. Applied sociology aimed at the study of specific social facts. In the course of the study, a set of information is formed that is subjected to primary processing. The main methods are: observation; survey methods; ascending from the concrete to the abstract. The material and the primary results of its processing form the applied level of knowledge in sociology. Contradictions arise between the fundamental and applied levels of knowledge. By level of research distinguish macrosociology (reveals patterns of global social development changes) and microsociology (explores specific social phenomena) The structure of sociological knowledge can also be represented as a ratio of the general and sectoral in sociology. Then the structure of sociology is determined by branch areas of knowledge (sociology of labor, economic sociology, history of sociology, etc.). The structure of sociology can be represented as a system of knowledge. The first level is all theories and theoretical foundations of knowledge; the second level is the way of acquiring knowledge, the methodological basis of sociology. Separate level social knowledge - metasociology. Metasociology, unlike sociology, does not study society, but sociology itself as a science. Metasociology, therefore, has sociology itself as a science, sociological knowledge, and the theory of social organization as the subject of research. 5. SOCIAL IN THE SUBJECT AREA OF SOCIOLOGY. SOCIOLOGICAL PARADIGM The category of the social in sociology occupies a special place. It practically outlines the circle of sociological knowledge and permeates any social thought. However, there is no single definition of social. Can be described as the nature of the social: this is a set of social relations of processes and phenomena in which the obligatory influence of one participant or group of participants on another or a group of other participants is carried out. resulting in a social space. The social emerges when people in the process of life occupy a certain place and begin to play a role in social institutions and social processes, which is manifested in the attitude of people to these social institutions and phenomena. M. Weber he sees the nature of the social in the orientation of a person to a response - "expectation". Each person expects the fulfillment of certain rules from the other, which leads to the appearance of the "magnetic field" effect, a social space is created in which any person can plan his behavior taking into account certain rules caused by the "expectation" effect. The social manifests itself not only in the actions of people, but also in objects, the results of social activity. Through these objects, people comprehend the social world, objects and become the guardians of the social. For example, a book, rules of the road - a product of social activity A person, reading a book, joins the social rules and learns the world. The history of the paradigm begins with promotion concept. The concept is created by an individual sociologist or a group of sociologists. Concept - this is a set of methods and techniques that are used by scientists to form a sociological picture of the world. The concept can become a paradigm. Paradigm - this is a certain system of sociological knowledge, which is based on the basic (fundamental) concept, the developed categorical apparatus and the principles of scientific thinking, allowing to give a consistent explanation of social phenomena and processes, providing a methodological base on the basis of which sociological research is created. Paradigm shift depends on the level of development of science and is due to the emergence of contradictions in the current paradigm. As a rule, this is accompanied by a breakthrough in scientific research and the acquisition of new knowledge. Thus, the history of sociology as a science can be represented as a change from one paradigm to another. O. Comte suggested theory of three stages: 1) theological; 2) metaphysical; 3) positive, or scientific. In modern science, there is at the same time several paradigms of social knowledge: - the paradigm of institutionalism; - structural functionalism; - diatropic way of knowing; In modern conditions, it is more correct to talk about the emergence of a new, and not about replacing the old paradigm. 6. METHODS OF SOCIOLOGICAL SCIENCE The specificity of the object and subject of the science of sociology determined the specificity of its method. In sociology, both general scientific methods and specific ones, peculiar to sociology, are used. The main sociological methods are: - sociological observation; - sociological experiment; - a group of survey methods, etc. Sociological observation is divided into several types according to: - the position of the observer (included and not included); - the nature of the observation (constant, systematic, random). Included Surveillance implies that the observer is a member of the group being observed and participates in its life. Non-included surveillance - this is when the observer tries not to interfere in the life of the observed, even the very process of observation should not violate the lifestyle of the group. Continuous observation speaks for itself; this is systematic observation carried out according to a schedule, for example, observation of a social team every day from morning to afternoon. Random observation - this is a non-permanent registration of a social fact or phenomenon. Since for the cognition of the social process of a phenomenon, etc., it is necessary to obtain primary detailed information about it, its strict selection, analysis, it is obvious that the tool in the process of such cognition is sociological research, which includes: 1) theoretical part: - development of the research program; - substantiation of the purpose and tasks; - definition of hypotheses and research stages; 2) instrumental part (procedural part) - a set of information gathering tools; - choice of information collection method; - determination of the effective sample; - possibility of information processing; - obtaining characteristics of the state of the reality under study. Survey Methods are the richest source for sociological research. The most common are questionnaires and interviews. Questioning can proceed in different forms: group and individual, face-to-face and correspondence. The method of interviewing provides for direct communication with the respondent; differs in forms, for example, free (conversation) and formalized (a series of questions). social experiment, like any other experiment, it must be carried out under controlled conditions. Content analysis is a method of obtaining social information from documentary sources, earlier polls, censuses. An important role in information processing is played by the use of computers, which allows the researcher to comprehend and master much more material. 7. O. KONT - THE FOUNDER OF SOCIOLOGY. POSITIVISM IN SOCIOLOGY Auguste (August) Comte (1798-1857) is considered the founder of sociology. After being published in the 40s XNUMXth century his work "Course of Positive Philosophy" sociology was recognized as a separate special science. O. Comte tries to explain the need for the emergence of new knowledge by the progressive development of history. He believes that the Society has gone through three stages in its development. which characterize the degree of cognizability of the surrounding world by mankind: 1) theological; 2) metaphysical; 3) positive, or scientific. At the first stage man explains phenomena by supernatural power; second characterized by the search for absolute knowledge about the world with the help of abstract entities that are hidden behind all the phenomena of the surrounding world. At the third stage a person focuses his attention on the positive experience gained from the particular sciences. O. Comte calls to focus on the world of phenomena, which is accessible to empirical knowledge. O. Comte divides sociology into two parts. To the first he relates social institutions (family, state, etc.), to the second - development of ideas of mankind about the world around. His work is the first study of society using scientific methods. Initially sociology was treated as a positive science. Sociology, according to O. Comte, is a science that in the future should provide political structures with knowledge and methods, which will lead to the positive development of the state. Positivism in sociology led to the appearance of social statistics, attention was focused on the dynamics of the process, and schemes for the development of society appeared. The positivists argued that every social process is subject to causal relationships. At the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. there was a distinction between natural and human sciences. With the discovery of the electron, the assertion that only the natural sciences are positive was called into question. 8. THE DOCTRINE OF H. SPENCER. NATURALISTIC SCHOOLS IN SOCIOLOGY Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) English sociologist. Spencer represented society as an organism, where there is a certain system of interaction between people. The systemic nature of society cannot be reduced to the actions of an individual, so Spencer considered the elements of the social system that make up its structure. He assigned the roles of a biological organism to these elements: for example, agriculture and industry perform the function of nutrition, the institution of trade - the function of blood circulation, the army - a kind of skin, etc. These systems are in a complex interaction with each other. According to the degree of influence of subsystems, G. Spencer distinguishes types of societies. Society development Spencer sees in the struggle In the process of struggle, integration and a new differentiation of social institutions take place, that is, in the depths of society itself there is a desire for development, the evolution of social life. Spencer introduced into the categorical apparatus of sociology such terms as "system", "structure", singled out the types of societies and characterized them, gave an assessment of social institutions. The teachings of G. Spencer contributed to the development naturalistic schools in sociology. Representatives of various schools tried to describe a society operating on the principles of physics, mechanics, and biology. L. Gumpilovich used the principle of Charles Darwin, describing social reality, and J. Gobineau tried to present social actions as dependent on "biological heredity". K. Haushofer's research was aimed at identifying global social patterns. He considered the environment to be the main factor influencing social development. The geographical location of a society influences its fate and determines its historical role. The development of naturalistic schools finally separated religion and sociology, but the identification of social processes with biological and physical laws hindered the further development of sociological knowledge. 9. SOCIOLOGY OF MARXISM. K. MARX AND F. ENGELS ON THE MATERIALIST UNDERSTANDING OF HISTORY. FORMATIONAL APPROACH Karl Marx (1818-1883) - one of the creators of the systems of social development of society. K. Marx proceeds from the fact that this development is progressive, progressive and subject to cause and effect. Therefore, it is possible to single out the laws of social development. The recognition of a pattern is associated with principle of determinism: K. Marx distinguishes "basis" and "superstructure" from the whole variety of social structures. At the heart of basic relations lie relations of production and relations to ownership of the means of production. They form superstructure base, which consists of political, legal, religious, moral and other relations in society. In the relationship between the base and the superstructure, the historical development of society unfolds. K. Marx concludes that "a society at a certain stage of historical development, a society with a peculiar distinctive character" is a socio-economic formation. Theory of socio-economic formations provides two main conditions for social development. first - the fact that relations of production and relations to property, like the means of production, are decisive and form the basis, second - recognition that the development of society is progressive. Despite economic determinism, K. Marx notes the enormous role of the superstructure, and therefore, although economic relations are the basis, the socio-economic formation is not limited to them. K. Marx singled out several formations, characterizing the development of mankind: the primitive communal system; slave system; feudal system; capitalist system; socialist system; communism. Marx violates one of the basic postulates of his teaching, calling the communist stage the final one: that to which the whole history of mankind aspires. K. Marx also developed the idea of an alternative way of evolution to the development of history. He singled out the revolutionary path of development, which is very closely intertwined with the doctrine of the class struggle and class consciousness in societies. The essence of this path of development lies in the fact that humanity can speed up the natural movement of history, bring the desired communist stage closer, but this can only be done by force. Humanity is not yet ready to pass to this stage, but not all of humanity, but only certain classes in view of their class consciousness. Therefore, their resistance must be broken, the limits of class consciousness must be overcome, for which it is simply necessary to destroy what defines classes - private property. The task of destroying private property for obvious reasons (lack of property) must be taken over by the proletarian class. 10. THE CONCEPT OF ANOMIE. THE CONCEPT OF "SOCIAL ACTION" E. Durkheim understood by anomie lack of a clear moral organization of actions by people. This effect occurs when there is a conflict between the various functions of social elements. For example, social inequality is explained by the existence of a certain social organization; for the capitalism of his time, it is a class society. The concept of anomie is very closely associated with behavior that deviates from habitual norms. Therefore, the understanding of anomie, according to R. Merton, must be deduced from the fact that there is an ignorance of the norms of social existence. This is due to the fact that there is a conflict between the goals and means of achieving the set goal within the framework of certain cultural norms characteristic of a given society. Thus, the concept of anomie can be used to characterize phenomena that go beyond cultural attitudes. Modern understanding anomie is not limited to characterization of cultural norms. It is actively used to characterize any phenomenon that goes beyond the rules of its course. Thus, we can talk about anomie in economics, politics, etc. With regard to sociology, one can use R. Merton's assessment, but the social process, like any other, has its own laws (causation), which can also be violated, so the definition of R. Merton should not be absolutized. The subject understanding sociology of M. Weber is "social action". The concept of "social action" is very closely connected with the concept of "social" by M. Weber. The matrix "waiting waiting waiting" is formed precisely from the purposeful actions of a person, group, class. A person, acting purposefully on another person, group, expects a certain response, which is commensurate with his action. The person on whom the influence is directed expects self-action and understands that the person acting on him expects a certain reaction. Thus, these three expectations form the "social", within which any "social action" takes place, and it is the impact that forms the expectation. The ideal type of "social action" M. Weber considers an action that can be comprehended as a rational action. Naturally, the reduction of the rational component in the action leads to the fact that it moves away from the "ideal type". M. Weber believed that the purpose of the historical process is the movement towards the ideal type, the history of mankind is rationalized and takes on meaningful forms. 11. THE THEORY OF "RATIONALIZATION" Theory of "rationalization" includes two aspects: understanding of history as a movement towards the rational; understanding of history as a condition for the organization of life. Rationality is not only action, but also form. For example, human behavior may be rational, or interior design may be. M. Weber paid much attention economic structure of society. According to the degree of rationalization of the organization and management of the economy, the researcher identified several types of society. He came to the conclusion that the degree of rationality depends on many factors, but the most important, in his opinion, are religious and ethnic attitudes. Traditional societies are characterized by the prevailing influence of precisely these factors, so the rational principle is extremely poorly developed in them. The most famous work of M. Weber is "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" (1904) in which the author pays special attention to the study of religious, ethnic and cultural aspects of society. Capitalism, in his opinion, it is a phenomenon of a cultural nature with a predominance of a rationalistic principle. M. Weber seeks to prove that capitalist development is rooted in Protestant ethics, which, unlike other religious teachings, had a rational basis: industriousness, thrift, prudence, and activity. One of the founding principles of Protestantism is justification by labor - led to the fact that activity in worldly life has become not just a sinful and temporary existence, but one of the most important stages in the life of the soul. Thus, success in worldly life and the accumulation of capital were no longer considered vices, a person got the opportunity to approach God with the help of labor. Labor in the world is the goal of human existence, not asceticism and self-flagellation. 12. SOCIOLOGY M. WEBER. TYPES OF DOMINATION Max Weber (1864-1920) - German scientist who studied society and developed the theory of the ideal type. In his work "The Objectivity of Social-Scientific and Socio-Political Knowledge" (1904), M. Weber described what "ideal type". The concept of the ideal type began to be used in sociology as a method that is aimed at studying social phenomena. In essence, this is modeling, the purpose of which is to create a model by abstracting from the features of specific phenomena. On the other hand, this is a mental construction, which is taken as an ideal, i.e., the priority of the model is recognized; this is something to strive for. However, the nature of the "ideal type" is not entirely clear. Does the "ideal type" really exist or is it just a mental construct of the researcher? M. Weber divides the ideal type into historical and sociological. Historical "ideal type" is a reflection of the natural historical process. sociological type designed by a sociologist and plays the role of a tool in the knowledge of the surrounding reality. M. Weber believes that in his activities a person is guided by certain goals. Thus, the actions of a person or group are mostly meaningful. M. Weber identified several types of domination (power). Their division was also based on the principle of rationalization. It is transferred to the structure of social life and all its components: - first type domination scholar believes legal, in which the legitimacy of power is at its highest level. Naturally, it is characterized by the greatest benefits for the individual. Therefore, this type of power is recognized by the researcher as the "ideal type". However, this does not mean that the existing other types of power cannot be considered legitimate, just that their legitimacy is not explained by ideal categories, and, consequently, the types of power are not ideal either; - type of power based on the dominance of mores and traditions. M. Weber considers this type of power to be the most stable, since an individual with such a structure of the state not only recognizes the legitimacy of power, but also considers any attempts to change it unlawful. It is under this type of authority that the individual is accustomed or compelled to obey without concern for his own advantage; - the next type of domination is associated with the concept of "charisma". This is the most unstable type of power, it ends very often with the death of a charismatic leader. As well as the type of power based on tradition, this type is authoritarian in relation to the individual, which naturally harms his interests. All three types exist by strengthening their legitimacy: traditional - based on traditions and mores, charismatic - due to increased charisma, legitimate - due to rationalism. Legitimacy based on rationalism leads to the fact that it is in the state, where this type of power, that the individual finds his full creative and active expression. Therefore, M. Weber believed that the rationalization of social life is necessary to achieve the best living conditions. 13. THE PROBLEM OF LEGITIMACY OF THE "IDEAL TYPE" OF AUTHORITY. G. SIMMEL'S THEORY OF SOCIAL DIFFERENTIATION The concept of "legitimacy of power" rather vague. M. Weber believed that power is legitimate when individuals who obey it recognize it as such. However, the question arises, at what ratio of "satisfied" and "dissatisfied", which always exist, the power is nominally considered legitimate. On the other hand, the researcher also explains the legitimacy of power by the degree of obedience with which individuals are willing to reckon. Individuals "expect" attitudes from the authorities and understand that the authorities "expect" the fulfillment of these attitudes, since they have set them. M. Weber believes that the legitimacy of power also depends on the ratio of the benefits gained from the presence of power and the losses associated with it. If the power satisfies the requirements of individuals, the ratio suits them, then the power may well consider itself legitimate. The researcher chose these criteria to determine the degree of legitimacy of power as the main ones. They can be combined in different proportions, in fact, explaining the existence of one or another type of power, but they do not reduce the types of power to legitimacy. The legitimacy of power is explained by rationalism, i.e., obtaining the optimal ratio of freedom and its restriction, allowing the individual to derive the greatest benefit from such a ratio. G. Simmel, like M. Weber, believed that a sociologist should first of all pay attention to what a person puts into his actions, what meaning and what purpose lie at the basis. The researcher argued that the behavior of different individuals in certain situations is similar, so the behavior can be classified. G. Simmel came to the conclusion that the form of social interaction is supra-individual. Therefore, the scheme of social forms of interaction will help to understand both the process itself and the meaning that the participants put into it. G. Simmel in his research paid much attention to the study of forms of social interaction: conflict, competition, submission, authority, contract, etc. He tried to create scheme of "pure forms", which would characterize the relationship between individuals and would derive universal values that are characteristic of all people. Through these values, the world of ideal being is revealed. Interactions between separate individuals form a unity, a society. Forms of social interaction make it possible to study not only individual social phenomena, but also society as a whole. The researcher's teaching about the forms of social interaction undoubtedly contributed to the development of sociology both at the theoretical and practical levels, enriched the methodological base. 14. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF G. SIMMEL, V. PARETO. THE CONCEPT OF "COMMUNITIES" AND "SOCIETY" F. TENNIS Georg Simmel, Ferdinand Tennis, Vilfredo Pareto - scientists who contributed in many ways to the final design of sociology as a science. Although each of them put forward their own scientific constructions, together they replenished the methodological base and conceptual apparatus of sociology. These scientists focused their attention on the study of society, its structure and functioning. G. Simmel studied social interaction identified several forms of interaction that underlie the structure of "social". The researcher was interested in the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the interaction: their ratio and the influence of this ratio on the process. For example, how the number of people in a group affects the quality of the actions of an individual in a group. V. Pareto tried with the help of sociology to explain some "non-logical" processes in economics and politics. He imagined society as a system in which the circulation of elites, their interests, "derivations", etc. took place. F. Tennis shared theoretical and applied sociology, he conducted a number of applied studies, such as the study of crime, where the main method was content analysis. The scientist considered statistical data to be the main ones for a sociologist. F. Tennis achieved considerable results in applied sociology, but his most famous research is research in the field of theoretical sociology. Tennis took a new approach to the study and understanding of society, and also presented the forms in which social life can take place. F. Tennis expressed his vision of society in the book "Community and Society" (1887). The scientist proceeds from the fact that sociological phenomena can be represented as forms of social life: social relations; social groups; corporations or associations. They differ both in the number of individuals participating in social ties and in the nature of the ties themselves. For the first form, two individuals interacting are sufficient; when the number of people involved in the interaction increases, interests are formed, a group is created. Group is a step towards a corporation. When the group is formed both internally and externally, a structure appears and the functions of the elements of the structure are highlighted, a corporation appears. F. Tennis Highlights two types of social connections: communal and public. First view communication depends more on the emotional experience of the individual, the second - on the individual's understanding of his actions, that is, on the rationalism of the individual. Therefore, if communal ties prevail in the first form of social ties, then in the second - public. The teachings of F. Tennis responded to the demand of the time, when, along with general approaches to the study of social phenomena, applied research was needed. 15. ELITE CIRCULATION THEORY V. Pareto tried with the help of sociology to explain some "illogical" processes in economics and politics. He imagined society as a system in which the circulation of elites, their interests, "derivations", etc. took place. V. Pareto saw the "circulation of elites" as the basis of social development. This is due to the fact that the society was presented to the researcher as a system, the main elements of which are "precipitation", interests, "derivations", "social elites and their circulation". Under "precipitation" he understood those moral, psychological, emotional attitudes that influence the behavior of the individual and characterize the irrationality of actions. Interests - these are the goals that an individual or group pursues, they can be rational or seriously influenced by "precipitation". "Derivations" - a product of the activity of an individual, and most often a group, when they try to present irrational behavior as rational, looking for an explanation for their actions. These elements of the system depend on social elites, which were formed at the entrance of property stratification and the redistribution of power in society. It is the social elites that are the basis for the existence of "derivations". According to the researcher, elites constantly replace each other, setting the social system in motion. The old elite is replaced by a new one, the old "precipitations" and "derivations" die off, but new ones appear. It is connected with that. that, having stood out from the people, the new elite is moving further and further away from it, and rational explanations have to be invented. The elite forms social "derivations". When they cease to satisfy society, a new elite emerges. This leads to social struggle and development of society. 16. SOCIOLOGY IN RUSSIA: SOCIOLOGICAL TRADITIONS AND TRENDS Sociology in Russia has gone through several stages in its formation. The development of this science was strongly dependent on ideology, the leaders of social movements paid much attention to social phenomena. Therefore, the development of sociology in Russia was in close relationship with social movements, religion, and mass consciousness. The concepts put forward by Russian scientists are recognized by the rest of the scientific community and influenced the overall development of this science. The history of sociology in Russia is represented by two currents: - the history of sociology as a theoretical and methodological one; - the history of sociology as a scientific discipline Sociology in Russia has gone through three main ones; stages of the country's life: pre-revolutionary period, Soviet, post-Soviet, or modern Russian stage. There are other points of view on the stages of development of sociology. The first stage - from the middle of the XIX century. until 1918, the second - from the beginning of the 20s to the end of the 50s. XX century, the third - from the beginning of the 60s. to the present day. Sociological thought in Russia at the first stage was in close connection with the development of sociology in the West. The first researchers of social phenomena in Russia were influenced by various Western philosophical currents and sociological teachings, adjusting them to the realities of Russia. Along with the Western currents in Russia, their own ideas appeared, which led to a huge variety of schools - revolutionary-democratic; - anarchist; - bourgeois-democratic. - Marxist; - religious, or Christian-Orthodox; Unlike Western scientists who tried to create ideal theories of the structure of society, that is, what should be strived for, Russian theorists tried to change the existing one, their social views were ideologically based on various social movements. Practical research in Russia has become more widespread. Therefore, social views in Russia are very closely intertwined with social movements. This led to the fact that social knowledge in Russia initially had an ideologized character, although at the first stage there was a pluralism of the ideologies themselves, which contributed to the rapid growth of science. In Soviet times, Marxism finally took shape as an ideological basis, therefore, sociology and sociological research, as incompatible with the Marxist-Leninist ideology, began to gradually decline. However, it should be noted that Russian sociological thought developed, but already in emigration, since ties with emigrants were interrupted, the influence of emigrant researchers, as well as Western ones, on sociological thought in the USSR was suppressed. After the fall of the regime, sociologists turned to the rich heritage of our compatriots abroad. 17. THE DOCTRINE OF PAN-SLAVISM N.Ya. DANILEVSKY. SOCIOLOGICAL IDEAS OF THE ANARCHISTS Nikolay Yakovlevich Danilevsky (1822-1885) - a representative of the religious-conservative trend in Russian sociology. He developed a theory that presented history in the form of the existence and interaction of cultural-historical types. Cultural-historical types in their development, they go through several stages, like any organism - the stages of birth, maturation, decrepitude, death. The development of cultural and historical types is associated with a constant struggle with the environment. Under the cultural and historical type of N.Ya. Danilevsky understood the totality of "economic, social and political relations, as well as science, philosophy, religion, art, ethics, law and many other manifestations of spiritual life, formed in a certain historical territory and reproduced in a generation." N.Ya. Danilevsky noted that "Slavic" cultural-historical type is the most promising in history. This type found its greatest expression in the Russian people. N.Ya. Danilevsky assumed that the Russian people would take up the establishment of this type in the world and take on a messianic role. For this idea, critics fell upon the author who found in his views a departure from the humanistic traditions of Russian social thought and culture. Unlike other philosophical concepts, which were mainly aimed at building new social orders, anarchism was aimed at establishing relations that go back to the cultural traditions of the Russian people. M.A. Bakunin unlike K. Marx, he denied the path to socialism through dictatorship and the state. He believed that it was impossible to achieve socialism through violence or the apparatus of violence, i.e., the state. Its concept is based on A free society can only be achieved through freedom. The state restricts freedom, it is an apparatus of violence, and therefore state socialism is impossible. The ideal of the social structure of M.A. Bakunin considers an association of free commodity producers and small proprietors. The path to the ideal lies through the reduction of the role of the state and the fight against its violence. Violence must be replaced by self-government and self-regulation of the system of public associations. Therefore, the researcher assigned a large role to social movements and considered them paramount, and not the history of statehood, like a law school. P.A. Kropotkin tried to present history as a sociological movement. Using this method, he reassessed political events. For example, he was the first to notice several streams, different in beliefs and orientation, in the French Revolution. The teachings of the anarchists were drawn to social movements and the recognition of the priority of their interests over the state. The state should not interfere in all spheres of life and replace the Divine power on earth. 18. MARXIST TREND IN RUSSIAN SOCIOLOGY. SUBJECTIVE SOCIOLOGY IN RUSSIAN SOCIOLOGICAL THOUGHT The Marxist trend in Russian sociology was represented by G.V. Plekhanov, V.I. Lenin. N.I. Bukharin, A.A. Bogdanov, P.S. Gribakin. P.B. Struve, M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky, N.A. Berdyaev and others. The Marxist direction was not unified, it was divided into two currents according to political views and social activities. V. Plekhanov. IN AND. Lenin, N.I. Bukharin are representatives of orthodox Marxism, while P.B. Struve, M.I. Tugan-Baranovsky - representatives of legal Marxism. During the revolution of 1905-1907. the influence of Marxism on liberal circles increases, but after the defeat of the revolution, Marxism in liberal circles becomes unpopular and the school of legal Marxism weakens. There is a flourishing of orthodox Marxism, which still views events in Russia from the point of view of the class struggle. The work of V.I. Lenin, The Development of Capitalism in Russia. It should be noted that subsequently a number of contradictions arose between these trends, which led to the complete disappearance of the so-called legal Marxism, since the radical views of representatives of orthodox Marxism further cooled the interest of liberals in the teachings of K. Marx, considering him dangerous. founder subjective sociology in Russian social thought, Pyotr Lavrovich is considered Lavrov (1829-1900). In his work, he expressed a number of ideas about social development: the main task of society is a conscious historical movement. This movement towards civilization is carried out through the criticism of modern society, the opening of its shortcomings and weaknesses. According to the researcher, only an established personality can think critically, so development is carried out with the help of historical figures. This shows subjectivity. In connection with the subjective approach to sociology, there is also methodology subjective sociology Social phenomena, according to the subjectivists, are constantly in development and are characterized by the individual, that is, the individual acts as a measure of the social process. Therefore, the method of studying social phenomena must be subjective, most likely, it cannot even be different. N.K. Mikhailovsky (1882-1904) was engaged in the development of the methodological base of the subjectivists. He came to the conclusion that the main principle in the study is "empathy" of the phenomenon together with the observed subject, which allows the researcher to understand the goals and capabilities of the subject, and this is necessary to achieve the truth. 19. CHICAGO SCHOOL The founder of the first institutional academic school is A.V. Small (1854-1926): he studied the activities of the group, believing that this is the main unit of social research. It is the movement of these groups, the clash of their interests that gives development to the social process. The Chicago school went through several stages in its development. The first stage associated with the activities of A. Small, D. Dewey, J. G. Mead, T. Veblen (from the founding of the school to the First World War), who formed an opinion on the need to restructure society on the basis of competent, scientific research. Representatives of the Chicago School worked closely with the administration and politicians, thanks to which an orientation towards liberalism in political decision-making was formed in the United States. The second stage (from World War I to World War II). Representatives - R. Park and E. Burgess. The main attention was paid to the problems of urbanization, family, social disorganization. R. Park studied the biological factors of the formation of society and economic aspects, developed the theory of the social ecology of the city. E. Burgess continued to develop this theory, focusing on the problems of urbanization, and also worked on social pathologies and socialization. The third stage (the end of the 30s - the beginning of the 50s of the XX century.) W. Ogborn is considered its most prominent representative, also called Everett Hughes, Samuel Stauffer, Louis Wirth. The main attention was paid to social changes, the problems of urbanization L. Wirth developed the concept of interpersonal relations in the urban environment, comparing tribal relations with formal role-playing ones. The fourth stage (from the 50s to the present day) is one of the trends in modern sociology (G. Bloomer, M. Janowitz, G. J. Bloomer, J. G. Mead). The Chicago school developed the fundamental concepts of sociology, contributed to the methodology for studying methods of cognition, offered a new look at social phenomena and their functional role. 20. STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM OF T. PARSONS AND R. MERTON Talcott Parsons (1902-1979) developed the theory of social movement at the macro level. His views were greatly influenced by Bronisław Malinowski, who developed the method of functional analysis. Applying this method in sociology, T. Parson presented society and its elements with the help of the functions they perform. "Social Action" according to the researcher, not only determines the place of the element in the structure, but also highlights different levels of social reality, the social system; culture; personality; organism. Any "social action" is subject to motivation or value orientation; in addition, several variables influence "social action". If the first directs, then the second chooses the path. T. Parson singled out variables in the form of polar attitudes that determine the spectrum of action: efficiency - neutrality; orientation to oneself - orientation to the team; universalism - particularism; achieved - attributed; specificity - diffuseness. Every social action is determined by these five variables; they organize the process. Social systems are always interconnected and influence each other, such as culture and personality. If one of the elements of the system is knocked out of the general structure, the structure is reorganized or the element is excluded. Robert Merton (1910-2003) tried to use structural functionalism to combine theoretical and applied sociology. He developed the theory of structural functionalism "middle level": data from applied sociology and general theoretical calculations should be combined in theories of the middle level. The researcher focused not on the functions themselves, but on dysfunctions, due to which failures occur and tension arises in the system. Unlike T. Parsons, R. Merton proceeded from the fact that the study of dysfunction is necessary for sociology, since this will allow applying knowledge in practice. 21. PHENOMENOLOGICAL SOCIOLOGY (A. SCHUTZ, P. BERGER, G. GARFINKEL) The teaching of Alfred Schutz (1899-1959) is devoted to the problem of interaction and perception of people with each other, as well as the formation of ideas about the world and what the world is. Phenomenological sociology deals with the phenomenon. A phenomenon is any phenomenon. In this way, world of phenomena This is the world in which man lives. A. Schutz believed that the world appears to a person as a set of "types" (things, events) that are carriers of social information, and all this is realized with the help of a symbolic system - language. However, a person perceives the world according to the meanings of magic, religion or science. According to the researcher, the most interesting is perception of the world within scientific meanings. According to the author, this is not only a more complete perception, but also the ultimate field of knowledge. Thus, the transition from magic to science is the improvement of meanings, the accumulation of "types", information carriers, and the transition from one system of meanings to another is explained by the emergence of contradictions and the inability of the old systems to eliminate the doubt of the individual in understanding this or that process. This transition occurs abruptly, and in fact this movement means development. The scientific system of meanings is finite, since the researcher believes that no doubts will arise within its framework. The views of the scientist gave rise in sociology two streams: phenomenological sociology (P. Berger) "ethnomethodology" (G. Garfinkel). Representatives of the first developed the theory of "legitimization", the second were engaged in the search for mythologized rationality. 22. MODERN STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY In the second half of the XX century. Sociology develops an integrated approach to assessing social phenomena. Within the framework of sociology, new areas of knowledge they are derived first as branch and then turn into independent sciences, such as: social philosophy; social anthropology; social statistics; economic sociology; conflictology; social psychology social pedagogy. In sociology there is rapid accumulation of methods both the collection of information and its processing, new methods appear, new methods are actively used related to the development of computer science and mathematical analysis of information. In sociological knowledge, there is movement towards subjectivism, nominalism. This is due to the emergence of new concepts. There is a movement towards human problems. For example, the doctrine of "social exchange", developed by J. Homans and P. Blau, does not put the system above the person. The essence of this doctrine lies in the fact that the interaction is presented to researchers as a single process. It is characterized by an exchange, but this exchange is not only material things, but also any knowledge and impressions. It is from this position that it is worth considering, according to representatives of this school, the interaction between people. Develops "symbolic interactionism" (G. Bloomer, A. Rose, G. Stone, A. Strauss, etc.) - a doctrine based on the fact that language enables a person to realize himself. People perceive the world through a system of symbols, i.e. through language. The world is imprinted for man in symbols; the quintessence of man thus becomes a symbolic entity. Language is not only a captured world, it is understanding, mutual understanding. Representatives of "symbolic interactionism" pay the main attention to how interaction is formed, how it is systematized with the help of language, what rules of interaction arise. The problem of interaction was also paid attention to by representatives of other social concepts. For example, J. Habermas developed theory of communicative action. The essence of this theory is that any person is in interaction. This interaction is communicative, its purpose is to achieve understanding between people. Understanding creates the basis for human, social. Sociologists pay attention on the existence of contradictions between macro- and microsociology applied and theoretical research Attempts to create theories of the middle level lead to the emergence of new social concepts. Today, the problem of interpreting sociology has not yet been resolved, and there is a certain pluralism of opinions. 23. THE CONCEPT OF SOCIETY AS A SYSTEMIC FORMATION Society is a set of historically established forms of joint activity of people and a certain form of social relations. P. Sorokin believed that society is a collection of people in the process of communication. E. Durkheim considered society as a supra-individual spiritual reality based on collective ideas. T. Parsons defined society as a system of relations between people who are united by norms and values. Society properties: the community of the territory of residence of members of the society, usually coinciding with state borders; integrity and sustainability; relative self-reproduction self-regulation (not excluding migration) the presence of a culture at a certain level of development. The main reasons for bringing people together into society: collective ideas, feelings, beliefs (E. Durkheim); other-oriented (i.e. social) actions (M. Weber); commonality of norms and values that guide people in their life (T. Parsons); economic - the installation that it is easier to survive together, etc. System - this is a certain way ordered set of elements that are interconnected and form a holistic unity Social system - holistic education, the main elements of which are people, their norms and connections. Elements: 1) many individuals. whose interaction is based on certain circumstances; 2) the hierarchy of social statuses occupied by individuals, and the social roles performed by them; 3) a set of norms and values that determine the nature of the behavior of a given system. Society - the most complex social system. Its elements are people whose activities are determined by social statuses, social roles, norms, values and social qualities. 24. STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY AND ITS ELEMENTS. MAIN FEATURES OF A SOCIETY Society - complex education with a developed structure. Structure is a way of communication and a hierarchy of elements in a social system. The problem of the social structure of society is one of the central ones in sociology. Any society is divided into various social groups, layers and national communities. All of them are in a state of objectively conditioned connections and relations - socio-economic, political, spiritual, forming a social system. Moreover, only within the framework of these connections and relations can they exist. The main elements of society: people (individuals) social connections and actions (interactions). Social interaction is a process in which people act and are affected by each other. Interaction leads to the formation of new social relations; social relations - is: - relatively stable social ties and interactions between people and social groups; - social institutions and organizations; - social groups and communities; - classes; - estates (belonging to one or another estate is determined by established traditions, laws in force and the level of economic well-being); - social norms and values. Each of these elements is in close relationship with others, plays a special role in society. The task of sociology is, first of all, to determine the structure of society, to give a scientific classification of its most important elements, to clarify their relationship and interaction, place and role in society as a social system. It is precisely because of its structure that society is qualitatively different both from an arbitrary, chaotic accumulation of people, and from other social formations. The social structure largely determines the sustainability and stability of the whole society as a system. At the same time, the social system has new, integral qualities that cannot be reduced to the characteristics of individuals or their groups. 25. SIGNS OF SOCIETY. DISORGANIZING FACTORS. CIVIL SOCIETY Signs of society: integrity; • sustainability (relatively constant reproduction of the rhythm and regime of social interactions); • dynamism (change of generations, continuity, slowdown, acceleration); • openness (the social system maintains itself through the exchange of information with nature and other societies); • self-development (its source is within the society - production, distribution, consumption); • space, time and ways of social life (goals, needs, norms of life that are constantly changing). The structure of society is considered from different perspectives: with a deterministic (causal) approach, society is usually viewed as an integral system that includes four main areas - economic, social, political and spiritual (ideological). Factors that disrupt society: lack of fair and working legislation; • lack of social control and system of punishing or encouraging sanctions; • violations in the social structure of society (absence of a middle class, the presence of criminal communities and lumpenized elements); • lack of a stable system of foreign and domestic policy of the state. Describing the social structure of a particular society, it is necessary to note the presence of such a phenomenon as social mobility - the possibility of moving from one social stratum to another. Types of social mobility: vertical (transition with an increase or decrease in status - for example, from an average intellectual to become an administrator - a new category - a top manager); • horizontal (from one social group to another at its own level: from a student to become a student - the former category is a student). The problems of social structure are connected with the problem of civil society. Civil society - interaction of all social groups in society. This problem was posed by European thinkers of the XNUMXth century, and later deeply developed by G.V. Hegel. He introduced the concepts of civil society and the state, characterized civil society as a sphere relatively independent of the state for the realization of private needs and interests. In the foreground is the problem of man and citizen as a bearer of private property relations, civil rights and freedoms. The main elements of civil society: systems of social needs; administration of justice; police. In a civil society, the interests of persons equal before the law are realized. The task is to develop and improve a civil society, on an appropriate economic basis, in which each citizen could freely and creatively express himself, satisfy his needs in accordance with the benefit that he brings to other people and to the whole society. Moreover, any person in the exercise of their rights must be fully protected by applicable laws and law enforcement agencies. In turn, each citizen must fulfill his obligations to other citizens, the state and society. 26. THE CONCEPT "CULTURE". SUBJECT OF SOCIOLOGY OF CULTURE. CULTURAL PARADIGMS AND UNIVERSALS culture (from Latin - cultivation of the land, education) - a way of thinking and behavior, a system of material, scientific, spiritual, social components. Until the XNUMXth century the term "culture" meant the opposite of the state of nature, that is, nature. Culture is divided into: material (housing, clothing, weapons, food, household items, tools); spiritual (myth, religion, literature, folklore, etc.). Over time, culture changes. Thus, the culture of representatives of one generation differs from the culture of representatives of another generation. Many cultures are emerging. Culture is studied by a special branch of sociology - the sociology of culture, which originated in Europe in the 1870s. The subject of the sociology of culture extremely complex and varied. She learns: impact of ideas on the social structure of society and the functioning of these ideas (their birth, development and gradual death); general trends cultural development of society (the influence of the media, scientific and technical progress, the consequences of wars, revolutions, reforms, urbanization) in the national, spiritual, family, domestic and other areas; processes taking place in cultural life (updating, dying off of certain elements of culture). In general, the sociology of culture studies culture as a social system. cultural paradigm is a cultural pattern or model used to denote the prevailing problems in science, blocks of problems and their solutions. The term "cultural paradigm" was introduced by the American philosopher and historian T. Kuhn. The paradigm presupposes the presence of the mainstream of theories, as well as additions, clarifications, and deepenings of already formulated principles. The transition from one paradigm to another can take hundreds of years. T. Kuhn called this period the scientific revolution - the time of the collapse of existing authorities, methodologies and theories. Paradigm shift - not just a change in theories and concepts, but also research methods and goals, and sometimes the very subject of research. Every culture has cultural universals (J. Murdoch's term) - common features common to all civilizations: joint work, sports, education, kinship systems, rules of gender relations, etc. Factors that significantly influence per culture are: - Literature read in childhood and adolescence; - biological factors (level of physical and mental health); - mentality of parents; - influence of authorities; - television, mass media; - school; - other forms of art. 27. COMPOSITION AND STRUCTURE OF CULTURE, PRINCIPLES OF ITS DEVELOPMENT The culture includes archetypes, national psychology, myths, universal, universal values. Myth - this is historically the first form of culture and the most ancient system of values Features of the myth: manipulates historical data to achieve completely different goals; • requires blind faith; • serves a very specific modern task, for example, the desire to preserve their cultural heritage; • does not recognize discrepancies; it is based on the stereotyping of reality; • creates the ground for the emergence symbols and rituals that acquire great significance for people. It looks to the past and the future, completely ignoring the present. In the history of every nation there are moments with which it is inclined, first of all, to identify itself and its destiny (for example, for the Portuguese - the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, for the Georgians - the reign of Queen Tamara). The focus of peoples' attention is on events connected with the acquisition of a homeland, with the formation and flourishing of their own statehood, with great conquests or a terrible catastrophe that interrupted the development of a given people. The first of these moments legitimizes the right of a given people to the territory, gives the right to form their own statehood, and finally, the third and fourth allow them to take their rightful place in the modern community of peoples. Culture has a complex branched structure. Basic elements of culture: representations, patterns, values, norms, customs, art, ideology, language, religion, symbols, sports, etc. Cultural principles: continuity - the connection between the new and the old; integrity - the unity of material and spiritual culture; self-development (conscious and unconscious) - innovations, reforms; interaction with other cultures. Culture Functions: determines social life, promotes the socialization of the individual; broadcasts and preserves public (political, economic, aesthetic, moral] values; communicative function, etc. Types of cultural development: cultural genesis - one of the types of cultural change, means the emergence of new forms of culture and their application. Associated with the principle of self-renewal of culture. It is a cyclical, ongoing process. The reason for cultural genesis is the need to adapt the existing culture to the new conditions of reality: - cultural diffusion - spatio-temporal spread of culture, its borrowing and exchange of individual elements; • culture transformation - modernization of individual elements (progress or regression up to their disappearance) - cultural reinterpretation - changing the meanings and meanings of already existing symbols; • systemic transformation of culture (not distinguished by all sociologists) - global processes of evolution of degradation, disintegration and merging of cultures. Stages of cultural evolution: primitive; it is based on norms and rituals; • archaic; the basis is myth and tradition; • pre-industrial; basis - class, ideology, religion; • industrial basis - nationality, statehood, etc.: - post-industrial - politics, economics, information. 28. FORMS OF CULTURE. PROBLEMS OF MODERN CULTURE Since the time of the decomposition of primitive society and social differentiation, a differentiation of culture has also arisen. The main forms of culture: 1. Mass ("commercial") culture - arose along with the emergence of a society of mass production and mass consumption (a phenomenon of the XNUMXth century). It is believed that mass culture is democratic, since it is addressed and accessible to all people and its consumption does not require special training, music, fashion, gramophone, audio, video, circus. The emergence of mass culture was facilitated by the destruction of estates, urbanization, and the development of the media. 2. Elite culture - refined, complex and highly intellectual culture, focused on a narrower circle of consumers. 3. Subculture - independent education within the dominant, official culture with its own values, norms and institutions. Most often formed among informal youth (hippies, punks, etc.), in large cities. Different nationalities, ages, professions, states have their own culture, that is, a system of values and rules of conduct. Types of subcultures: youth subculture of the elderly, subculture of national minorities, criminal subculture, etc. 4. Counterculture - attitudes, values and moods that directly oppose the dominant culture. Almost any subculture can take the form of a counterculture. It is in conflict with existing values. 5. Folk culture - created, as a rule, by anonymous creators, closely related to everyday life. 6. Everyday, everyday culture - is reflected in the framework of family education and through social institutions. The study of everyday culture is carried out by such sciences as ethnography and ethnology, history, philology and cultural studies. The main problems of modern culture: 1) de-ideologization of culture and the elimination of the state monopoly to culture. Positive consequences - freedom of creativity and freedom of choice, negative - loss of control over the quality of cultural products; 2) commercialization of culture; 3) the phenomenon of "mass culture", the antipode of high culture; 4) growing interest in various sects; 5) drop in the general level of culture attendance at theaters, museums, libraries; 6) a strong change in the Russian language, the emergence of a large number of Americanisms and other foreign words, the growth of foul language. The state of modern culture characterizes the concept "technogenic civilization". The emphasis is on the development of technology and technology beyond their socio-cultural, human dimensions. There is a technogenic way of life. In connection with globalization the issue of preserving the uniqueness and originality of national and ethnic cultures becomes relevant. The current state of culture is characterized as crisis. Ways out of this crisis: changing priorities in the value scale; creation of ecological culture; switching the focus from technical, technological and economic efficiency to the socio-cultural dimension. 29. THE ROLE OF THE HOUSEHOLD SPHERE OF CULTURE IN THE LIFE OF SOCIETY. CONCEPT OF PERSONALITY Life - This is a non-productive, non-professional sphere of human activity. It can also be called way of life. The process of satisfying the material and spiritual needs of a person characterizes the way of life, the satisfaction of needs also determines new needs, thereby outlining the formation of a person’s future life, and therefore the way of life. Life can be divided on several levels: individual, family, industrial and public. In the domestic sphere, as already mentioned, the main role is played by spiritual and material needs. Also plays an important role working and non-working activities. Labor is associated with the process of creating material wealth, and non-labor - with the process of consumption. These activities play an important role in the domestic sphere. The domestic sphere prepares for social activity. It lays down a special type of social relationship. Social and domestic relations form the relationship between people about the production and consumption of social goods. For society, the domestic sphere serves as a definition of the level and quality of life of individuals. This also determines the social stratification in society, so the domestic sphere of life is very closely related to the property stratification of society. By improving the domestic sphere of life, it is possible to smooth out the contradictions that have arisen on the basis of property inequality. This will help to avoid social discontent and unrest. Problems of man and personality occupy an important place in the system of modern sociology and are expressed in a large number of different concepts. The concepts of "man" and "personality" refer to the same object and are often used as synonyms. However, there are profound differences between them. Individual - a person who represents society. concept "personality" is also applied to a person, but implies the presence in him of some individual, original, deeply personal traits. The main characteristics of personality are: - self-awareness - self-control (i.e., the ability to control your actions and take responsibility for them) - the presence of certain life values and involvement in social relations If there are no defining qualities, then they say about such a person that "he did not take place as a person." It is believed that there is nothing more detrimental to the individual than unscrupulousness. At the same time, the personality does not dissolve in society: while maintaining its individuality and independence, it influences it. 30. FORMATION OF PERSONALITY. STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY There are two main scientific approach to personality formation: 1) the personality is formed and develops in accordance with its innate abilities, which play a dominant role; 2) personality is a product primarily of social experience. It should be noted that in order to create a complete picture, of course, it is necessary to take into account both the biological characteristics of the individual and her social experience. Most modern sociologists believe that the social factors of personality formation are more significant and decisive. The formation of personality is influenced by: biological heredity, physical environment, culture, group and individual experience. One of the main tasks of sociology is the problem of structural analysis of personality. Personality structure consists of the following elements: - social memory; - culture; - activity; - experience (skills, knowledge, skills, habits) - features of the reflection of reality (features of thinking, memory, perception, sensation, attention; emotional processes - emotions, feelings, etc.); - personal qualities (beliefs, worldview, interests); - biological characteristics (the course of nervous processes - excitation, inhibition, etc.; features inherent in a certain sex and age). Six personality types: 1) theoretical; 2) economic; 3) political; 4) social; 5) aesthetic; 6) religious. These types are based on prevailing social attitudes. For example, the type of economic person is characterized by the search for his own material well-being, etc. There are many characteristics of national personality types. Today, pseudoscientific astrological typology personalities. Based on values distinguish the following types of personalities: traditionalists - focused mainly on the fulfillment of duty, order (creativity is low expressed); idealists - strongly expressed critical attitude to traditions and neglect of authorities; realists - a developed sense of duty, self-discipline and self-control; hedonists - focused on getting pleasure "here and now." In foreign sociology, the most common typology is associated with the social nature of certain social groups (the type of "business person", etc.). The concept of L.N. Gumilyov (typology according to the amount of energy). He distinguishes several types of personality: the first has enough energy for her, the second ("passionary") has an excess of energy and works for high, ideal goals, the third has insufficient energy ("subpassionary"). The ratio of people of different types determines the face of a nation or region. 31. SOCIALIZATION OF THE PERSON AND ITS FEATURES Socialization - the process of assimilation and reproduction of social roles and cultural norms. The process of socialization continues throughout life - from childhood to old age. At the same time, the social development of a person cannot be studied in isolation from his family, social group and culture. This phenomenon is not limited to social learning. Socialization - is the process of formation of social qualities (various knowledge, skills, values). This is the assimilation of social experience by an individual, during which a specific personality is created. The need for socialization is due to the fact that social qualities are not inherited (although there are other points of view). They are assimilated, developed by an individual in the course of external influence on a passive object. Socialization requires the participation of the individual himself and presupposes the existence of a sphere of activity. The process of socialization of the individual proceeds mainly under the influence of group experience. At the same time, the personality forms its own "I"-image based on the perception of how she is thought of, how others evaluate her. The process of socialization reaches a certain degree of completion when the individual reaches social maturity, which is characterized by the acquisition of an integral social status by the individual. Manifestation disadvantages of socialization is deviant (deviant) behavior forms of deviant behavior It is customary to attribute delinquency, including crime, drunkenness, drug addiction, prostitution, and suicide. Numerous forms of deviant behavior indicate a state of conflict between personal and public interests. Deviant behavior is not always negative. It may be associated with the desire of the individual for a new, advanced, an attempt to overcome the conservative, which hinders moving forward. Various types of scientific, technical and artistic creativity can be attributed to deviant behavior. There are various approaches to determining the stages of socialization of the individual. But all approaches are associated with certain age periods of a person's life (childhood, adolescence, youth, maturity, etc.) Stages of socialization of the individual: social adaptation - adaptation to socio-economic conditions, a new social role, social norms of society, social institutions in a given environment. The primary stage covers the period of childhood (the achievement of some stability of norms, roles; from birth to 25 years), marginal (intermediate) - the socialization of a teenager is characterized by pseudo-stability. The secondary includes even mature and advanced age and lasts a very long time. The socialization of an elderly person includes his transition to the position of the third generation in the family, in society, retirement, etc. The socialization of adults is most often associated with professional activities; • interiorization- the inclusion of social norms and values in the inner world of a person, their acceptance and becoming habitual in the mind. 32. SOCIAL ROLES. PRESCRIBED STATUSES AND ROLES Man, being a social being, interacts with various social groups, participates in cooperative, joint actions. A person can be a member of different social groups. Entering many social groups at the same time, he occupies a different position in each of them, due to the relationship with other members of the group. To analyze the degree of inclusion of an individual in various groups, as well as the position that he occupies in each of them, and his functional capabilities in relation to each group, the concepts of "social status" and "social role" are used. Social status - this is the rank or position of an individual in a group or group in relationships with other groups (some sociologists use the term "social position" as a synonym for social status). Social role - this is the behavior expected from someone who has a certain social status. For example, the status of children is usually subordinate to adults, and children are expected to be respectful towards the latter. Every individual learns during his life play a variety of roles: a child, a school student, a father or mother student, an engineer, a factory manager, an officer, a member of a certain social class, etc. Role-playing learning has at least two aspects: 1) it is necessary to learn to fulfill duties and exercise rights in accordance with the role played; 2) it is equally important to acquire attitudes, feelings and expectations corresponding to this role. Learning for most critical roles begins in early childhood. Children learn from everyday experience about the actions of a man and a woman in various situations, about professional relationships, etc. A necessary condition for the normal functioning of society - the division of all activities into a set of prescribed roles and the training of each person from the moment of his birth to a predetermined set of roles. After the first role training, which begins in early childhood, the prescribed roles must be assigned according to some criteria, known as the "path of success". Gender and Age are universally used in society as the basis for role prescription. Race, nationality, class and religion are also used in many societies as the basis for prescribed roles. Definition male and female roles is subjective and depends on the specific place and time. Every society has customs, traditions and norms related to the performance of male and female roles. The roles of men and women in society change over time. Women, for example, have become actively involved in the production process and have statuses that were previously considered masculine. Each age period associated with favorable opportunities for the manifestation of certain human abilities, prescribes new statuses and requirements for learning new roles. The prescribed role of older people was to retire as their powers and abilities weakened, their main function in later life is to maintain their own existence. 33. STATUSES AND ROLES ACHIEVED. ROLE BEHAVIOR Achievable status - a social position that is fixed through individual choice and competition. Achieved statuses are fixed taking into account the abilities of a given person, his diligence and, possibly, as a result of luck. In primitive (traditional) societies, statuses are most often prescribed. In modern industrial societies, there is great freedom in the occupation of a person in one position or another. Society needs the mobility of labor resources, there is a clearly expressed orientation towards the personal qualities of individuals, towards changing statuses in accordance with their efforts. The status achieved by an individual requires him to make a choice not only of the sphere of application of labor, but also of friends, organizations, places of study and place of residence. prescribed and achieved statuses are fundamentally different, but they can interact and intersect. The basic social position in society (social class status) is partly prescribed (i.e., reflects the status of parents) and partly achieved with the help of the abilities and aspirations of the individual himself. In many respects, the boundary between prescribed and achieved statuses is purely arbitrary. Achieved status maximizes the performance of roles based on individual abilities. The roles that accompany it are usually difficult to learn and often conflict. Both the effective use of human potential and the threat to the individual spiritual world of the individual in case of unsuccessful socialization to the achieved roles are associated with the currently achieved statuses. Role - is the behavior expected from an individual having a certain status. Role behavior is the actual behavior of the one who plays the role. No two individuals play a given role in exactly the same way. The diversity of role behavior can be significantly reduced with a rigid structuring of behavior, for example, in organizations where a certain predictability of actions can be traced even with different behavior of its members. American researcher I. Hoffman developed the concept of dramatic role-playing performance, which consists in allocating a conscious effort to the performance of a role in such a way as to create the desired impression on others. Behavior is regulated by coordinating not only with role requirements, but also with the expectations of the social environment. The individual, taking into account the specifics of the social communities surrounding him, presents himself differently when he is in this or that audience, acts in a role in such a way that he gives a dramatic picture of his "I". The father scolds the children, the professor gives a lecture, the policeman controls the traffic on the highway - each in a certain place and at a certain time is an actor who gives a performance in order to impress the audience. 34. SOCIAL STRUCTURE OF SOCIETY. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION There is no generally accepted definition of the concept of "social structure". In the most general way social structure - one of the basic concepts of sociology denotes a set of elements of a social system, connections and relationships between social groups of people. The first sociologist who studied the social structure of society was H. Spencer (XNUMXth century). His work was continued by E. Durkheim, but this concept gained particular popularity after the Second World War in connection with development of Parsons theory. Parsons believed that society evolves through the differentiation of the social system through reforms. In this regard, the sociologist singled out "primitive" (not knowing differentiation), "intermediate" and "modern" societies; the change of societies occurs due to social stratification. In sociology, the concept of "social structure" is closely related to the concept "social system" - a set of phenomena and processes that are in relationships and connections with each other. The concept of "social structure" is part of the concept of "social system" and combines the social composition and social ties. Social stratification (stratification) - a sociological concept that denotes the structure of society and its strata, a system of signs of social stratification (education, profession, income level, religious affiliation), on the basis of which members of society are unequal to each other. The first to give a complete explanation of social stratification and confirmed his theory was the scientist Pitirim Sorokin, founder of the sociological department at Harvard University. Social catastrophes of the XX century. he explained by the fact that at this moment a transition is taking place to a new phase in the development of mankind, in which there will be a convergence (merger) of Russian and American cultures. Inequality - this is the unequal position of the individual in society, resulting from a number of reasons. The concept of "social stratification" is used to describe the system of inequality. On the basis of inequality, a hierarchy of estates and classes is created. Signs of social differentiation (stratification) sex and age characteristics; ethnic and national characteristics; religion, income level, etc. Cause of inequality is the heterogeneity of labor, which results in the appropriation of power and property by some people, the uneven distribution of rewards and incentives. The concentration of power, property and other resources in the elite contributes to the formation of social conflicts. Most often, strata are classified according to some one attribute. However, in reality, the position of each person is determined by many signs. It is well known that if a stratum is characterized by one or two features, then one can get incorrect, very simplified results. Therefore, it is necessary to use several properties at once. Such a combination is called "social position index" and testifies to the general tendencies inherent in society. It is not the same in different fields of activity, in different social groups. This indicates that the stratification at different levels of social organization is different. 35. CONCEPTS "SOCIAL CLASS", "SOCIAL GROUP", "SOCIAL LAYERS", "SOCIAL STATUS" social class is a large unit in the theory of social stratification. This concept appeared in the XNUMXth century. Prior to this, the main social unit was the class. There are various definitions of the concept "Class". The main sign of class separation among Marxist theoreticians is the attitude of people to the means of production. According to V.I. Lenin, classes are large groups of people divided according to their place in a historically defined system of social production, according to their relationship (for the most part formalized in laws) to the means of production, according to their role in the actual organization of labor and, consequently, according to the size of that share of social wealth which they possess. A more concrete and flexible unit of social structure has become the concept "social stratum" - certain social stratum. A stratum includes many people with some common status attribute of their position, who feel connected to each other by this community. Common features are economic, political, socio-demographic, cultural, etc. Moreover, if the class forms the vertical division of society, then the stratum is horizontal; its features may be inherent in representatives of several classes. All people in society are unequal positions: some positions are located in the social system above, others - below, others - at the same level. Accordingly, the people occupying these positions also treat each other: they refer to some as superior, to others as inferior. to the third - as to equals. Status (from lat. status - legal status) - a set of rights and obligations of a person in relation to other people with different statuses. A person has his own status in every social sphere of life in which he is involved (at home, at work, in the company of friends, on the road), and his position is constantly changing throughout life (with the acquisition or loss of a family, promotion, etc. .). The set of statuses that characterize a person's position is called status set. The total sum of all statuses illustrates the individuality of a person and his place in the system of social relations. The totality of all statuses in any society is organized in hierarchical ranks (they are in connection and subordination to each other) Types of statuses: 1) acquired congenitally - assigned (nationality, son or daughter) - especially important in traditional (caste) societies. These statuses cannot be controlled by the individual; 2) born - gender, race, nationality - determined by biological factors; 3) statuses associated with the kinship system. A number of related statuses are acquired (adoption, baptism, etc.); 4) achieved (acquired) - the status of a pupil, a student, an employee of a large company, since it is necessary to make considerable efforts to acquire them - to pass an interview, pass an exam, etc. personal status - this is the position occupied by a person in his environment, the assessment of colleagues, friends (for example, a worker or an idler). 36. ACTIVITY OF THE PERSON. SOCIAL ACTION. SOCIAL MOBILITY The personality is active, that is, it performs some social actions. Human activity transforms existing conditions. Action - this is a manifestation of energy, the process of doing something, based on the needs of the subject. The action has a certain structure: the subject (performing the action, as a rule, a person or a whole team. Collective subjects are various communities, for example, parties) and the object of the action (what the action is aimed at). Action steps: goal setting; ways of its implementation; action result. The action is caused by the needs of the subject. There are various needs classification, but they all have common features (there are many needs - from material to spiritual. Their number is increasing. And they are being satisfied in stages). The most famous model of needs is the so-called Maslow's pyramid. In general, it consists of four levels, the primary of which are physiological needs: food, housing, sleep, etc. If they are not satisfied, then the subsequent needs - self-realization, social recognition, self-affirmation, etc. - are out of the question. Characteristics of the subject of action: 1) the level of claims; 2) interests (in the narrow sense, interest is a selective, emotionally colored attitude towards something, that is, it is a conscious attitude of the subject to the means of satisfying his needs); 3) value orientations (significant for the subject of life phenomena and their hierarchy, which is used to judge the worldview component of a person). The level of claims is largely determined by social status. Needs, interests and values act as motives for action. Each action corresponds to a set of motives, but one of the motives, as a rule, is dominant. The motivation system is dynamic, i.e., it changes frequently and seriously. Levels of motivation (distinguished depending on the level of needs): 1) socio-economic - the motive for providing life's benefits; 2) civil, patriotic - associated with the implementation of social norms; 3) striving for social mobility and conflict resolution. One of the central concepts of sociology is "social displacement", or "social mobility". It reflects the ability of an individual to change his status. Its study was started by P. Sorokin. There are two main types of social mobility. Under horizontal social mobility implies the transition of an individual from one social group to another, located at the same level (an example is a change of job while maintaining status). Under the vertical social mobility means those relations that arise when an individual or a social object moves from one social stratum to another. Mobility types: ascending, descending, voluntary, violent. 37. SOCIAL COMMUNITIES. THE CONCEPT OF "SOCIAL GROUP" Social communities - these are real-life, observable sets of individuals, distinguished by their position in society. They act as an independent entity. As a rule, these communities are formed according to the prevailing circumstances. Social societies are divided according to the following criteria: 1) sexual; 2) ethnic; 3) professional; 4) by quantitative indicator; 5) by the time of operation. For example, on a quantitative basis - family, clan, group, class. By the time of functioning - long-term, short-term. Social communities, like social organizations, depend on the interests and needs of society. Social communities can also serve as an indicator of the degree of division of labor in society, since the interests of individuals that they express are shaped depending on production reasons and attitudes towards ownership of the means of production. Social communities perform in public relations, in addition to determining public interests, important functions: advisory, directive, regulatory. Social communities acquire the greatest influence in democratic societies. Their demands are expressed in public opinion. Based on public opinion, a new social structure, social organizations are being formed. The concept of "social group" has several meanings in sociology. AT broad sense it covers society as a whole and even all of humanity. In the narrow sense, it is a large set of interacting people who carry out joint activities in order to realize certain interests and goals. Social groups are distinguished by greater stability and stability, a relatively high degree of homogeneity and cohesion, as well as entry into broader social associations as structural units. Types of social groups: 1. By the number of members: large (from 20 people or more); small (from 2 to 15-20 people). Features - small number, strength of interactions between subjects, stability and duration of functioning and development, a high degree of coincidence of common values, etc. 2. By level of action: primary (the primary link between the individual and society; these are small groups of people who enter into direct and immediate interaction are distinguished by a special emotionality and informality of interpersonal relations, an example is a family, a group of friends, a sports team, etc.); secondary (a large social group based on the impersonal interaction of people united in it to achieve specific goals (political, economic, social, etc.), for example, parties, trade unions). 3. Other types: social class communities (classes, social strata); socio-demographic communities (men, women, children, parents, family, etc.); ethno-social communities (nations, clans, nationalities, tribes, national and ethnographic groups) socio-professional communities; religious, etc. 38. SOCIAL COMMONITY, ITS FEATURES AND PRINCIPLES, CLASSIFICATIONS Society is an extremely complex system that has a complex structure with a large number of elements and specific general properties. The main ones are social groups and communities. Social community is the main category of sociology. Social community - a fairly stable set of people, which is characterized by the conditions of its life (economic, social, professional, educational, etc.), common to the individuals of this group. Social groups and communities most often unite those who have common features, signs; interests, functions or goals, general social status, etc. In every real society there are many such associations, such groups and communities. The main types of social communities: having: spatial and temporal characteristics (for example, a planetary community of people, state communities, demographic communities); • those with unifying interests (for example, social class, professional, ethnic, national, etc.). Types of social communities: nations; classes; a family (traditional - both in terms of the number and distribution of family responsibilities between parents; non-traditional; egalitarian - a family of equals; transitional types of families; complete; incomplete) labor collective (industrial - industry, construction, transport, etc.; non-production - education, housing and communal services, administration, healthcare, etc.). For example, employees of a large corporation, in terms of their sense of their company's place in the market, their work activities, relations within the team and their place in it, will be very different from the team of a small private office. The staff of a state organization always differs from the staff of a private company, and not only because of the microclimate that exists in each enterprise; • professional groups form a sense of labor solidarity among members, provide professional prestige and authority. Members of professional social communities are very different from each other. So, the team of school teachers is very different from university teachers and kindergarten teachers, mathematics - from physicists, etc.; • leisure time groups (sports sections, young naturalist societies, needlework circles, amateur fashion theaters, dog breeding societies, broad environmental, political and other movements, philatelic, amateur photography associations, etc.); • territorial communities (village, small town, large cities, region, etc.) - they influence the behavior of their members, especially in the field of informal contacts, since each territorial community has a number of its geographical, climatic, economic, cultural and other features which strongly influence the self-consciousness of the people inhabiting it. For example, the community of a small village in the Far North of Russia will be markedly different from a small village in the Urals and very different from the community of a southern village. 39. SOCIAL INTERACTION. DISORGANIZATION OF SOCIAL COMMUNITIES The starting point for the formation of a social connection may be the interaction of individuals or groups that form a social community to meet their needs. Interaction - is the action of an individual or group, which is important for other individuals and groups. Social interaction can occur both between separate objects (external interaction) and within a separate object (internal interaction). Social interaction has an objective and subjective side. The objective side of interaction connections appear that do not depend on individual people; subjective side - conscious attitude of individuals to each other, based on mutual expectations (interpersonal or psychological relationships). It is thanks to this interaction that social relations are formed, and each person acquires his own social quality. Mechanism of social interaction: individuals performing actions; changes in the social community caused by these actions; the impact of these changes on other individuals; feedback from individuals. Social communities are often deformed. The phenomena of disorganization are reflected both in the external (formal) structure of communities and in their internal, functional characteristics. Disorganization functions of social communities is expressed in the loosening of values, the increase in the inconsistency of patterns of behavior, which, in turn, leads to an increase in deviations (deviations) in the behavior of its members. Causes of disorganization social communities: - social processes (demographic, migration, urbanization, industrialization) - as an undesirable result, they can have a destructive, disorganizational impact on social communities. So, from the outside, processes such as migration, the development of cities and industry lead to the disintegration of large families, in production groups - to staff turnover, in territorial communities - to an increase in the number of migrants, a violation of the natural age and sex structure; - participation of the individual in several social communities that impose conflicting social values on him; - lack of social control; - vagueness of the criteria for evaluating behavior. 40. SOCIAL ORGANIZATIONS. SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS Social organizations - these are artificially created social societies, which can also be considered a kind of social institutions. They are arranged on the basis of a hierarchical structure. The elements in the structure perform only their role. At the same time, role functions are of an impersonal nature; in fact, it is not the person who determines the functions of the place, but the place determines the functions of the person. Social organizations can be divided into business and union the main task in both cases is the fulfillment of certain tasks aimed at changing social reality. Business social organizations are those that produce material and spiritual values. Allied aimed at organizing the social life of society, for example, parties, foundations, etc. It is thanks to this that society is not only organized, but also functions. Functions of social organizations: 1) community cohesion; 2) satisfaction of needs. Therefore, social organizations express the interests of different groups of society; the more of them, the more pronounced the spectrum of interests in society. The existence of a large number of allied social organizations leads to the fact that there is a problem of their functioning, as conflicts arise. For example, a society of fishermen and hunters is in conflict with animal rights activists. Social Institute - these are the rules, the principles of the norm, which give stability to human activity. At the same time, a social institution is not some specific persons, institutions; These are the standards of behavior of specific individuals in typical situations. It provides for social control over their implementation. Social institutions reflect the values of a given society. In sociology, there is even a separate direction that studies the forms of regulation of social life - institutional sociology. The process of institution building is called institutionalization. Social institutions guide the behavior of members of society through a system of sanctions and rewards, as they have coercive power and moral authority (different degrees of moral power are expressed in varying degrees of punishment - from public condemnation and a fine to deprivation of life). Social institutions also carry out guarantees of freedom (for example, freedom of speech). Types of social institutions: marriage and family (family); • political (supported by political power); • economic (distribution of goods and services); • socio-cultural (education system - sometimes just educational (school, universities, etc.), health care, social security, religious organizations are singled out). The main functions of social institutions: reproductive (reproduction of society); • production and distribution (material goods - goods and services - and material and other resources) - control (over the behavior of members of society in order to resolve emerging conflicts); • communicative (communication between members of society) - fixative (public relations, the process of socialization); • manager. 41. THE SUBJECT OF ORGANIZATION SOCIOLOGY, ITS STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS Social organization (from French organization - I arrange) - this concept arose at the end of the XNUMXth century. often used as a synonym for the concepts of "social system" and "social structure". It means any organization (structured activity of a person or a group of people united in a team), a certain level of development of a social system. Features of social organizations: 1) have clear goals and are created to realize these goals; 2) simultaneous performance of actions; 3) unidirectionality of actions (i.e., actions pursue a specific goal and are performed in a specific direction); 4) specialization and combination of labor; 5) division of labor 6) cooperation. Properties of organizations: a) created to achieve goals; b) hierarchy; c) structuredness; d) manageability. Forms of organizations: business organizations (firms and institutions that arise for commercial and other purposes); • social organizations - an association of people that occupies a certain place in society and is intended to perform some social function. Social organization can be built on the principle of linear organization, functional organization, headquarters organization and matrix structure; formal organization - built for the formation of standard samples of conducting. There are the following ways of formalizing social systems: legalization, registration of finished samples; "construction" of social organization; creating a program; fixed salary of members of the organization; employee loyalty to the organization; informal organization - a spontaneously formed system of social norms and actions. 42. DEVIATION deviations - these are phenomena that do not fit into the framework of norms; human actions that do not comply with established rules (for example, drug addiction, drunkenness). The concept of deviance changes over time (for example, attitudes towards wearing trousers and short haircuts by women, towards smoking). Deviations are present in every social system and can be the result of any abrupt change, such as an economic or political crisis. The term was proposed by E. Durkheim and for a long time was associated only with criminal phenomena (crimes). Theories of the origin of deviation: 1) the theory of anomie (E. Durkheim) - deviation occurs due to the lack of norms; 2) the theory of social disorganization - deviation occurs when cultural values are absent, weakened or become contradictory; 3) cultural approach - deviations arise due to conflicts between the norms of the subculture and the dominant culture; 4) legal approach - the development of radical or contradictory laws, etc. Classification of deviations: administrative civil; • labor; • international - wars, racial discrimination, genocide, international terrorism, etc.; • financial; • extraverted - in the external environment, at work, with friends, etc.; • mintraverted - drunkenness, alcoholism, etc. Types of deviant behavior: 1) conformism - opportunism, blind adherence to fashion; 2) innovation - frequent innovations, the introduction of innovations; 3) ritualism - rejection of goals and recognition of only means; 4) retreat - simultaneous rejection of means and ends; 5) rebellion - speaking out against something in an armed form. Deviations are individual and mass individual level, a specific act of a certain person is considered; on the massive - a system of violations of social norms, deviation as a type of deviation. 43. THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL CONTROL Social control (from French controle, English control - domination, violence) - regulation of people's behavior in social systems, carried out by members of society according to special schemes; a mechanism for maintaining public order, including norms and sanctions. AT narrow sense social control is most often reduced to verification. The term was introduced by the French sociologist and criminologist Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904). Initially, Tarde considered social control narrowly - as a means of returning the criminal to society. Later this concept was expanded. The parties involved in the control - controller and controlled (they are in an unequal position). Society, through social institutions, influences every individual, and at the same time it controls the correctness of the learned patterns of behavior. Control is carried out by entire groups (family, school, universities, etc.) even in the process of socialization, so it acquires a public character and is called social control. Main task of social control - maintaining social stability and positive changes. Without control, conditions are created for chaos in society, and this weakens its stability. Social control is one of the main tools for developing policies and making decisions that ensure the achievement of the intended goals. Social control involves the application of sanctions regarding incorrect, deviant (deviant) behavior and encouragement and approval of the desired behavior. Any act may not meet the social norm in terms of goals and motives, results. It can be innovative or conservative, useful or harmful, random or typical, etc. Sociology is also concerned with determining the general causes and consequences of deviation, its influence on the development of social processes. Recently, less attention has been paid to explaining the occurrence of deviations. Subjects of control: state; social institutions: education, morality, culture, etc. Objects of control: legal and moral norms; customs administrative decisions (laws), etc. Elements of social control: - social norms - instructions on how to behave in society. Differ in scale (companies of friends, work groups, families, sports teams) - social sanctions - means of encouragement or punishment that encourage people to comply with social norms. Depending on the violation of the norms, punishment will follow - sanctions (exile, the death penalty (abolished in most countries), imprisonment, etc.). 44. TYPES OF SOCIAL CONTROL. PUBLIC OPINION AS A TOOL OF SOCIAL CONTROL Types of social control: a) economic; b) social; c) technical d) managerial (helps to implement planning and management, etc.); e) state (political, administrative, judicial); the stronger the civil society, the less noticeable is the controlling role of the state; e) external; g) internal h) side (carried out by the method of identification with a "law-abiding" group). Types of sanctions: - formal positive sanctions - official public approval: government awards, diplomas, etc.: - informal positive sanctions - private, personal public approval: praise, compliment, applause; - formal negative sanctions - punishments (imprisonment, arrest, fine, etc.): - informal negative sanctions - quarrel, reproach, etc. The specific content of the sanctions depends on the characteristics of culture, morality, religion, politics, etc. The sanction has a certain character: it is aimed at repeating, changing or even stopping the individual's behavior. Forms of social control: 1) institutional - is implemented through special institutions, including political ones, control is strictly regulated; 2) non-institutional - a type of self-government based on a moral basis. Functions of social control: - informational - allows you to judge the functioning of the social system, the accuracy and conscientiousness of citizens fulfilling their obligations to society, includes the collection, verification and analysis of information; - regulatory - associated with the stabilization of social relations; - preventive - a set of measures aimed at eliminating and neutralizing the causes and conditions of antisocial actions; - educational; Social control is largely carried out due to the presence of such a phenomenon as public opinion, - an opinion that reflects the real state of public consciousness, the mood of society. May contain correct and illusory ideas about reality. Subjects public opinion - classes, nations, etc. Types of public opinion: estimated; world; analytical - involves the analysis of existing social problems; regulatory - develops norms of social relations; constructive. Functions of public opinion: expressive (control); advisory; directive (guide). 45. MECHANISMS OF SOCIAL CONTROL Stages of implementation of social control: - establishment of social norms and standards; - comparison of results with reference norms and determination of possible deviations; - correction of deviations (but not all noticeable deviations from the norms should be eliminated - sometimes the norms may turn out to be unrealistic). Methods for exercising social control: informational - is based on the fact that violations occur due to their ignorance, therefore comprehensive education is needed. The informational approach cannot be considered on its own, but must be combined with other approaches; - preventive approach - exists to identify and eliminate the causes of deviant behavior. Forms: general (aimed at improving the standard of living of the population) and special (to prevent specific acts of behavior, such as prevention of drug use) prevention. They are classified by stages: preventive, neutralizing, compensating, eliminating; - repressive (named so conditionally due to the use of sanctions). Each of the above methods has its own advantages and disadvantages. All this requires a great deal of flexibility from the control system. If the control system is too complex and people do not understand and support it, then such a system cannot be effective. It has been established that during periods of social upheaval, social control is noticeably weakened. In democratic countries, control is also exercised by parties, public organizations, the media, as well as in letters, complaints, statements of citizens, participation in elections and referendums. At the level of individual being, social control manifests itself as self-control of the individual (personal control of each person over himself). 46. SOCIAL CONFLICT, ITS TYPES Everyone is involved in conflicts. Conflict - this is a collision, disagreement, an attempt to achieve the goal in an aggressive way (by subjugating, imposing one's will, removing or even destroying a competitor); is studied by a special branch of social sciences - conflictology. Conflict - in many ways product of socialization socialization accustoms people of different age groups to new rules and norms, this process is always painful and unpleasant. Aggression arises, which is looking for an outlet. This results in social conflict. So, the conflict situation tells us about some failures and failures in the process of socialization. Conflict is always called conflict of interests and needs, as well as other phenomena, such as contrasts in material well-being, the level of health. A manifestation of the shortcomings of socialization is deviant (deviant) behavior. Participants (agents) of the conflict: opponents (i.e., directly opposing subjects - the aggressors, the oppressed, etc.); groups involved; interest groups (which indirectly influence the course of the conflict). By the number of participants conflicts can be: individual (conflicts between separate individuals); mass - conflicts between groups; most often based on collective emotions and hostility; intergroup conflict is almost always faceless. By area of passage conflicts can be: economic; political; the military; family and others. Depending on the areas of disagreement allocate: personal conflict; interpersonal conflict; intergroup conflict; ownership conflict; conflict with the external environment. 47. ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF A CONFLICT SITUATION The structure of the conflict: - causes of the conflict; - the severity of the conflict; - the duration of the conflict; - consequences of the conflict. Analysis of conflicts must begin at an elementary level - with the causes of Reasons for conflicts: 1) opposite views (orientation) - this group of conflicts is very diverse. The most acute conflicts appear where there are differences in the culture and status or prestige of the participants in the conflict or the events taking place. Occur in various areas; 2) ideological reasons - Some sociologists consider this type of conflict a special case of the first type. But this is not entirely true: the causes of conflicts of the first type are associated with the worldview of the individual, his personality, and the ideological conflict is a narrower concept, it is associated not only with the ideology itself, but also with its understanding by the individual; 3) economic and social inequality - this reason arises not only at the personal level, since the state is the determining force in the distribution system. Inequality in the distribution of material goods and values exists everywhere, but conflict arises only with such a value of inequality, which is regarded as very significant (we can observe such a situation in third world countries and developing countries); 4) hierarchy of elements of social structure - conflicts of this type arise because of the prestige of the place that elements of the social structure occupy in a society or organization. As a rule, organizations desire to occupy a higher place or pursue different goals. In the presence of external conditions or a reason, any of the listed reasons can cause a conflict. But it may not come if the individual resorts to blockade or retreat. Retreat - this is a short-term or long-term refusal to satisfy one's needs, which can cause a conflict. Retreat types: containment - a state in which the individual refuses to satisfy any need; - suppression - avoiding the realization of goals under the influence of external coercion, but ideas about this do not disappear, but at any moment can come out in the form of aggression. Aggression can be directed at another person or group of people and is accompanied by states of anger, hostility, hatred. Aggressive social actions cause an aggressive response, and from that moment social conflict begins. 48. CHARACTERISTICS AND ACUTE OF THE CONFLICT. STAGES OF THE CONFLICT Characteristics of the conflict: a) violence; b) intensity; c) a high degree of social mobility (the higher the mobility, the less intense the conflict, since people can realize their ideas or move to another social group) d) social pluralism. Acute social conflict - this is a conflict of high intensity clashes between people. as a result of which a large number of different resources are consumed in a short period of time. Stages of the conflict. 1. Closed stage: contradictions are not yet recognized, and there is only an explicit or implicit dissatisfaction with the situation. Contradictions are formed, demands and leaders are put forward. 2. Pre-conflict situation. Emotional tension accumulates, the conflicting parties evaluate their resources before deciding to take aggressive actions or retreat. Initially, each of the conflicting parties is looking for ways to achieve goals without influencing the opponent (this moment is called identification), forms an action strategy. Strategies for dealing with conflicts: 1) withdrawal (attempts to evade the conflict; while recognizing the existence of goals that would need to be realized in the conflict); 2) cancellation (an attempt to eliminate contradictions that cause conflict); 3) intervention or mediation of third (neutral) forces; 4) participation in the conflict. Pre-conflict stage sometimes dragged on so much that the root cause of the collision is forgotten. A certain event, an incident, activates the actions of the participants in the conflict. 3. Direct conflict - active, active part of the conflict. 4. Stage of conflict resolution. An external sign of conflict resolution can be the completion of the incident - this is a necessary but not sufficient condition for resolving the conflict. The resolution of social conflict is possible only when the conflict situation changes. Most effective elimination of the causes of the conflict or its resolution by satisfying or changing the requirements of one of the parties is considered. Factors accelerating conflict resolution: during negotiations, priority should be given to discussing substantive issues; • the parties should strive to relieve psychological and social tension; • the parties must demonstrate mutual respect for each other; • negotiators should strive to turn a significant and hidden part of the conflict situation into an open publicly and convincingly revealing each other's positions and deliberately creating an atmosphere of public equal exchange of views; • All negotiators must be willing to compromise. Compromise is a way to resolve the conflict, when the conflicting parties realize their interests and goals through either mutual concessions, or concessions to a weaker side, or to the side that managed to prove the validity of its requirements to the one who voluntarily renounced part of its claims. Post-conflict stage: Efforts must be made to finally eliminate contradictions, eliminate psychological and social tension and stop any struggle. 49. SOCIOLOGY OF NATIONAL CONFLICTS. ETHNIC CONFLICT 1980-1990s became a new stage in the ethnic development of mankind. Ethno-nationalism, previously held back by the force of totalitarian regimes, gained freedom and took shape in the form of the phenomenon of an "ethnic explosion", which marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of a number of states. Totalitarian regimes could not solve ethnic problems, since the very basis of such a regime does not tolerate diversity. For this reason, the transition from a totalitarian regime to a democratic system is most often accompanied by an aggravation of interethnic relations. ethnic conflict - a form of intergroup conflict, when groups with conflicting interests are polarized along ethnic lines. Its sources are non-ethnic socio-political and economic contradictions. Classifications of ethnic conflicts: according to the form of manifestation - latent (hidden) updated (open); - by nature of action conflicting parties - violent; non-violent; armed; unarmed (institutional conflicts - legislative, rallies, demonstrations, hunger strikes, civil disobedience). Stages of ethnic conflict: 1) the emergence of a conflict situation; 2) the maturation of a conflict situation; characterized by a desire to redistribute power in favor of one ethnic group at the expense of other groups, to change the ethnic hierarchy, etc.; 3) the development of the conflict - the nomination of territorial claims; at this stage, the use of force is possible; 4) end of the conflict. In practice, the prediction of ethnic conflicts is of particular importance. To do this, it is necessary to identify factors that can transform latent conflicts into open ones or intensify current conflicts. Indispensable warning condition Interethnic conflicts should take into account the state of consciousness of people, their assessments and ideas related to the problems of interethnic relations. And one must always take into account the influence of forces interested in the continuation of the conflict. Therefore, it is impossible to create any universal scheme for resolving conflicts; this requires a full range of measures - from legal to socio-psychological. Regulation of ethnic conflicts is difficult the following factors: different cultures (language, religion, way of life); • different socio-political status; • changes in the demographic situation (a significant increase in the flow of migrants, an increase in the birth rate); • the presence of external forces interested in the continuation of the conflict. The settlement of ethnic conflicts requires finding a new, compromise and acceptable balance for all conflicting parties, mutually satisfying their interests. To achieve this balance it is necessary to fulfill three mandatory conditions: each of the parties must recognize the existence of a conflict situation; • high degree of organization of the parties; • Adoption of firm rules (equality of opportunity between the parties). 50. CAUSES OF THE AGGRESSION AND THE MAIN DIRECTIONS OF SOLUTIONS OF NATIONAL AND TERRITORIAL ISSUES Causes and factors of ethnic conflicts: territorial issues and disputes. Ethnic groups are territorially organized communities of people, and any encroachment on their territory is perceived as an encroachment on the ethnic group itself. As a rule, historical facts are used to substantiate territorial claims. As a result of numerous migrations of the population, conquests, the territory of the settlement of the ethnic group has repeatedly changed. At the same time, the era is chosen quite arbitrarily, depending on the goals of the disputing parties. Territorial problems are insoluble. The parties can make a compromise solution that does not transfer the conflict from an open to a latent (latent) state, and the next generations can resume an open conflict; - socio-economic conflict. The reasons are the struggle of ethnic groups for material resources (land and its subsoil), division of labor, ideological problems, etc.; - religious conflicts. Contradictions between Christians and Muslims, Orthodox and Catholics contribute to a noticeable complication of interethnic relations. Media - factor of international destabilization. Focusing on the coverage of interethnic relations only on facts from conflict regions or one-sided coverage of events, the media often stir up interethnic passions. The main way to resolve conflicts - this is the achievement of agreement on the main issues and the beginning of interaction. This outcome is achieved through intermediaries, including religion. Religious organizations have great potential for smoothing out ethno-political contradictions. The second permission option is mutual defeat conflicting parties. Most often, this result of a conflict occurs when both sides have exhausted their forces in the struggle. In this case, to resolve the conflict, the parties are forced to turn to mediators, and the result does not satisfy any of the parties. Maybe and "natural" decay ethnic conflicts. This is a real and common outcome. In this case, the conflict goes through all the stages of its development and ends as a result of the destruction of the previously single multi-ethnic society. 51. FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DURATION OF SOCIAL CONFLICT. STABILIZATION OF INTER-ETHNIC CONFLICT Long, protracted conflicts are undesirable under any circumstances, as they have an irreversible impact on the psyche of people, expend material wealth at an accelerated pace, and distort moral values. Consequences of social conflict very contradictory. Conflicts, on the one hand, destroy social structures, lead to unreasonable expenditure of resources, and, on the other hand, contribute to the solution of many problems, unite groups and, ultimately, serve as one of the ways to achieve social justice. Sociologists (conflictologists) today have not yet come to the conclusion whether conflicts are useful or harmful for society. Thus, many believe that society itself develops solely due to social conflicts. In every conflict there are both destructive (conflict can destroy social communities), and creative moments. Often conflict can be the only way out of a tense situation. For each stage of interethnic conflict, there are a number of effective measures that need to be applied. to stabilize the position: 1. When resolving a conflict during the latent period, one should: - to achieve the practical implementation of the principle of civil equality; - pursue a policy of socio-economic equalization of the living conditions of all ethnic groups 2. To relieve ethnic tension, it is necessary: - create ethnically neutral police and army units with the definition of their clear functions and powers in conflict actions; - organize the presentation and presentation of accurate and unbiased information about the conflict in all media; - Strictly prosecute the organizers of street riots. 3. For a quick cessation of hostilities, it is necessary: - removal from the conflict zone, arrest or temporary detention of supporters of the conflict; - prevention of a split along ethnic lines in government and law enforcement agencies; - introduction of special control over means of communication; - carrying out a set of measures to minimize the number of human casualties and material damage (withdrawal of armed formations, creation of neutral zones, organization of security of settlements and cities) - prevention of looting and war crimes. 4. The fourth step is necessary; - give a general assessment of the consequences of the conflict and announce a program (plan) for the restoration of unity; - to give the recovery process a neutral character; - prevent glorification of terrorists and extremists; - refuse to dramatize the conflict and prevent its fixation in the "historical memory" of the ethnos. 52. SOCIOLOGY OF CONFLICTS IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION In modern conditions, each sphere of public life generates its own specific types of social conflicts. Therefore, we can talk about the presence of political, national-ethnic, economic, cultural and other types of conflicts in society. In the Russian Federation, each of these types of conflicts has its own specifics. political conflict - this is a conflict over the distribution of power, influence, dominance of authority. Political conflict can be covert or open. One of the forms of its manifestation in modern Russia is the conflict between the executive and legislative branches that lasted throughout the entire period after the collapse of the USSR. Today, this conflict is being realized in new forms of confrontation between the President and the Federal Assembly, as well as the executive and legislative authorities in the regions. The current socio-economic and political situation in Russia favors a conflict scenario. Politicians need to understand the presence of this trend and strive to mitigate the conditions for the flow of conflicts, to prevent them from escalating into violent actions. occupy a prominent place in modern life national-ethnic conflicts. These are conflicts based on the struggle for the rights and interests of ethnic and national groups. Most often, these conflicts are associated with status or territorial claims of ethnic and national groups to each other. In our country, the "inspiring" idea of such conflicts is the idea of the sovereignty of a territory, a people or an ethnic group. The national-ethnic conflict initially had the character of a struggle for the redistribution of power between the central bodies of state legislative and executive power, the center and the regions. An important role in this conflict was played by the problem of cultural self-determination of certain national communities. In the maturation of national-ethnic conflicts, other reasons also became decisive. National-ethnic conflicts in modern Russia are most often of a political nature. The struggle for the possession of power, material and spiritual values between the indigenous population and migrants, between the ethnic majority and the minority remains topical. 53. CAUSES AND FORMS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC CONFLICTS IN THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION In modern life in Russia, a significant role is played by socio-economic conflicts, i.e., conflicts over the means of subsistence, the level of wages, the use of professional and intellectual potential, the level of prices for various goods, over real access to these goods and other resources. Socio-economic conflicts in modern Russia most often have an objective basis. They are due to: - the transition of the country's economy to market relations; - the associated struggle for the redistribution of property between different social groups of the population; - impoverishment of the general population; - structural restructuring of the economy; - hidden or open mass unemployment, etc. plays a significant role in these conflicts. subjective factor: mistakes in the implementation of reforms, mistakes in tax policy, bureaucracy in government institutions, etc. Social conflicts can take place in the shape of intra-institutional and organizational norms and procedures: discussions, requests, adoption of declarations, laws, etc. A vivid form of conflict expression is various kinds of mass actions. They are implemented in the form: - presentation of demands to the authorities by dissatisfied social groups; - mobilize public opinion in support of their demands or alternative programs; - direct actions of social protest. Mass protest is an active form of conflict behavior. Mass protest can be expressed in various forms: organized and spontaneous, direct or indirect. It can take on the character of violence or a system of non-violent action. Forms of expressing mass protests: rallies, demonstrations, picketing, civil disobedience campaigns, strikes. Each of these forms is used for specific purposes. modern strike - this is a pre-prepared action with clearly formulated goals, previously discussed in collectives, based on recognized leaders, led by a governing body that enjoys the support of the press, some part of the parliament and the population. 54. SOCIOLOGICAL RESEARCH: ITS STRUCTURE AND METHODS The methodology of research today is relevant for any science, as the tasks under study become more complicated and the importance of the means used increases sharply. Often the model of the scientific study of sociology is based on examples of the exact sciences. Sociological research - a system of logically consistent methodological and practical (organizational) procedures interconnected by a single goal. Purpose of the study - get information about some phenomenon or process under study. Research tasks are subordinated to the main goal - smaller targets, the solution of which will form the overall picture. Object of study - any social process, phenomenon, group of public relations, etc. An indispensable condition is the presence of a problem situation in the field of study. When studying certain phenomena, experienced sociologists first try to find a typical, algorithmic solution to the problem, and if it does not satisfy the desired results, then it is necessary to compile a special set of methods for studying this phenomenon by combining basic methods. The main types of sociological research: reconnaissance (aerobatic); descriptive; analytical. Research types: theoretical and empirical (practical) methods. Each level of sociological knowledge has its own research methodology. Theoretical methods: structural-functional method. From the standpoint of this method, society is considered as a functional system, which is characterized by such a function of any system as stability. This stability is ensured through reproduction, maintaining the balance of the system of elements. The structural-functional approach makes it possible to establish general, universal patterns of the functional action of social systems. As a system, any social institution or organization can be considered, namely, the state, parties, trade unions, the church. Features of the method: studies issues related to the functioning of the social structure; • comparative method - the researcher proceeds from the consideration that there are certain general patterns of social behavior. It involves a comparison of the same type of phenomena (for example, different eras and peoples) - social structure, state structure, etc. Advantages of the method: it allows you to use the experience of other countries and peoples; • hypotheses - assumptions about the features or nature of certain phenomena. It is formulated after a preliminary study of the object of the hypothesis. After additional research, the hypothesis is either confirmed (and becomes a theory) or refuted. There are descriptive and explanatory types of hypotheses. When conducting sociological research, it is necessary to draw up a plan or program for the main methods of collecting information. 55. STRUCTURE OF THE RESEARCH. SOCIOLOGICAL OBSERVATION. SOCIOLOGICAL EXPERIMENT. ANALYSIS Study structure: goal setting; defining parameters for collecting information; (a sample of objects is a target group (for example, only men from 45 to 60 years old). The sample is formed using statistics and represents a research model. Types of sample: simple (involuntary), stratified (only people of a certain state), quota - average, reflecting the average variant of opinions, etc.), time and methods of the survey, etc.) - briefing interviewers or direct executors (for some types of work - instructing the respondents); - conducting research; - analysis the results obtained and the mistakes made. sociological observation - deliberate purposeful, systematic perception and fixation of observed social phenomena. This is a general scientific method, but its application in sociology has limitations, since not all social phenomena are amenable to direct perception. But if the observer is personally connected with the object of observation, then the data of his work will be subjective. The main disadvantage of the method - the impossibility of re-observation. Types of observation: included, not included field, laboratory, structured (associated with detailed instructions for recording results) unstructured. Sociological experiment. The object of the experiment is people or social communities. This method is most effective for testing hypotheses, as it allows you to establish the presence or absence of the impact of a certain factor on the object under study and to detect cause-and-effect relationships (for example, the influence of the level of education on the perception of advertising). Feature sociological experiment - pilotability (can be controlled and managed by a sociologist) Document analysis, or context analysis, - involves the extraction of sociological information from documentary sources, the identification of quantitative statistical data; today is used with the use of computer technology. 56. SAMPLE REASONS. METHODS OF ANALYSIS. TESTING biographical method - used to describe the typical life and biographical features of people of certain generations. The method contributes to the resolution of social problems, attitudes, motives of the individual are studied. Disadvantages method subjectivity of memories, ignorance of the social phenomenon in general. sociodiagnostics - a set of methods that allow one to recognize relatively stable personality traits (introversion (immersion, an individual's focus on the outside world or in himself), lethargy - excitability, etc.). After collecting all the data and primary processing, it is necessary to group the received materials. Grouping is done by: - combined method - using two and three methods; - structural method - according to age, social and other characteristics; - analytical method - according to several criteria (for example, the level of education and reading books). Then the information received is analyzed. Methods of analysis: - classical, qualitative (aimed at establishing a causal relationship); this approach suffers from subjectivity; - quantitative (content analysis) - aimed at clarifying distortions in the information received, while quantitative indicators are extracted from the text and other sources; limited in the degree of application, since not everything can be studied and shown in the language of numbers. End the results of the study are presented in the form written or oral reports (less common), statistics, photographic documents and in other forms. The results obtained as a result of the study are subject to control or verification. Most often, it can be carried out by repeated selective survey (for example, every third respondent), observation, interview, machine (computer) processing. After that, the results are interpreted in accordance with the initial hypothesis from which they proceeded at the beginning of the study. The test is (from the English test - check) - a method of psychodiagnostics used to measure and evaluate the qualities and states of an individual. The emergence of tests was associated with the need to compare and rank individuals by level of development. The advantages of the method: assessment of the individual in accordance with the goal; provide the possibility of obtaining a quantitative assessment; ease of processing; efficiency; mass character; objectivity; comparability of information. Test requirements: standardization of tasks and performance conditions, the presence of a coding key (for scoring). Test classification: simple (elementary), oriented, questionnaires (used to diagnose personality). 57. SOCIOLOGICAL SURVEY. QUESTIONNAIRE Sociological survey is the most common method of collecting information. The survey method studies phenomena that are not amenable to direct observation. His main purpose - to ensure a two-way flow of information between the rulers and the ruled, to obtain information about people's opinions, their motives and assessments of phenomena (for example, how the bulk of the population relates to international events). Its main advantages: efficiency, mass character, economy, frankness, due to the voluntary participation. Types of polls: telephone, fax, postal personal, written (questionnaire, test), oral (interview), face-to-face, correspondence, continuous, selective, mass, specialized (specialists or experts in certain areas are interviewed). Questionnaires - the written form of the survey, carried out without direct and immediate contact between the interviewer and the respondent (the person being surveyed), lasts no more than 40 minutes. FORM - a list of proposed questions that need to be answered in monosyllables or in detail. Depending on the type of questions formulated, open (when there is a line for your answer option) or closed (with a list of answer options). Questions are divided into direct, personal and indirect (the latter increase the veracity of the answer). The respondent can fill out the questionnaire himself. Forms of conducting - individual or group. Interviewing - a form of face-to-face survey in which the researcher is in direct contact with the respondent. The method involves personal communication between the interviewer and the respondent. Factors affecting survey results: - the mood of the respondent at the time of the survey; • the situation of the survey (favorable conditions for communication - good weather, a convenient place for the survey, etc.); • the content of the questionnaire or oral question; • the quality of the interviewer's work (correct speech, pleasant appearance, sequence of actions). sociometric survey - used to analyze relationships in the team and optimize them by mutual choice according to the proposed criteria. Allows you to analyze relationships within a team or group, to study their problems (authority, leaders, outcasts). Terms of the survey: spend in teams working together for at least 6 months; - Explore in groups of 10-15 people. At the end of the study, the development of corrective measures for relations in the team is carried out. Based on the results of the survey, a sociometric matrix is built (in the horizontal lines, according to the number of members of the team, the subjects of choice (who chooses), and in the vertical columns - the objects of choice (who is chosen)) and sociogram (the scheme of interpersonal relations in the team). Acceptance scale - type of questioning on the acceptability of various types of behavior. It is used to clarify the attitude of respondents to certain social phenomena (divorces, prostitution, etc.).
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